MINERALS

Elements and the Periodic Table

→Basic building blocks of minerals.

Atoms
→Smallest particles of matter
→Have all the characteristics of an element
→ The ​nucleus​ is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons
→​Energy levels​, or shells
•​ ​surround the nucleus

•​ ​contain electrons—negatively charged particles

→The ​atomic number ​is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes
→ have the same number of p​+​ but varying numbers of n​0
→ Have different mass numbers: p​+​ + n​0
→Many are radioactive and emit energy and particles.

Why Atoms Bond?

•​ ​compound​ - consists of two or more elements that are chemically combined in specific

proportions.
•​ ​ ion​ – an atom that gains or loses electrons (charged particles)

Types of Chemical Bonds

1.​ Ionic bonds ​form between positive and negative ions; between metal and nonmetal
2.​ Covalent bonds ​form when atoms share electrons; between nonmetals
3.​ Metallic bonds ​form when metal ions share electrons.

Definition of a Mineral
1. Naturally occurring
2. Solid substance
3. Orderly crystalline structure
4. Definite chemical composition
5. Generally considered inorganic

How Minerals Form

1. Crystallization from magma

2. Precipitation
3. Pressure and temperature
4. Hydrothermal solutions
Mineral Groups – based on their
Composition

1. Silicates
•​ ​Combination of Si and O to form​ silicon-oxygen tetrahedron ​(framework of every silicate

mineral)
2. Carbonates
•​ ​contain the C, O and one or more other metallic elements

3. Oxides
•​ ​contain O and one or more other elements, which are usually metals

4. Sulfates and Sulfides

•​ ​contain S

5. Halides
•​ ​contain a halogen ion plus one or more other elements

6. Native elements
•​ ​exist in relatively pure form

Properties of Minerals
1.​ ​Color-​Small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral different colors.

2.​ ​Streak-​is the color of a mineral in its powdered form.

3.​ ​Luster​-is used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.

4.​ ​Crystal form​ is the visible expression

of a mineral’s internal arrangement of atoms

5. Hardness​-a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being scratched.

-Mohs scale ​consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest).
6. Cleavage​-is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat, even surfaces.

7. Fracture-​uneven breakage of a mineral

- Chonchoidal fracture
-​ ​fiber-like

-​ ​irregular

8.​ ​Density -​is a property of all matter that

is the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume.

Distinctive Properties of Minerals

→Some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive properties.
-​ ​Taste (halite)
-​ ​Elasticity (mica)
-​ ​Malleablility (gold)

-​ ​Feel (talc)

-​ ​Magnetism (magnetite)

-​ ​Chemical reaction (calcite)

Rocks
→are any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter occurring naturally as part of our planet.
→​Types of Rocks

1.​ ​Igneous rock ​is formed by the crystallization of molten magma.

2.​ ​Sedimentary rock​ - formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that have
been transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented.

3.​ ​Metamorphic​ ​rock​ - formed by the alteration of pre-existing rock deep within Earth (but still
in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids.

The Rock Cycle

→ Shows the interrelationships among the three rock types (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic)
→​Magma ​is molten material that forms deep beneath the Earth’s surface.
→ ​Lava ​is magma that reaches the surface.
→ ​Weathering ​is a process in which rocks are broken down by water, air, and living things.
→ ​Sediment ​is weathered pieces of Earth elements.

Energy That Drives the Rock Cycle

→​ (Internal)
→Internal heat – driven processes: forms both igneous and metamorphic rock.
→​ (External)
→Solar energy-driven processes: Weathering and the movement of weathered materials;
produced sedimentary rocks

Igneous Rocks
Formation of Igneous Rocks

1. ​Intrusive igneous rocks ​- formed when magma hardens beneath Earth’s surface.
2. ​Extrusive igneous rocks ​- formed when lava hardens.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

1. Texture (cont.)
• ​Glassy texture -​ caused by very rapid cooling.
• ​Porphyritic texture​ - caused by different rates of cooling resulting in varied sized minerals.
2. Composition
• ​Granitic composition​ rocks - made mostly of light-colored quartz and feldspar.
• ​Basaltic composition​ rocks - made mostly of dark-colored silicate minerals and plagioclase
feldspar.
• ​Andesitic composition​ rocks - between granitic light-color minerals and basaltic composition
dark-colored minerals.
• ​Ultramafic​ composition rocks - made mostly from iron and magnesium-rich minerals.
Sedimentary Rocks
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
→Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition

• ​Erosion​ involves the weathering and the removal of rock.

• ​Deposition​ occurs when an agent of erosion​—​water, wind, ice, or gravity​—​loses energy and
drops sediments.

• ​Compaction​ is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments.

• ​Cementation ​takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the
sediments.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

→​Two Main Groups

1.​ Clastic sedimentary rocks ​are composed

of weathered bits of rocks and minerals.

• Classified by particle size

• Common rocks include
- Shale (most abundant)
- Sandstone
- Conglomerate

2.​ Chemical sedimentary rocks​ form when dissolved substances precipitate, or separate, from
water.
•​ ​ Common rocks include

•​ ​- limestone​—​most abundant chemical

rock
•​ ​- microcrystalline quartz known as

chert, flint, jasper, or agate

•​ ​- evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum

•​ ​ - coal

Features of Some Sedimentary Rocks

→ Features of sedimentary rocks are clues to how and where the rocks are formed
Metamorphic Rocks
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
→​Contact metamorphism​ occurs when magma moves into rock.
•​ ​Occurs near a body of magma

•​ ​Changes are driven by a rise in temperature.

→​Regional metamorphism​ results in large-scale deformation and high-grade metamorphism.

•​ ​Directed pressures and high temperatures occur during mountain building.

•​ ​Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock

Agents of Metamorphism
→​Heat
•​ ​Provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions

→​ Pressure
•​ ​Causes a more compact rock with greater density

→​Hydrothermal Solutions
•​ ​Hot water-based solutions escaping from the mass of magma

•​ ​Promote recrystallization by dissolving original minerals and then depositing new ones

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

→ Two main categories

1. ​Foliated Metamorphic Rock

•​ ​Has a banded or layered appearance

2. ​Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock

•​ ​Does not have a banded texture