Soil1 PDF

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NAAC Accridated with ‘A’ Grade
Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics
III Year B.Tech. (II - Sem)
Prepared by :
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V. Sateesh M.Tech Assistant Professor
in association with ACE Engineering Academy
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Unit 1 Origin of Soils
1. Soil: It is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles,

produced by disintegration of rocks and decomposition of organic matter. The
void spaces between the particles may contain air, water or both.
2. Soil Mechanics: It is a branch of mechanics which deals with the action of forces
on soil and with the flow of water in soil. The term ‘Soil Mechanics’ was coined
by late Dr. Karl Terzaghi, who is recognized as the father of soil mechanics.
3. Foundation Engineering or Soil Engineering: It is an applied science dealing

with the application of principles of Soil Mechanics to practical problems. It
includes site investigation, design and construction of foundations, earth retaining
structures and earth structures.
4. Geotechnical Engineering: It is a broader term which includes soil mechanics,

foundation engineering, rock mechanics and geology.
5. Origin of soils: Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and decomposition of

organic matter.
Therefore, soils may be organic or inorganic (depends on source of origin).
Organic soils are called ‘Cumulose soils’.
Examples for organic soils are Peat, Humus, muck etc.
6. Types of weathering:
(a) Physical
(b) Chemical
7. Physical weathering:
• It is due to physical effects like temperature, abrasion ,wedging action of ice,
penetration of plant roots etc.
• Physical weathering results in no change in chemical composition of particles.
• It produces coarse grained and non cohesive soils.
Examples: Gravel, Sands.
8. Chemical weathering:
• It is due to chemical actions (oxidation, hydration, carbonation, solution,
leaching, hydrolysis, etc.,)
AACE Engineering College : Ankushapur, Ghatkesar, Telangana 501301 (EAMCET Code: ACEG)
2 Soil Mechanics
• Original rock minerals are transformed into clay minerals, due to chemical For Micro Notes by the
Student
weathering.
• It results in fine grained and cohesive soils.
Examples: Clays.
9. Geological Cycle: Weathering of rocks – Transportation – Deposition – Upheaval.
10. Sedimentary soils: These soil particles created at one location, transported and
finally deposited in another location.
11. Residual soils (Sedentary soils): These are soils which remain on the parent rock
without getting transported.
Examples: Black cotton soils, Laterite soils.
Source of transportation/ Deposition and the associated names of soils:

Source of
transportation/ Type of soil
Deposition
River Alluvial soils
Lakes Lacustrine soils (IES’96)
Sea Marine soils
Aeolian soils (GATE’95),
Wind
Example: Sand dunes, Loess
Colluvial soils,
Gravitation
Example: Talus.
Glacier deposited soils
Glacier
Example: Drift, till, outwash
12. Gravitational and surface forces:

The Gravitational force in a soil particle is proportional to its mass. Therefore,
the larger the particle size, the greater would be the gravitational force. The
gravitational forces are predominant in the case of coarse grained soils viz. Gravel
and sand.
3 Soil Mechanics
Bonding or surface forces between the particles depend upon the surface area of For Micro Notes by the
the particles and the surrounding conditions. As the particle size decreases, the Student
surface forces increase. The surface forces like chemical forces, electrical forces
are predominant in clays.
In the case of silts, both gravitational and surface forces are important.
13. Important field names of soils:
Loam: It is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. Approximately in equal proportions.
Varved Clay: It contains alternate thin layers of clay and silt. It is generally a
lacustrine deposit.
Loess: It is a loose deposit of wind–blown deposit (Aeolian soil). It has silt sized
particles.
It is weakly cemented by calcium carbonate. It is formed in arid and semiarid
regions in nearly vertical banks. The permeability is generally more in the
vertical direction than that in the horizontal direction for the loess soils.
Bentonite: It is chemically weathered volcanic ash. It is highly water absorbent

and has high shrinkage and swelling. Contains high percentage of clay mineral,
montmorillonite.
Marl: It is a stiff marine calcareous clay of greenish colour.
Caliche: A soil which contains gravel, sand and silt and the particles are cemented
by calcium carbonate.
Dune sand: It is a wind transported soil, containing relatively uniform size of

particles of fine to medium sands.
Fill: It is a man made deposit of soil.
Moorum: It consists of small pieces of disintegrated rock.
Drift: It refers to soil deposit made by glaciers directly or indirectly.
Till: It is an unstratified deposit formed by melting of a glacier. It consists of
4 Soil Mechanics
particles of different sizes ranging from boulders to clay. It is also called boulder- For Micro Notes by the
Student
clay.
Talus: It is a colluvial deposit of broken rock pieces. It is generally found at the

foot of cliffs or steep slopes.
Peat: It is a highly organic soil, fibrous nature and entirely of vegetative matter
in varying states of decomposition. It posses an organic odour. Brown to black in
colour.
Humus: It is an organic amorphous earth of top soil, consisting partly decomposed

vegetative matter. It is dark brown.
Muck: It is a mixture of fine particles of inorganic soil and black decomposed

organic matter. It is usually found in conditions of imperfect drainage as in
swamps. Peat and muck are called cumulose soils.
14. Regional soil deposits of India:

The soil deposits of India may be broadly divided into the following groups based
on the climatic conditions, topography and geology of their formation.
1. Alluvial deposits
2. Marine deposits
3. Black cotton soils
4. Laterites and lateritic soils
5. Desert soils
6. Boulder deposits
Alluvial deposits: Large part of north India is concerned with alluvial deposits.
These deposits have alternating layers of sand, silt and clay. The fine silty sand
deposits loose in nature are prone to liquefaction during earthquakes.
Marine deposits: These are confined along a narrow belt near the coast. They
contain a large amount of organic matter and the marine clays are soft and highly
plastic.
5 Soil Mechanics
For Micro Notes by the

Student
Black cotton soils: These are expansive soils or (clays of high plasticity) present
in large part of central India and a portion of south India. Formed due to
chemical weathering. Parent rock is basalt or trap. Exhibits large swelling and
shrinkage due to presence of montmorillonite mineral.
Lateritic soils: Formed from basalt rock. These exist in the central, southern and
eastern India. These soils are soft when wet and harden with time. Formed by
disintegration of rock, removal of the bases and silica and accumulation of iron
oxide and aluminium oxide. Laterite soils possess red or pink colour due to iron
oxide.
Desert soils: These are wind blown deposits of sand. Sand dunes are desert soils.
Boulder deposits: These are large quantities of boulders deposited by rivers

flowing in highly terrain near the foot of hills.
6 Soil Mechanics

Previous Gate Questions Student
One Mark Questions

01. When the product of rock weathering is not transported as sediment but remains
in place, is called
(a) Alluvial soil (b) Glacial soil
(c) Residual soil (d) Aeolian soil
02. Aeolian soils are

(a) Residual soils (b) Wind deposits
(c) Gravity deposits (d) Water deposits
KEY
01. (c) 02. (b)
Previous IES Objective Questions
01. Match The List-I (Type of Soil) With List-II (Mode of Transportation and
Deposition) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List –I
A. Lacustrine
B. Alluvial Soils
C. Aeolian Soils
D. Marine Soils
List-II
1. Transportation by wind
2. Transportation by running water
3. Deposited at the bottom of lakes
4. Deposited in sea water
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b)3 2 1 4
(c) 3 2 4 1
(d)1 3 2 4
7 Soil Mechanics
02. Lacustrine soils are soils For Micro Notes by the

(a) Transported by rivers and streams Student
(b) Transported by glaciers
(c) Deposited in sea beds
(d) Deposited in lake beds
03. Consider the following statements in the context of Aeolian soils:

1. The soil has low density and low compressibility
2. The soil is deposited by wind
3. The soil has large permeability
Which of these statements are correct?
(a)1,2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
04. Match List–I with List–II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
List – I List –II
A. Loess 1. Deposited from suspension in running water
B. Peat 2. Deposits of marine origin
C. Alluvial soil 3. Deposits by wind
D. Marl 4. Organic soil
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
05. The collapsible soil is associated with

(a) dune sands (b) laterite soils
(c) loess (d) black cotton soils
06. Consider the following statements:

1. Peat and muck are organic soils.
2. Peat is an inorganic soil whereas muck is an organic soil.
3. Indurated clay is a type of clay which does not soften under prolonged
wetting.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
8 Soil Mechanics

KEY Student
01. (b) 02. (d) 03. (b) 04. (d) 05. (c) 06. (d)
Previous TSPSC Questions
01. An agent responsible for the transportation ofsoil is

(a) Wind (b) Water
(c) Gravity (d) All the above
02. One of the following is known as Father of Soil Mechanics

(a) Casagrande (b) Karl Terzaghi
(c) R.B. Peck (d) D.W Taylor
03. Water transported soil is

(a) Loess (b) Glacier
(c) Alluvial (d) Marine
04. Granite is an example of

(a) Aqueous rock (b) Sedimentary rock
(c) Metamorphic rock (d) Igneous rock
05. lacustrine soils according to geological classifications are

(a) Deposited in seas (b) Transported by wind
(c) Transported by ice (d) Deposited in lakes
KEY
01. (d) 02. (b) 03. (c) 04. (d) 05. (d)
Unit 2 Deϐinitions, Relations and Proper-
ties of Soils
1. Soil phase system :
• Unsaturated soil mass consists of solids + water + air. * It is in three
phase system
• Fully saturated soil consists of solids+ water .
* Two phase system
• Fully dried soil consists of solids + air.
* Two phase system.
2. Void ratio
Range : Can have any value greater than zero.

• Some times ‘e’ may also be greater than 1.
• Void ratio for coarse grained soils is generally less than that for fine grained
soils.
• When spherical grains are arranged in cubical array, the maximum possible
void ratio, e = 0.91
• When spherical grains are arranged diagonally, the least void ratio, e = 0.35
2 Soil Mechanics
3. Porosity (n): For Micro Notes by the

Student
...it is also called percentage voids.

• Range : 0 < n < 100 %.
• Relation between ‘n’ and ‘e’ is:
4. Degree of saturation (Sr or S):
• Range : 0% ≤ S ≤ 100 %
• For fully saturated soils, S = 1 or 100 %
• For dry soils, S = 0
5. Air content (ac):
• For a saturated soil, ac = 0 and for a dry soil, ac = 100%

• Range: 0% ≤ ac ≤ 100%.
• ac + S = 1 or 100%
6. Percentage air voids (na):
3 Soil Mechanics

Student
• For a saturated soil, na= 0

• For a dry soil, na = n
• Range: 0 ≤ na ≤ n
• na = n . ac
7. Water content (or) moisture content (w):
• Range: w ≥ 0
• Some times it can be greater than 100%, especially for fine grained soils.
8. Bulk unit weight of soil (γ):
9. Dry unit weight of soil (γd):
10. Unit weight of solids (γs):
4 Soil Mechanics

Student
• While γs is constant for a given soil, the γd is not constant.
11. Saturated unit weight of soil, (γsat):

• It is bulk unit weight when soil is fully saturated
• It is also equal to total weight of soil when fully saturated per unit of total
volume.
12. Submerged unit weight (γsub or g′ )

• It is the submerged weight of soil solids per unit of total volume of soil.
• It is based on Archimedes’ principle.
13. Specific Gravity of soil solids or soil (G or Gs):

• It is the ratio of weight of a given volume of soil solids at a given temperature
to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature.
• As per IS code standard temperature for measuring G is 27oC. For a given

soil, G remains constant. Generally G for inorganic soils lies between 2.60
- 2.85.
5 Soil Mechanics
14. Apparent or Mass or Bulk specific gravity of soil (Gm): For Micro Notes by the
Student
for partially saturated soil
for dry soil
for saturated soil
15. Some important relationships:
6 Soil Mechanics
Example: 1 For Micro Notes by the

Student
In a wet soil mass, air occupies one-sixth of its volume and water occupies one-third
of its volume. The void ratio of the soil is ___________
Sol:
Wa V
Air Va
6
VX
Total Total W
volume volume WW Water V
Vw V
=W =V 3
WS Solid Vs
V V
Va
6
: Vw 3
Vv = Va+ Vw
= V/6 +V/3= 0.5V
Vs = V - V v
= V - 0.5V = 0.5V
Vv
e Vs
0.5V
1
0.5V
Example: 2
The specific gravity of a soil sample is 2.7 and its void ratio is 0.945. If it is fully
saturated, what will be the moisture content of the soil ?
Sol: Given: G = 2.7; e = 0.945

For fully saturated soil, S = 1
wG
Using the relation, e S
w # 2.7
0.945 1
w = 0.35 or 35%
7 Soil Mechanics

Student
A sample of dry soil weighs 120gm and its volume 80ml. If the specific gravity
is 2.80, the void ratio of the sample is _______
Sol: G = 2.80
Dry wt, Ws = 120 gm
Volume, V = 80 ml or 80 cc
120
Jd 1.5 gm/cc
80
Jw G
Jd
1e
1 # 2.80
1.5
1e
e = 0.86
Example: 4
The true and apparent specific gravity of a fully saturated soil are 2.70 and 2
respectively. The void ratio of the soil is _______
J sat
Sol: G = 2.70 ; S = 1 G m Jw 2
Ge
J sat Jw ; E
1 e
2.70 e
2
1e
e = 0.70
Example: 5
A saturated clay has a water content of 40.8 % and bulk specific gravity of 1.86.
Determine the specific gravity and the void ratio of the soil.
Sol:
J sat
Given: S = 100% ; w = 40.8%; J w 1.86
We know, e. Sr = wG
e = 0.408 G
8 Soil Mechanics
J sat Ge For Micro Notes by the

We know, J w 1e Student
G 0.408G
1.86
1 0.408G
 G = 2.865
e × S = 0.408 G
e × 1 = 0.408 × 2.865
 e = 1.169
16. Relationship between volumes of soil with respect to void ratio
17. Water content determination methods:

(a) Oven drying method: This is the most accurate method among all.
Temperature to be maintained in the oven is 105o - 110oC for 24 hours.
For highly organic soils a low temperature of about 60oC is preferable.
If Gypsum is present, temperature should not be more than 80oC but for long
time.
(b) Sand bath method: It is a quick field method.
(c) Calcium carbide method (Rapid moisture meter method):

It is a portable equipment which can be conveniently used in the field as well.
The amount of acetylene gas (C2H2) released indicates approximately the water
content.
9 Soil Mechanics
(d) Alcohol method: Approximate method, Quick method (10 minutes) For Micro Notes by the
Student
(e) Radiation method: It is suitable to determine water content of soil in the in-situ
condition in a bore hole at required depth.
(f) Torsion balance method: For quick determination of water content of soil in the
laboratory.
(g) Pycnometer method:

Suitable for coarse grained soils only. Used when specific gravity of the soil is
known
Soil Soil
W1 W2 W3 W4
W1 = wt. of pycnometer
W2 = wt. of pycnometer + wet sample.
W3 = wt. of pycnometer + wet sample + water.
W4 = wt. of pycnometer + full water.
18. Specific gravity determination methods:

1. Density bottle method
2. Pycnometer method
3. Shrinkage limit method
19. Specific gravity determination:

• Pycnometer method: It can be used for all types of soils
10 Soil Mechanics

Student
Soil Soil
W1 W2 W3 W4
Oven-dried soil sample is used.
W1 = wt. of pycnometer
W2 = wt. of pycnometer + oven dry sample.
W3 = wt. of pycnometer + soil grains +Water.
W4 = wt. of pycnometer + full water.
20. In-situ unit weight determination Methods:

1. Core cutter method.
2. Sand replacement method.
3. Water displacement method.
1. Core cutter method: Core cutter is an open cylindrical barrel with sharp cutting
edge. The cutter is driven into the soil and it is taken out of the ground along with
the soil retained inside the cutter. The volume of soil is equal to internal volume
of the cutter. The cutter with the soil is weighed.
This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils.
Where,
W2 = weight cutter with soil
W1 = weight of empty cutter
11 Soil Mechanics
V = Volume of cutter For Micro Notes by the

It is not suitable for hard or gravelly soils. Student
2. Sand replacement method: It consists of making a hole into the ground. The
excavated soil is carefully collected and weighted (W). The volume of the hole
is determined by replacement with sand of known unit weight. Knowing the
weight of excavated soil and the volume of the hole, the in-situ unit weight can be
determined.
It is suitable for all type of soils.
12 Soil Mechanics

Student
3. Water displacement method:

It is suitable for clayey soils only. A small sample of a regular shape is taken from
a larger sample brought from the field. The sample is then weighed. The sample
is then coated with a thin layer of paraffin wax. The total weight of the paraffin
wax coated soil is again weighed. The coated soil is gradually lowered into the
container having water and the overflow water (or displaced water by the coated
sample) is collected in a measuring jar. The measured volume of displaced water
represents the volume of coated soil.
The volume of the uncoated soil specimen (V) is computed as follows:
Where,
Vwd = volume of water displaced
W1 = weight of uncoated soil specimen
W2 = weight of coated soil specimen
γP = unit weight of paraffin wax
= (Specific gravity of paraffin wax X unit weight of water)
Then bulk unit weight of soil, J W

V
1
After determination of water content of soil, the dry unit weight can be found as
13 Soil Mechanics

Student
Example: 6
The wt. of a container is 40gm and the weight of the container and wet soil sample is
100gm. On oven drying for 24 hrs, the wt. of container with dry soil is found to be
80g. What is the water content of the soil ?
Sol: wt of container = 40 gm
wt of container + wet soil = 100 gm
wt of container + dry soil = 80 gm
wt of wet soil, W = 100 – 40 = 60 gm
wt of dry soil, Wd = 80 – 40 = 40 gm
W Wd # 60 40 #
w Wd 100 100%
40
= 50%
Example: 7
A sampler with a volume of 45 cm3 is filled with a dry soil sample. When the soil is
poured into a graduated cylinder, it displaces 25cm3 of water. What is the void ratio
of the soil? (ESE-1998)
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.44
(c) 0.65 (d) 0.80
Sol: V = 45 cm3
Vs = 25 cm3
Vv = 45-25=20 cm3
VV 20
e VS 0.8
25
e = 0.8
14 Soil Mechanics

Example: 8
Student
A weight of soil coated with a thin layer of paraffin weighs 4.8 X 10–3 kN and when
immersed in water it displaces 0.00036 m3 of water. The paraffin is peeled off and
is found to weigh 0.00018 kN. The specific gravity of soil grains is 2.72 and that of
paraffin is 0.92. Calculate the void ratio of the soil if it has got water content of 12%.
Sol: Weight of soil + paraffin = 4.8 X 10-3 kN

Weight of paraffin = 1.8 X10-4 kN
weight of paraffin
Volume of paraffin unit weight of paraffin
1.8 # 10 -4
9.81 # 0.92
= 19.94X10-6 m3
Volume of soil = Total volume – volume of

paraffin
= 3.6 X 10-4 - 19.94 X10-6
= 3.4 X 10-4 m3
Weight of soil = Total weight – weightof paraffin
= 4.8 X10-3 - 1.8 X 10-4
= 4.62 X 10-3 kN
4.62 # 10 -3
Bulk weight, J W = 13.588 kN/m3
V 3.4 # 10 -4
Dry unit weight of soil,
J 13.588
Jd
1w 1 0.12
= 12.132 kN/m3
To find Void ratio of soil, e
GJ w 2.72 # 9.81
Jd & 12.132
1e 1e
e = 1.199 ≃ 1.2
15 Soil Mechanics

Student
A core cutter method is used to determine the in-situ density of an embankment,
compacted at a water content of 14%. The empty mass of the cutter was 1285 g
and the cutter full of soil has a mass of 3185g and the volume of the cutter being
1000 cm3. Determine the bulk density, dry density and the degree of saturation of the
embankment. Take Gs = 2.72
Sol: Water content, w=14%

Soil mass in cutter, M = 3185 – 1285 = 1900 g
 Bulk density U M
V
1900
1000
1.9 g/cm3 ;
U 1.9
Dry density , Ud 1w 1 0.14
= 1.67 gm/cc
 Bulk unit weight, γ = 9.81 ρ = 9.81 X 1.9
= 18.639 kN/m3
Dry unit weight,
J 18.639
Jd 16.35 kN/m3
1w 1 0.14
J w .G
We know that, Jd 1e
GJ w 2.72 # 9.81
e 1 1 0.632
Jd 16
wG 0.14 # 2.72
S e 0.602 60.2%
0.632
16 Soil Mechanics

Student
In order to measure the in situ bulk density of a soil, sand replacement test was carried
out. 4.5 kg of soil extracted from a hole at the surface of the soil. The hole was then
just filled with 3.5 kg of loose dry sand.
If it took 6.6 kg of the same sand to fill a container 0.004 m3 in volume, then what will
be the bulk density of the in situ soil?
Sol: For the sand,

Ws 6.6
Jd V 1650 kg/m3
0.004
Wt. of sand filled in hole

Vol. of pit, V Jd of sand used for filling
3.5
2.121 # 10 -3 m3
1650
For in-situ soil,

W 4.5
J 2121kg/m3
V 2.121 # 10 -3
Example: 11
The following data were recorded during a sand replacement test:

Mass of soil removed from hole = 1914 g
Mass of soil after oven-drying = 1664 g
Initial total mass of sand-pouring cylinder = 3426g
Mass of sand-pouring cylinder after running sand into hole = 1594 g

Density of sand = 1.62 g/c.c
Mass of sand in cone in sand-pouring cylinder
= 248 g
Determine the in-situ bulk and dry unit weights of the soil.
Sol: Given: W = 1914 g ; Wd = 1664 g
w wd
Water content , w wd
1914 1664 #
100 = 15%
1664
Initial total mass of sand pouring cylinder

= 3426 g
17 Soil Mechanics
 Weight of sand in hole For Micro Notes by the

= 3426 – 1594 – 248 Student
= 1584 g
Density of sand γ = 1.62 = W

V
1584
1.62 V
1584
V 977.77 cc
1.62
 In situ Bulk unit weight J W

V
1914
977.17
= 1.957 g/cc
J
 In situ dry unit weight Jd 1w
1.957
1 0.15
= 1.70 g/cc
Conventional Classroom Practice Questions
01. Given for a soil, the void ratio, specific gravity of soil solids and degree of
saturation, find the unit weight, dry density and submerged unit weight of the soil
mass.
03. Soil is to be excavated from a borrow pit which has a density of 1.75 gm/cc and
water of 12%. The specific gravity of soil particles is 2.7. The soil is compacted
so that water contents is 18% and the dry density is 1.65 gm/cc. For 1000 cum of
soil in fill, estimate
i) Quantity of soil to be excavated from the pit, in cum,
ii) Amount of water to be added.
Also determine the void ratios of the soil in borrow pit and fill.
05. The void ratio and specific gravity of a sample of clay are 0.73 and 2.7 respectively.
If the voids are 92% saturated, find the bulk density, and dry density and the water
content. What would be the water content for complete saturation, the void ratio
remain the same?
18 Soil Mechanics
06. Earth is required to be excavated from borrow pits for building an embankment of For Micro Notes by the
height 6 m, top width 2 m and side slopes 1:1. The unit weight of undisturbed soil Student
in wet condition as 18 kN/m3 and its natural water content is 8 percent. The dry
density required in the embankment is 20 kN/m3 with a water content of 10%. The
specific gravity of soil solids is 2.70. Estimate the quantity of earth required to be
excavated in the borrow area to construct one metre length of the embankment.
If each truck capacity = 80 kN/trip, determine the total truck loads required per
metre length of embankment? What are the values of porosity and degree of
saturation on the embankment?
Previous Gate Questions
One Mark Questions
01. The void ratio of a soil sample is 1. The corresponding porosity of the sample is
______
02. The void ratio of soil can exceed unity (T/F)
03. Which one of the following relations is not correct?

(b) sat = Jw ; G e E
n
(a) e =
1 n 1 e
e wG
(c) n = (d) e S
1 e
04. In its natural condition, a soil sample has a mass of 1.980 kg and a volume of
0.001 m3. After being completely dried in an oven, the mass of the sample is 1.800
kg. Specific gravity G is 2.7. Unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3. The degree of
saturation of the soil is
(a) 0.65 (b) 0.70
(c) 0.54 (d) 0.61
05. A certain soil has the following properties:
Gs= 2.71, n = 40% and w =20%. The degree of saturation of the soil (rounded off
to the nearest percent) is _____
06. If the water content of a fully saturated soil mass is 100%, the void ratio of the
sample is
(a) less than specific gravity of soil
(b) equal to specific gravity of soil
(c) greater than specific gravity of soil
(d) independent of specific gravity of soil
19 Soil Mechanics

Student
One Mark KEY
02. 05.
01. (0.5) 03. (c) 04. (c) 06. (b)
(True) 81.3%
Two Mark Questions
01. For sand of uniform spherical particles, the void ratio in the loosest and the densest
states are ______and _____ respectively.
02. A saturated sand sample has dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3 and a specific gravity
of 2.65. If γw = 10 kN/m3, the water content of the soil is ______%
03. A soil sample in its natural state has mass of 2.290 kg and a volume of 1.15 × 10-3
m3 . After being oven dried, the mass of the sample is 2.035 kg. Gs for soil is 2.68.
The void ratio of the natural soil is
(a) 0.40 (b) 0.45
(c) 0.55 (d) 0.53
04. The porosity (n) and the degree of saturation (S) of a soil sample are 0.7 and 40%,
respectively. In a 100 m3 volume of the soil, the volume (expressed in m3) of air
is_________.
Two Mark KEY

01. (0.91 & 0.35) 02. 17.8 03. (d) 04. (42)
01. A soil deposit has a void ratio of 1.0. If the void ratio is reduced to 0.60 by
compaction, the percentage volume loss is
(a) 10% (b) 20%
(c) 30% (d) 40%
02. The specific gravity of a soil sample is 2.7 and its void ratio is 0.945. When it is
fully saturated, the moisture content of the soil will be
(a) 25% (b) 30%
(c) 35% (d) 40%
20 Soil Mechanics
03. What is the dry unit weight of a clay soil when the void ratio of a sample there of For Micro Notes by the
is 0.50, the degree of saturation is 70%, and the specific gravity of the soil grains Student
is 2.7? Take the value of w to be 9.81 kN/m3.
(a) 13.65 kN/m3 (b) 19.95 kN/m3
(c) 23.65 kN/m3 (d) 29.95 kN/m3
04. The value of porosity of a soil sample in which the total volume of soil grains is
equal to twice the total volume of voids would be
(a) 30 % (b) 40 %
(c) 50 % (d) 60 %
05. A fill having volume of 150000 m3 is to be constructed at a void ratio of 0.8.

The borrow pit solid has a void ratio of 1.4. The volume of soil required to be
excavated from the borrow pit will be
(a) 150000 m3 (b) 200000 m3
(c) 250000 m3 (d) 300000 m3
06. A sand sample has a porosity of 30% and specific gravity of solids as 2.6. What is
its degree of saturation at moisture content of 4.94%?
(a) 40% (b) 35%
(c) 30% (d) 25%
07. What will be the unit weight of a fully saturated soil sample having water content
of 38% and grain specific gravity of 2.65?
(a) 19.88 kN/m3 (b) 17.88 kN/m3
(c) 16.52 kN/m3 (d) 14.65 kN/m3
08. How many cubic metres of soil having void ratio of 0.7 can be made from 30m3 of
soil with void ratio of 1.2?
(a) 36.6 m3 (b) 30.0 m3
(c) 25.9 m3 (d) 23.2 m3
09. A sample of dry soil is coated with a thin layer of paraffin and has mass of 460 g.
It displaced 300 cc of water when immersed in it. The paraffin is peeled off and its
mass was found to be 9 g. If the specific gravity of soil solids and paraffin are 2.65
and 0.9 respectively, the voids ratio of soil is nearly
(a) 0.92 (b) 0.71
(c) 0.59 (d) 0.48
21 Soil Mechanics

KEY Student
01. (b) 02. (c) 03. (*) 04. (*) 05. (b)
06. (c) 07. (b) 08. (d) 09. (b)
01. A soil sample has a porosity of 50%, calculate void ratio

(a) 3.0 (b) 1.0 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.33
02. A soil has a volume of 100 cm3 and mass of 200 gm. on over drying for 24hrs, the
mass is reduced to 150 gm. Calculate the dry density.
(a) 9.81 kN/m3 (b) 14.72 kN/m3
(c) 19.62 kN/m3 (d) 24.53 kN/m3
03. A soil sample has void ratio of 0.5 and its porosity will be close to
(a) 50% (b) 66%
(c) 100% (d) 33%
04. For a soil sample the void ratio of 0.6, its porosity is
(a) 33.3% (b) 37.5%
(c) 41.2% (d) 44.4%
05. A saturated soil sample has a water content of 40%, what will be the void ratio if
the specific gravity of the soil is 2.65
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.06
(c) 1.16 (d) 0.96
06. A soil deposit having water content 15%, specific gravity 2.5 and voids ratio 0.5,
calculate degree of saturation.
(a) 50 % (b) 70%
(c) 75% (d) 90%
07. Pycnometer is used

(a) to measure only specific gravity
(b) to measure only water content
(c) to measure specific gravity and water content
(d) to measure specific area
08. The degree of saturation for fully saturated soil is

(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50
(c) 0.75 (d) 1
22 Soil Mechanics
09. A sample of saturated soil has a water content of 29.6%. If the specific gravity of For Micro Notes by the
Student
solids is 2.7, the dry unit weight (in gm/cm3) of the soil is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 0.75 (c) 1.5 (d) 0.5
10. Degree of saturation (s) of a soil mass is expressed in terms of volume of water
(Vw) and volume of voids (Vv) as
(a) S = 100 (Vw/Vv) (b) S = 100 (Vv/Vw)
(c) S = 100 (Vv-Vw) (d) S = (Vv Vw)/100
11. The relationship involving voids ratio (e), degree of saturation (S), water content
(w) and specific gravity of soil solids (G) is given by
(a) wSe = G (b) we = SG
(c) wS = Ge (d) wG = Se
12. The core-cutter method for determining in-situ unit weight is suitable for
(a) Soils containing gravel particles (b) Stiff clays
(c) Soft cohesive soils (d) Sandy soils
13. A saturated undisturbed sample from a clay strata has moisture content of 22.22%
and specific weight of 2.7. Assuming γw = 10 kN/m3, the void ratio and the saturated
unit weight of the clay, respectively are
(a) 0.6 and 16.875 kN/m3 (b) 0.3 and 20.625 kN/m3
(c) 0.6 and 20.625 kN/m3 (d) 0.3 and 16.975 kN/m3
KEY
01. (b) 02. (d) 0.3 (b) 04. (b) 05. (c)
06. (c) 07. (d) 08. (c) 09. (a) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d)
Unit 3 Soil Structures & Clay Mineralogy
1. Soil Structure:
• It is a geometrical arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass.
• The behaviour of soil depends on the soil structure.
2. Important types of structures: Depending upon the particle size and mode of
formation the following are important types:
(a) Single grained (b) Honey-comb
(c) Flocculated (d) Dispersed
(e) Composite Structure
3. Single grained Structures :

• It is present in soils like gravel and sand
• If particles are assumed as spheres, the loosest and densest packaging are
shown in the figures.
• The void ratio for the loosest state is 0.91, and the void ratio for the densest
state is 0.35 when the particles are assumed as perfect spheres.
2 Soil Mechanics
4. Honey – Comb Structure : For Micro Notes by the

Student
• Present in fine sands or silts

• Under vibrations and shocks, the structure collapses and large deformation
takes place.
5. Flocculated Structure :
• It occurs in clays.
• Formed when there is a net attractive force between particles.
• Edge to face orientation.
• Has high shear strength, low compressibility, high permeability.
6. Dispersed Structure:
3 Soil Mechanics
• Occurs in remoulded clays. For Micro Notes by the

• Face to face orientation. Student
• Formed when there is net repulsive force between particles.
• Has low shear strength, high compressibility and low permeability.
7. When soil contains different type of particles, a ‘Composite Structure’ is formed.
8. Remoulding: Remoulding causes a loss of shear strength in cohesive soils.
9. Thixotropy: The phenomenon of regaining of lost strength with the passage of

time, with no change in water content, is known as ‘thixotropy’.
• Bentonite clay exhibits thixotropy property.
10. Clay Mineralogy :

• In Gravel and sands, rock minerals like quartz, feldspar, Mica etc. are present.
• In Clays, clay minerals are present.
• Important clay minerals are Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite, Halloysite etc.
11. Kaolinite :
• Stable mineral
• Causes no swelling and no shrinkage
Present predominantly in china clay.
4 Soil Mechanics
12. Illite Mineral : For Micro Notes by the

Student
• Exhibits medium swelling and shrinkage
13. Montmorillonite :
• Exhibits large swelling and large shrinkage

• Highest percentage is present in Bentonite followed by Black cotton soils
5 Soil Mechanics
14. Halloysite: Behaviour is similar to kaolinite For Micro Notes by the

Student
15. Diffuse Double layer and adsorbed water :
• The layer on the clay surface upto the limit of attraction due to electrical
forces, is known as ‘Diffuse Double layer’.
• The water held in the zone of diffuse double layer is known as “adsorbed
water”.
• Present on clay particles only. Because of the net electrical charge present on
the clay particles, water gets attracted and forms a bond.
• Adsorbed water imparts plasticity to the clay.
• Kerosene being non polar liquid does not cause plasticity to the clay.
16. Specific Surface Area:

• It is the total surface area of soil particles per unit weight or per unit volume
of soil.
• Finer the soil, higher the specific surface area.
• Montmorillonite clay mineral has largest specific surface area (about 800 m2/
gm)
6 Soil Mechanics

01. Black cotton soil exhibits large swelling and shrinkage due to presence of the
following clay mineral
(a) Kaolinite (b) Illite
(c) Montmorillonite (d) Halloysite
02. The shape of clay particle is usually

(a) Angular (b) Flaky
(c) Tubular (d) Rounded
03. Some of the structural strength of a clayey material that is lost by remoulding is
slowly recovered with time. This property of soils to undergo an isothermal gel-
to-soil-to-gel transformation upon agitation and subsequent to rest is termed
(a) Isotropy (b) Anisotropy
(c) Thixotropy (d) Allotropy
04. Deposit with flocculated structure is formed when

(a) Clay particles settle on sea bed
(b) Clay particles settle on fresh water lake bed
(c) Sand particles settle on river bed
(d) Sand particles settle on sea bed
05. Following statements are made on compacted soils, where in DS stands for the
soils compacted on dry side of optimum moisture content and WS stands for the
soils compacted on wet side of optimum moisture content. Identify the incorrect
statement.
(a) Soil structure is flocculated on DS and dispersed on WS.
(b) Construction pore water pressure is low on DS and high on WS.
(c) On drying, shrinkage is high on DS and low on WS.
(d) On access to water, swelling is high on DS and low on WS.
06. The clay mineral primarily governing the swelling behavior of Black Cotton soil
is
(a) Halloysite (b) Illite
(c) Kaolinite (d) Montmorillonite
7 Soil Mechanics
07. The clay mineral, whose structural units are held together by potassium bond is For Micro Notes by the
(a) Halloysite (b) Illite Student
(c) Kaolinite (d) Smectite
One Mark Answers

01. (c) 02. (b) 03. (c) 04. (a) 05. (c)
06. (d) 07. (b)
01. The correct sequence of plasticity of minerals in soil in an increasing order is

(a) silica, kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite
(b) kaolinite, silica, illite, montmorillonite
(c) silica, kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite
(d) kaolinite, silica, montmorillonite, illite
02. The predominant mineral responsible for shrinkage and swelling in black cotton
soils is
(a) Illite (b) Kaolinite
(c) Mica (d) Montmorillonite

A dispersed structure is formed in clay when
1. The net electrical forces between adjacent soil particles at the time of
deposition are repulsive
2. Remoulding and compacting of clays have high void ratio
3. There is concentration of dissolved minerals in water
4. Platelets have face to face contact in more or less parallel arrays
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 2,3 and 4
(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 1,3 and 4
04. Consider the following clay minerals:

1. Kaolinite
2. Illite
3. Montmorillonite
Which one of the following is the correct sequence of the minerals given above in
the increasing order of their grain size?
(a) 3-2-1 (b) 1-3-2
(c) 1-2-3 (d) 3-1-2
8 Soil Mechanics
05. Arrange the following soils with respect to increasing order of realizable friction For Micro Notes by the
ratio : Student
1. Loose gravel fill

2. Sands or gravels
3. Clay sand mixtures and silts
4. Clays and peats
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 4, 2, 3 and 1
(c) 1, 3, 2 and 4 (d) 4, 3, 2 and 1
KEY
01. (a) 02. (d) 03. (c) 04. (a) 05. (a)
01. The clay soil group that does not swell under wet conditions is
(a) kaolinite (b) illite
(c) vermicilite (d) montmorillonite
02. Clayey minerals are identified from non clayey minerals by

(a) specific surface (b) Atterberg’s limits
(c) permeability (d) lattice structure
03. The plasticity characteristics of clay are due to:

(a) capillary water (b) adsorbed water
(c) absorbed water (d) free water
04. The correct increasing order of the surface areas of the given soils is
(a) Silt, sand, colloids, clay
(b) Sand, silt, colloids, clay
(c) Sand, silt, clay, colloids
(d) Clay, silt, sand, colloids
05. Deposit with flocculated structure is formed when

(a) Clay particles settle on sea bed
(b) Clay particles settle on fresh water lake bed
(c) Sand particles settle on river bed
(d) Sand particles settle on sea bed
9 Soil Mechanics
06. With reference to shrinkage and swelling the most active clay mineral is For Micro Notes by the
(a) Kaolinite (b) Montmorillonite Student
(c) Illite (d) None of the above
07. Expansive soils are those which generally consists of

(a) feldspar (b) Mica
(c) Silica (d) Montmorillonite
KEY
01. (a) 02. (d) 0.3 (b) 04. (c) 05. (a)
06. (b) 07. (d)
Unit 4 Index Properties of Soils
1. Index properties :
• These are the properties useful for classification and identification of soils.
• Also give rough estimation of Engineering properties of soils.
Examples: Particle size distribution and relative density for coarse grained soils
and consistency limits for fine grained soils.
2. Engineering properties :
These are the properties useful for engineering applications.
Examples: Permeability, Compressibility and shear strength.
3. Shape of particles: Engineering properties of coarse grained soil depends on

shape of particles
4. Particle size distribution :

• Sieve analysis is used for coarse grained soils (for size coarser than 75μ.)
• Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis is used for fine grained soils, (finer
than 75μ size.)
5. Sedimentation analysis: It is based on Stoke’s law. Stoke’s law gives the terminal
velocity of a sphere falling through an infinite liquid medium. If a single sphere
is allowed to fall in an infinite liquid medium, velocity first increases and soon
attains a constant value. The constant velocity with which the particle settles is
known as ‘terminal velocity’ or ‘settling velocity’. The coarse particles tend to
settle faster than fine particles.
• Stoke’s law is valid only if the size of the particle is between 0.2mm and
0.2μ.
Stoke’s Law :
Terminal velocity,
(or)
2 Soil Mechanics

Student
d = diameter of particle
γs = unit weight of particle
m = dynamic viscosity of water
ʋ = kinematic viscosity of water = μ/ρ
G = specific gravity of solids
• Approximate version of Stoke’s Law,

Vs ≈ 900 d2.
Where ,
V = velocity, in mm/sec
d = Diameter of particle, in mm.
A soil - water suspension is prepared by adding chemical called dispersion agent

of 33g of the sodium hexametaphosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate in
distilled water to make one litre of solution. The soil suspension is subjected to
sedimentation analysis.
Sedimentation analysis is carried out in any one of the following two ways.
1. Pipette method
2. Hydrometer method
The hydrometer method of sedimentation analysis differs from the pipette analysis
in the method of taking observations only.
6. Pipette analysis. Using a pipette, the soil – water suspension sample of 10 ml is
collected from a standard depth of 10 cm at various intervals of time from start
of sedimentation. The usual time intervals at which samples collected are 30 sec,
1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 4 hr, from the start of
sedimentation. The sample collected by pipette is dried and weight of solids in the
suspension finer than a sized ‘d’, related to the time of sampling may be found.
7. Hydrometer Analysis: The hydrometer is used for measurement of specific

gravity of liquids. The hydrometer method differs from the pipette method. In
hydrometer method, the weight of solids per ml in the suspension at the chosen
3 Soil Mechanics
depth at chosen instants of time are obtained by reading the specific gravity of the For Micro Notes by the
soil suspension with the help of hydrometer. Commonly hydrometer method is Student
adopted.
The process of removal organic matter and calcium compounds is known as

“pretreatment”.
8. Corrections to hydrometer reading :

• Meniscus correction Cm is always positive.
• Dispersing agent correction Cd is always negative.
• Temperature correction is positive when greater than 27oC and negative
when less than 27oC.
• The hydrometer readings increase on the downward direction towards the
hydrometer bulb.
• Reading is taken corresponding to the upper level of the meniscus.
9. Limitations of Sedimentation Analysis :

1. Stoke’s law is valid only if the size of the particle is between 0.2mm and
0.2m.
2. Stoke’s law is based on Laminar flow condition. If size is more than 0.2 mm,
it causes turbulent flow.
3. Particles are assumed to settle independently with out any interference from
others. If size is less than 0.2m, Brownian movement occurs.
4. Stoke’s law is applicable only when the liquid is infinite. The presence of
walls of the jar affects the results.
5. The soil particles are not perfectly spherical in shape.
4 Soil Mechanics

Example: 1 Student
For a particle of diameter 75 , what will be the terminal velocity ?
Sol: Vs ≈ 900 d2
d ≈ 75 μ = 75 X 10-3 mm
Vs ≈ 900 X (75 X 10-3)2
Vs ≈5.0 mm/s
Example: 2
A sample of soil weighing 50 g is dispersed in 1000 ml of water. How long

after the commencement of sedimentation should the hydrometer reading
be taken in order to estimate the percentage of particles less than 0.002
mm effective diameter, if the centre of the hydrometer is 150 mm below the
surface of the water? Gs = 2.65. Viscosity of water  = 0.0012 in SI units.
He
Sol: Vs t
He→ effective height
g (G 1) d2 9.81 (2.65 1) (0.002 # 10 -3) 2

Vs
18X
18 b 1000 l
0.0012
P
=2.998X10–6 m/s d where X n
U
He 0.15
t VS 2.9975 # 10 -6
t = 50041 sec= 834 mins
10. Particle size distribution curve: Knowing the grain size distribution data , the
particle size distribution curve is prepared. It gives an idea about type of soil and
gradation of soil
5 Soil Mechanics

Student
• Well graded soil: Soil contains good representation of particles of all sizes.
• Gap graded soil: Excess of certain particles and deficiency of others.
• Uniformly graded soil: Most of the particles are of the same size.
• For coarse grained soils sizes D10, D30 and D60 are important.
11. Effective size (or) effective diameter (D10): It means, only 10% of particles are
finer than this size.
12. Coefficient of uniformity(Cu) :
• It is a measure of particle size range. It is always greater than or equal to 1.

• A soil is called uniformly graded if Cu lies between 1 and 2 .
• For a well graded gravel, Cu must be greater than 4.
• Where as for a well graded sand, Cu must be greater than 6.
13. Coefficient of curvature (CC):
• It represents shape of particle size curve.

• For well graded soils, CC lies between 1 and 3.
14. Relative density (or) Density index (ID) :

• Most important for coarse grained soils.
• Indicates relative compactness of soils.
6 Soil Mechanics

Student
emax = Max.void ratio (in loosest state)

emin = Min. void ratio (in densest state)
e = natural void ratio
Range ( in % ): 0% ≤ ID ≤ 100%
Relative density classification of granular soils.
ID (%) Classification
< 15 Very loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium
65 – 85 Dense
> 85 Very dense
Example: 3
The unit weight of sand backfill was determined by field measurements to be

1746 kg/m3. The water content is 8.6 % and unit weight of soil constituents is
2.6 gm/cc. In the laboratory the void ratios in the loosest and densest states
were found to be 0.642 and 0.462 respectively. What is the relative density of
the soil ?
Sol: Given: γbulk = 1746 kg/m3

w = 8.6 % γs = 2.6 gm/cc
eloose = 0.642 ; edense = 0.462
Js 2.6
G Jw 1 2.6
e max e #
Relative density e max e min
100
7 Soil Mechanics

J 1746 Student
Jd 1607 kg/m 3
1w 1 0.086
Jw G
Jd
1e
1 # 2.6
1.607
1e
e = 0.617
0.642 0.617 #
Relative density 0.642 0.462
100
= 13.9%
15. Limits of consistency (Atterberg’s limits) :

• Mostly used for fine grained soils.
• Atterberg divided the entire range from liquid to solid state into four states.
(i) Liquid state
(ii) Plastic state
(iii) Semisolid state
(iv) Solid state.
• Atterberg limits are the water contents at which soil mass passes from one
state to the next.
8 Soil Mechanics
16. Liquid Limit: For Micro Notes by the

(i) It is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state, Student
but has a small shearing strength against flowing.
(ii). It is the minimum water content at which part of a soil cut by a groove of
standard dimensions will flow together for a distance of 12mm under an
impact of 25 blows in the device.
Apparatus: Casagrande’s apparatus is used to determine liquid limit.
17. Flow curve : It is a plot between water contents and the corresponding number
of blows at which the soil groove closes in the liquid limit test.
The liquid limit is taken as the water content corresponding to a number of

blows of 25 as shown in the graph.
If = Flow index = It is the slope of flow curve.

It can be determined from the flow curve as shown below:
9 Soil Mechanics

Student
• Flow curve gives an idea of shear strength variation with water content of the
soil.
• Soil passing through 425 micron IS sieve is used for the test.
• The drop of the cup on hard base is 1 cm.
• The shear strength of the soil at liquid limit is about 2.7 kN/m2.
18. Plastic Limit (wP): It is the minimum water content at which the soil can be rolled
into a thread of 3mm in diameter without crumbling.
It is determined by Plastic limit test or ‘Thread Test’.
19. Shrinkage Limit (wS): It is the moisture content after which further loss of
moisture does not cause a decrease in the volume of the soil.
• Shrinkage limit is lowest water content at which a soil can still be completely
saturated.
At shrinkage limit the shrinkage ceases.
To determine the shrinkage limit:
10 Soil Mechanics
Shrinkage Limit Test: For Micro Notes by the

Student
(a)
w1= Water content of original saturated sample of volume V.
V = Initial volume,
W = initial wet weight of soil
Vd = Dry volume of soil (total volume)
Wd = Dry weight
G = Specific gravity
(b)
(c)
where
(d)
where, e = void ratio of sample at shrinkage limit ( It is equal to the void ratio at
minimum volume condition).
Example: 4
A clay sample has void ratio of 0.50 in the dry condition. The grain specific gravity
has been determined as 2.70. What is the shrinkage limit of this clay ?
0.50 #
Sol: w s 2.70
100 18.5%
Shrinkage limit, ws = 18.4%
11 Soil Mechanics

Student
The Atterberg limits of a clay are 38 %, 27 % and 24.5 %. Its natural water content is
30%. What is the state of the clay?
Sol: As the natural water content is between liquid limit and plastic limit, the soil is in
plastic state
20. Shrinkage Ratio : Volume change expressed in terms of percentage of dry

volume to the corresponding change in moisture content.
Shrinkage ratio of a soil is equal to the

mass specific gravity of its dry state. (Gm )
21. Volumetric shrinkage, VS :
22. Important Indices :

(a) Plasticity index, Ip:
• It is relatively more for plastic clayey soils
12 Soil Mechanics
Ip Plasticity For Micro Notes by the

Student
0 Non plastic
<7 Low plastic
7 – 17 Medium plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
(b) Shrinkage Index (Is):
(c) Toughness Index (IT):
Significance : Larger the value, better the strength of soil at its plastic limit.
(d) Consistency Index or Relative Consistency:
It is useful in the study of the field behavior of saturated fine grained soil.
Range : It can be greater than or less than 1.
If, Ic = 1, soil is at its plastic limit,
If, Ic = 0, soil is at its liquid limit
If, Ic > 1, soil is in semi solid state and is stiff
If, Ic is negative, it indicates that the natural water content is greater than
liquid limit and hence behaves like a liquid.
(e) Liquidity Index (IL) :
13 Soil Mechanics
The liquidity Index is also known as water elasticity ratio For Micro Notes by the
Ic + IL = 1 or 100 % Student
23. Activity (A): It is the ratio of the plasticity index to the percentage of clay fraction.
It is a measure of the water holding capacity of clayey soil .
• The swelling and shrinkage characteristics are represented by a number

called ‘Activity number
• The soil containing the clay mineral ‘Montmorillonite’ have very high activity
(A>4)
If activity, A < 0.75, inactive

A = 0.75 to 1.25, normal
A > 1.25, Active
• For a soil of specific origin, the activity is constant.
Example: 6
The plasticity index and the percentage of grain size finer than 2 microns of a clay
sample are 25 and 15, respectively. Determine its activity and comment on it.
Sol:
c m
Ip
A
C
=25/15
=1.667
It is classified as ‘Active soil’
24. As the particle size decreases, liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index
increase.
25. If silt is added to clay, both liquid limit and plastic limit decreases. The plasticity
index also decreases
26. Consistency : It is the resistance offered by a soil against deformation

• Varies with water content.
14 Soil Mechanics

Consistency Consistency Index, %
Student
Very soft 0 – 25
Soft 25 – 50
Medium (firm) 50 – 75
Stiff 75 – 100
Very stiff > 100
27. Plasticity: Property which allows it to be deformed without rupture.
Example: 7
The plastic limit and liquid limit of soil are 33% and 45% respectively. The percentage
volume change from the liquid limit to the dry state is 36% of the dry volume. Similarly
the percentage volume change from the plastic limit to the dry state is 24 % of the dry
volume. Determine the shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio.
Sol:
0.12 Vd
0.36 Vd
0.24 Vd
Vd
wS wp=33% wL=45%
0.12Vd 0.24Vd
0.45 0.33 0.33 w s
0.33 – 0.24 = ws
ws = 0.09 or  ws = 9%

c V1 Vd m # 100 c 0.24Vd m
Vd Vd
SR 1
W1 Ws 0.33 0.09
Example: 8
A fine grained soil brought from the site gave the shrinkage limit as 17%, liquid limit
as 52% and their volumes are 6.01 & 10 c.c respectively. Determine for the same soil
the volume corresponding to natural moisture content of 32%.
15 Soil Mechanics
Sol: Given : ws = 17% , wL = 52% For Micro Notes by the

V1 = 6.01 cc, V2 = 10 cc Student
Natural moisture content w = 32%
V2
V
Volume
V1
Vd
17% 32% 52% w.c
V2 V1 V2 V
52 17 52 32
10 6.01 10 V
35 20
V = 7.72 cc
Example: 9
A natural soil deposit has a bulk unit weight of 18.50 kN/m3 and water content of 6
percent. Calculate the volume of water required to be added to 1 cubic meter of soil
to raise the water content to 10 percent. If voids ratio remain constant then what will
be the degree of saturation? (Assume G = 2.7)
Sol: Given: γ = 18.50 kN/m3 and w = 6%
J 18.50
Jd 17.45 kN/m3
1w 1 0.06
Ww
We know, water content, w 0.06 Wd
For one cubic metre of soil (V = 1 m3) , the

Weight of solids, Wd or Ws= γd .V
= 17.45 X 1 = 17.45 kN
Initial weight of water, Ww= 0.06 X Wd
= 0.06 X 17.45= 1.047 kN
Vol. of water, Vw W w
Jw
1.047
9.81
0.1067 m3
If w = 10%; then Ww = w.Ws
= 0.10 X 17.453
16 Soil Mechanics
= 1.745 kN For Micro Notes by the

Ww 1.745 3 Student
Vw Jw 0.178 m
9.81
Hence additional water required to raise the water content from 6% to 10%
= 0.178 –0.1067= 0.0713 m3 = 71.3 lit
GJ w 2.7 # 9.81
Voids ratio, e 1 1 0.517
Jd 17.456
After the water has been added, e remains the same
wG 0.10 # 2.7
S e 0.522 52.2%
0.517
Conventional Classroom Practice Questions
01. The mass specific gravity of a fully saturated specimen of clay having a water
content of 40% is 1.88. On oven drying, the mass specific gravity drops to 1.78.
Calculate the specific gravity of clay and its shrinkage limit.
02. The values of liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of a soil were reported
as below:
wL = 60% wP = 30% wS = 20%
If a sample of this soil at liquid limit has a volume of 40 cc and its volume
measured at shrinkage limit was 23.5 cc, determine the specific gravity of the
solids. What is its shrinkage ratio and volumetric shrinkage?
03. A sample of sand above water table was found to have a natural moisture
content of 15% and a unit weight of 18.84kN/m3. Laboratory tests on a dried
sample indicated values of 0.5 and 0.85 for minimum and maximum void ratios
respectively for densest and loosest states. Calculate the degree of saturation and
the relative density. Assume G = 2.65.
Previous Gate Questions
One Mark Questions
01. Mention true/false for the following Question.

A soil having a uniformity coefficient smaller than about 2 is considered
uniform.
17 Soil Mechanics
02. The consistency of a saturated cohesive soil is affected by For Micro Notes by the
(a) water content Student
(b) particle size distribution
(c) density index
(d) coefficient of permeability
03. A fine-grained soil has 60% (by weight) silt content. The soil behaves as semi-
solid when water content is between 15% and 28%. The soil behaves fluid-like
when the water content is more than 40%. The ‘Activity’ of the soil is
(a) 3.33 (b) 0.42
(c) 0.30 (d) 0.20
04. In a shrinkage limit test, the volume and mass of a dry soil pat are found to be 50
cm3 and 88 g, respectively. The specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.71 and the
density of water is 1 g/cc. The shrinkage limit (in %, up to two decimal places)
is______________
One Mark KEY

01. (True) 02. (a) 03. (c) 04. (19.92)
Two Mark Questions
01. A given cohesionless soil has emax = 0.85 and emin = 0.50. In the field, the soil
is compacted to a mass density of 1800 kg/m3 at a water content of 8%. Take the
mass density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and Gs as 2.7. The relative density (in %) of
the soil is
(a) 56.43 (b) 60.25
(c) 62.87 (d) 65.71
02. The laboratory tests on a soil sample yields the following results; natural moisture
content = 18% liquid limit = 60%, plastic limit = 25%, percentage of clay sized
fraction = 25%. The liquidity index and activity (as per the expression proposed
by Skempton) of the soil, respectively, are
(a) – 0.2 and 1.4 (b)0.2 and 1.4
(c) – 1.2 and 0.714 (d)1.2 and 0.714
18 Soil Mechanics

Two Mark KEY
Student
01. (d) 02. (a)
01. A soil sample has shrinkage limit of 6%; and the specific gravity of the soil grains
is 2.6. The porosity of soil at shrinkage limit is
(a) 7.5% (b) 9.5%
(c) 13.5% (d) 16.5%
02. The ratio of dry unit weight to unit weight of water represents
(a) Specific gravity of soil solids (b) Specific gravity of soil mass
(c) Specific gravity of dry soil (d) Shrinkage ratio
03. Consider the following effects as indicative of complete saturation of a soil sample:
1. Pore water pressure is positive.
2. Volume of water to volume of voids is equal to 1.
3. Relative density is equal to 1.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

1. When a soil sample is dried beyond its shrinkage limit, the volume of the soil
slowly decreases
2. Plastic limit is always lower than the liquid limit for any type of soil
3. At the liquid limit, the soil behaves like a liquid and possesses no shear
strength at all
4. When subjected to drying, the volume of the soil remains unchanged once the
water content of the soil goes below its shrinkage limit.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 2 and 4 only
KEY
01. (c) 02. (d) 03. (a) 04. (*)
19 Soil Mechanics

Previous TSPSC Questions Student
01. For a clay, SL = 20%, PL = 40%. The total volume at PL & LL was 1.20 Vd and
1.50 Vd respectively where in Vd = dry volume. Then, the plasticity index PI of
the soil is
(a) 30 (b) 40 (c) 20 (d) 10
02. Which of the following soils has more plasticity index?

(a) Clay (b) Sand
(c) Silt (d) Gravel
03. The uniformity coefficient of soil is defined as the ratio of

(a) D40 to D10 (b) D40 to D20
(c) D50 to D10 (d) D60 to D10
04. Which of the following soils has more plasticity index than others
(a) sand (b) silt
(c) clay (d) gravel
05. If two S1 and S2 tested in the laboratory are having liquid limits 38% and 60%
and plastic limits 18% and 20% respectively. If natural moisture content for S1
and S2 is 40% and 50% respectively, which soil is a better foundation material
when remoulded.
(a) S1 (b) S2
(c) S1 and S2 (d) neither S1 nor S2
06. The ratio of Plasticity Index to Flow is termed as

(a) Activity (b) Toughness Index
(c) Consistency Index (d) Density Index
KEY
01. (a) 02. (a) 0.3 (d) 04. (c) 05. (b) 06. (b)
Unit 5 Soil Classiϐication
1. I.S. Particle size classification System:

(i) Classification is done based on grain size only.
(ii) Soil is given names like clay, slit, sand, Gravel, Cobble, Boulder based on the
grain size, as shown below in the table.
2. American Association of State Highways and Transport Officials (AASHTO)

system.
(or)
Public Roads Administration (PRA)(or) Highway Research Board (HRB) Soil
Classification System.
Suitable for Highway (pavement) design.

It is based on particle size distribution and plasticity characteristics (consistency
limits).
• Soil is classified into groups like A1, A2 ……A8

• Black cotton soils fall under A7 group.
• Highly organic soils fall under A8 group.
• Smaller the group number, better is the soil for pavement.
• Group Index (GI) is used to indicate quality of soil within its own group.
3. Group Index (GI) of a Soil :-

GI depends upon:
(i) % soil passing 75 micron IS sieve
(ii) liquid limit,
(iii) plastic limit
• If GI value worked out is –ve, it is reported as zero.
• GI values varies from 0 to 20.
• A soil with GI value = 0, is the best soil
2 Soil Mechanics
• A soil with GI value = 20, is the poor soil for pavement. For Micro Notes by the
Student
• Smaller the GI value, better is the soil for pavement.
Importance of GI:
If GI = 0 to 4, the soil is rated as “Excellent to good”.
If GI = 4 to 20, the soil is rated as “Fair to poor”
Group Index of a Soil (GI):
a = that portion of % of soil passing ASTM (US) sieve No: 200 (or IS 75μ sieve)
greater than 35 and expressed as a +ve whole number (0 to 40)
b = that portion of % of soil passing ASTM (US) sieve no: 200 (or IS 75 μ sieve),
greater than 15 and expressed as a +ve whole number (0 to 40)
c = that portion of the liquid limit greater than 40 and expressed as a +ve whole
number [0 to 20]
d = that portion of the plasticity index grater than 10 and expressed as a +ve
whole number (0 to 20)
If any of the value falls below the prescribed minimum limit associated with a, b,
c or d, (i.e. if it becomes –ve), the value of the corresponding term is taken zero
and the term drops out of the group index equation.
Example: 1
A sample of inorganic soil found to have 81% passing 75 μ sieve. The liquid limit and
plastic limits are 55% and 31% respectively. Determinate group index value of the
soil and comment on the quality of soil for pavement.
Sol: GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01 b.d

a = 81–35 = 46 (but max. value of a is 40  a = 40
B = 81–15 = 66 (but max value of b is 40)
 b = 40
C = 55–40 = 15
Ip = wL –wP = 24%
d = 24 –10 = 14
 GI = (0.2×40)+(0.005 ×40 ×15)+(0.01× 40 ×14)
= 16.6 say 17
As the GI value is close to 20, the soil is “Poor” in quality for construction of
pavements.
3 Soil Mechanics
4. Unified soil classification System :- For Micro Notes by the

Developed based on ‘Air field classification system adopted by Casagrande. Student
Commonly used is European countries.
Criteria:
(a) Grain size distribution,
(b) plasticity Characteristics and
(c) compressibility
5. I.S Soil Classification :-

It is derived from unified soil classification system.
Criteria:
(a) Grain size
(b) Plasticity characteristics
(c) Compressibility
6. Soils are Primarily divided into 3 groups:

(i) Coarse grained soils
(ii) Fine grained soils
(iii) Highly organic soils (peat, Pt)
7. Coarse grained soils :-

The given soil is classified as coarse grained if the % soil retained on 75 micron
IS sieve is more than 50 %
8. Fine grained soils:

The given soil is classified as fine grained if more than 50 % of soil passes 75
micron IS sieve.
9. Coarse grained soils are divided into Gravel and Sand
10. Gravel(G): A Coarse grained soil is classified as Gravel if more than 50% of
coarse fraction (coarse fraction is the soil which is retained on 75 micron IS sieve)
retains on 4.75 mm IS sieve.
11. Sand(S) : When more than 50 % of coarse fraction passes 4.75 mm IS sieve.
12. Gravel and Sand are divided into four types as follows.
4 Soil Mechanics
Gravels: For Micro Notes by the

Student
(a) Well graded Gravel (GW)
(b) Poorly graded Gavel (GP)
(c) Silty Gravel (GM)
(d) Clayey Gravel (GC)
Sands:
(a)Well graded Sand (SW)
(b)Poorly graded sand (SP)
(c)Silty sand (SM)
(d)Clayey Sand (SC)
13. Fine grained Soils are divided as follows

(a) Inorganic Silt (M)
(b) Inorganic clay (C)
(c) Organic silts and clay (O)
14. The above fine grained soils are further divided as follows based on compressibility
characteristics.
15. Liquid limit (LL) of the soil is taken is basis to express compressibility
characteristics.
• If LL is less than 35 %, it is Low compressible
• If 35% < LL < 50%, it is intermediate compressible
• If LL > 50 %, it is highly compressible
16. The fine grained soils are classified based on plasticity chart developed by
Casagrande.
5 Soil Mechanics
The equation of A line is For Micro Notes by the

Student
• Inorganic clays are plotted above A – line

• Inorganic silts are plotted below A --- line
• Organic silts and organic clays are plotted below A --- line
• Black cotton soils lie along a band partly above and partly below A-line, in
highly compressible zone.
17. Gravel is divided into four groups as follows.

• Well graded gravel (GW):
• Poorly graded gravel (GP):
• Silty gravel (GM) :
• Clayey gravel (GC) :
6 Soil Mechanics
Sands are also divided into SW, SP, SM, SC on the above same lines expect that For Micro Notes by the
Student
for a well graded Sand (SW), the Cu > 6.
18. When fines are between 5 % and 12 %, border line cases requiring dual symbol
such as
GW–GC SW–SC
GP – GC SP – SC
GW – GM SW – SM
GP – GM SP – SM
19. When Ip lies between 4 and 7, border line cases requiring dual symbol such as GM
– GC,
SM – SC etc.
20. Organic and inorganic soils are distinguished by

(a) Odour test
(b) Colour test
(c) Liquid limit after oven drying
21. Colour Test: Organic soils have a colour of dark grey to black.
22. Odour Test: Organic soil has odour similar to that of a decaying organic matter.
23. Liquid limit test: The liquid limit of oven dried organic soils will get reduced to
more than75% of the original liquid limit before oven drying (i.e. decreases by
more than 25 % of the initial value)
24. Important points:

(i) Silt and clay particles are not visible to naked eye.
(ii) Rock dust particles even of clay size, are not plastic.
7 Soil Mechanics

One Mark Questions
01. As per the Indian Standard soil classification system, a sample of silty clay with
liquid limit of 40% and plasticity index of 28% is classified as
(a) CH (b) CI
(c) CL (d) CL-ML
02. As per Indian Standard Soil Classification System (IS:1498-1970), an expression

for A-line is
(a) Ip = 0.73 (wL –20) (b) Ip = 0.70 (wL –20)
(c) Ip = 0.73 (wL –10) (d) Ip = 0.70 (wL –10)
03. A fine grained soil is found to be plastic in the water content range of 26-48%. As
per Indian Standard Classification System, the soil is classified as
(a) CL (b) CH
(c) CL-ML (d) CI
One Mark KEY

01. (b) 02. (a) 03. (d)
Two Mark Questions

01. A soil mass contains 40% gravel, 50% sand and 10% silt. This soil can be classified
as
(a) silty sandy gravel having coefficient of uniformity less than 60.
(b) silty gravelly sand having coefficient of uniformity equal to 10.
(c) gravelly silty sand having coefficient of uniformity greater than 60.
(d) gravelly silty sand and its coefficient uniformity cannot be determined.
Common Data for Q. 02 & Q.03

Laboratory sieve analysis was carried out on a soil sample using a complete set
of standard IS sieves. Out of 500 g of soil used in the test, 200 g was retained on
IS 600 μ sieve, 250 g was retained on IS 500 μ sieve and the remaining 50 g was
retained on IS 425μ sieve.
8 Soil Mechanics
02. The coefficient of uniformity of the soil is For Micro Notes by the
(a)0.9 (b) 1.0 (c) 1.1 (d) 1.2 Student
03. The classification of the soil is

(a)SP (b) SW (c) GP (d) GW
04. Sieve analysis on a dry soil sample of mass 1000g showed that 980 g and 270 g
of soil pass through 4.75 mm and 0.075 mm sieve, respectively. The liquid limit
and plastic limit of the soil fraction passing through 425 sieves are 40% and
18% respectively. The soil may be classified as
(a) SC (b) MI
(c) CI (d) SM
05. The laboratory test results of a soil sample are given below :
Percentage finer than 4.75 mm = 60
Percentage finer than 0.075 mm = 30
Liquid Limit = 35%
Plastic Limit = 27%
The soil classification is
(a) GM (b) SM
(c) GC (d) ML – MI
Two Mark KEY

01. (*) 02. (d) 03. (a) 04. (a) 03. (a)
01. Which one of the following statements is correct ?

(a) Grain size is the primary criterion for classification of coarse, as well as
fine-grained soil
(b) Grain size is the primary criterion for classification of coarse-grained
soils
(c) Plasticity curve classifies coarse grained soils
(d) Plasticity characteristics relate to classification of coarse-grained soils
9 Soil Mechanics
02. Consider the following statements: For Micro Notes by the

1. A conspicuous break in the continuity of a grain size distribution curve Student
indicates a mixture of soil from two different layers
2. A steep grain size distribution curve indicates prevalence of nearly uniform
grain size
3. A flat grain size distribution curve indicates certain range of missing grain
sizes.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only
03. The standard plasticity chart by Casagrande to classify fine-grained soils is

shown in the figure.
P
PI%
A line
20 35 50 LL%
The area marked P represents
(a) Inorganic clays of high plasticity

(b)Organic clays and highly plastic organic silts
(c) Organic and inorganic silts and silt-clays
(d)Clays
04. Consider a soil sample, for which tests yield the following results:
Passing 75 micron sieve 62%
Liquid limit 35%
Plasticity Index 14%
As per the group index classification of soil, what is the soil condition of the
above soil sample?
(a) Poor (b)Fair
(c)Good (d)Excellent
10 Soil Mechanics

KEY Student
01. (a) 02. (d) 03. (a) 04. (a)
01. Group symbols assigned to silty sand and clayey sand are respectively
(a) SS and CS (b) SM and CS
(c) SM and SC (d) MS and CS
02. As per IS soil classification, inorganic soils with low compressibility are
represented by
(a) MH (b) SL (c) ML (d) OL
03. As per IS soil classification Gravelly soils, more than half of the grains larger than
IS Sieve 480 are represented by
(a) GM (b) GL (c) GS (d) SM
04. As per IS soil classification, organic soils are represented by

(a) MH (b) SL (c) ML (d) OL
05. Which of the following is correct for a Well Graded Sand?

(a) Cu < 6 and Cc = 1 to 3 (b) Cu > 4 and Cc = 1 to 3
(c) Cu < 4 and Cc = 1 to 3 (d) Cu > 6 and Cc = 1 to 3
06. The laboratory test results of a soil sample are given below
Percentage of soil finer than 4.75 mm = 60
Percentage of soil finer than 0.075 mm = 30
Liquid limit = 35%
Plastic limit = 27%
The soil classification is
(a) GM (b) SM (c) GC (d) SC
KEY
01. (c) 02. (c) 0.3 (a) 04. (d) 05. (d) 06. (a)
Unit 7 Effective Stress
Previous JNTU Conventional Questions

1) Describe briefly different types of soil structures
2) Define the terms:
a) Relative density
b) Porosity
c) Void ratio
d) Degree of saturation
e) air content
f) specific gravity
g) submerged density
3) Describe the I.S Classification of soils

4) A soil has liquid limit of 25% and a flow index of 12.5%. If the plastic limit is 155,
determine the plasticity index and the toughness index.
5) Define and distinguish the following :
a) Liquidity index and consistency index
b) Uniformly graded soil and well graded soil
6) A partially saturated soil sample has a volume of 6x10-5 m3 and weighs 1N. The
sample is dried in the oven and its dry weight is found to be 0.78 N. The specific
gravity of solid particles is 2.65. Determine degree of saturation.
7) A soil sample has a liquid limit of 20% and plastic limit of 12%. The following
data are also available from sieve analysis:
Sieve Size (mm) 2.0 0.425 0.075
% Passing 100 85 35
8) Define liquid limit and plastic limit

9) Write about soil formation
10) Derive the relation between dry density, bulk denisty and water content
11) Explain the step by step procedure to classify fine grained soils
12) A soil sample has a liquid limit of 70% and its plasicity index is 50 with a natural
water content of 20%. Determine its liquidity index and describe its consistency
13) A Partially saturated sample has a moisture content of 15% and bulk unit weight
of 21.5 kN/m3. The specific gravity of solids is 2.67. Determine dry unit weight
and saturated unit weight.
14) Explain the procedure to determine the water content at liquid limit by using
2 Reinforced Cement Concrete
Casagrandes apparatus. For Micro Notes by the

Student
15) List the common clay minerals and summerize their key properties
16) Explain sensitivity, thixotropy, activity
17) Distinguish between residual soil and transportd soil
18) What are the building blocks of clay minerals? Explain three common groups of
clay minerals
19) Determine the density index of sand when it has a porosity of 31% and if its dry
unit weight of sand in its loosest state is 12 kN/m3 and in the densest state, it has
20 kN/m3. Assume specific gravity as 2.70
20) What is the liquidity inedx and consistency index if a soil has plastic limit of 25%
and plasticity index of 30% and if the natural moisture content of the soil is 32%
21) 1m3 of wet soil weighs 20 kN. Its dry unit weight is 18 kN. Specific gravity is 2.67.
Determine the water content, porosity, void ratio and degree of saturation. Draw
phase diagram.
22) Draw typical grain size distribution curves for

a) uniform b) gap graded c) well graded soils
Previous JNTU Objective Questions
I. Choose the correct alternative:
01. Soils transported by water are called [ ]

A) Talus B) Alluvial soils
C) Colluvial soils D) None
02. The ratio of wt of water to the wt of solids is called [ ]

A) Absorbed moisture B) moisture content
C) water content D) None
03. The ratio of wt of a given volume of soil solids at a given temperature to the wt
of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature is called [ ]
A) Specific gravity B) Moisture content
C) Voids ratio D) None
04. The ratio of total volume of voids to the total volume of given soil mass is called
[ ]
A) Voids ratio B) Liquid limit
C) Bulk density D) Porosity
3 Footings
05. If the relative density is 35-65%, the soil is said to be [ ] For Micro Notes by the
A) Medium dense B) Hard Student
C) Loose D) none
06. In single grained structure, the average diameter of coarse grained soil particles
is [ ]
A) > 0.05mm B) > 0.04mm
C) > 0.02mm D)none
07. The arrangement in which particle to particle contact of coarse fraction is not
possible is called [ ]
A) Single grained structure B) Cohesive matrix
C) Honeycomb structure D) None
08. The properties of soils used for their identification and classification are called
[ ]
A) Index properties B) Volume Properties
C) Chemical properties D) All the above
09. For uniformly graded soil uniformity coefficient is nearly unity [ ]

A) 3 B) 1 C) 2 D) 5
10. Water chemically combined with the crystal structure of the soil mineral is called
[ ]
A) Absorbed moisture B) Voids ratio
C) Structural water D) None
11. The soils that have been deposited from suspension in still, fresh water of lakes
are called [ ]
A) Alluvial deposits B) Aeolian deposits
C) Lacustrine deposits D) Marine deposits
12. Void ratio of a soil sample is defined as the ratio of [ ]

A) Volume of voids to the volume of solids
B) Volume of solids to the volume of voids
C) Volume of voids to the total volume of the soil
D) Total volume of the soil to the volume of voids
13. The coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is defined as [ ] For Micro Notes by the
Student
A) D230/D60 D10 B) D60  D10/ D230
C) D10/D60 D) D60/D10
14. The boundary water content at which a soil sample changes from liquid state to
plastic state is called as [ ]
A) liquid limit B) Shrinkage limit
C) Plastic limit D) Consistency limit
15. The behaviour of clay is governed by [ ]

A)Mass energy B) Surface energy
C) both a and b D) none of above
16. A soil has the liquid limit of 30. The corresponding plasticity index given by the
A-line is [ ]
A) 7.3 B) 7.5 C) 9.0 D) 9.5
17. The most accurate method for the determination of water content in the
laboratory is [ ]
A) oven drying method B) sand bath method
C) pycnometer method D)calcium carbide method
18. A stiff clay has a consistency index of [ ]

A)50-75 B) 75-100
C) Greater than 100 D) less than 50
19. Stoke’s law does not hold good if the size of particles is [ ]
A)greater than 0.2 mm B)less than 0.2 mm
C)neither a nor b D) both a and b
20. Colluvial (talus) soils are transported by [ ]

A) water B) wind C) gravity D)ice
21. Glacier deposited soils are called [ ]

A) Talus B) Loess C) Drift D) None of the above
5 Footings
II Fill in the Blanks: For Micro Notes by the

Student
22. Most common clay mineral in expansive soils is --------------------------
23. The property of soil which allows it to be deformed rapidly without rupture and
without volume change is called
.
24. Relative density (%) for dense granular soils is --------------------------
25. The arrangement and state of arrangement of soil particles in soil mass is
called
26. The sedimentation analysis or wet mechanical analysis is based on law.
27. The ratio of volume of voids to the volume of soil solids in a given soil mass is
called ----------------------------
28. The relation between air content (ac) and degree of saturation (S) is----------------
------.
29. In hydrometer analysis----------------------is used as a deflocculating agent.
30. The diameter corresponding to 10% of sample finer in weight on grain size
distribution curve is called---------------------------.
31. In fine sands and silks, the most common type structure is -----------------.
32. The pressure on a phreatic line is equal to ---------------------
33. A silty soil gives a positive reaction in ------------------------------------test.
34. The palasticity characteristics of clays are due to _ ---------------------water.
35. The maximum size of particles of clay is-------------------------------.
36. The plasticity index of a highly plastic soil is -------------------------
37. For a dense sand, the relative density is in between ----------------------------
38. The particle size distribution curve with a hump is obtained for a ------------------ For Micro Notes by the
Student
--------
KEY For Objective

01. (B) 02. (C) 03. (A) 04. (D) 05. (A)
06. (C) 07. (B) 08. (A) 09. (B) 10. (C)
11. (C) 12. (A) 13. (D) 14. (A) 15. (B)
16. (A) 17. (A) 18. (D) 19. (C) 20. (C)
21. (C)
II. Fill in the Blanks Answers
22. Montmorillinite 23. Plasticity 24. 65-85%

25. Soil structure 26. Stokes 27. Void ratio
28. ac = 1-S 29. Sodium oxalate 30. Effective Size
31. Honey comb 32. Atmospheric Pressure
33.Secondary Valance Bond 34. Stratified 35. 0.002mm
36. 20 to 40 37. 65 -85% 38. Gap Graded Soil
Two Mark Questions & Answers
01. Define: Water Content. (w)

Ans: Water content is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of solids in
a given mass of soil.
02. Distinguish between Residual and Transported Soil.

Ans:
• Transported soil is formed due to gravity, flowing water, ice and wind.
• Residual Soil is formed due to mechanical and chemical weathering of rock.
03. What is Void Ratio?

Ans: Void ratio of a given soil sample is the ratio of the volume of soil solids in the
given soil mass.
04. What is Porosity?

Ans: The porosity of a given soil sample is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the given soil mass.
7 Footings
05. Determine the maximum possible void ratio for a uniformly graded sand of For Micro Notes by the
perfectly spherical grains. Student
Ans: • Uniform Sand (loose) has a void ratio of 0.85
• Uniform Sand has a void ratio of 0.51
06. Define: Zero Air Voids line

Ans: At Zero Air void the soil is in saturation.
Thus e=wG
The relation between moisture content and dry unit weight for a saturated soil is
the zero air voids line.
07. Define effective size of a particle in sieve analysis.

Ans: The size corresponding to 10 percent on the grain size, D10 is called as
effective size of a particle.
08. What is Plasticity Index?

Ans: The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity
index is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic
properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit
(PI = LL‐PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to
be silt, and those with a PI of 0 tend to have little or no silt or clay.
09. What are all the Atterberg limits for soil and why it is necessary?
Ans: The three major types are
• Liquid Limit
• Plastic Limit
• Shrinkage Limit
It is used to identify the Soil Position.
10. Define Shrinkage Ratio

Ans: The Shrinkage Ratio is defined as the ratio of reduction in volume of soil mass
expressed as percentage of its dry volume to the corresponding reduction in
water content.
11. Define: Bulk Density and Dry Density.

Ans: Bulk Density: Bulk density is the total mass M of the soil per unit of its total
volume.
Dry Density: The dry density is mass of soils per unit of total volume of the soil
mass.
12. Define: Bulk Unit Weight and Dry Unit Weight. For Micro Notes by the
Ans: Bulk Unit Weight: The bulk weight is the total weight of a soil mass per unit Student
of its total volume.

Dry Unit Weight: The dry unit weight ifs ht weight of solids per unit of its
total volume of the soil mass.
13. Degree of saturation: Define (Sr).

Ans: The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water present
in volume of water present in a given soil mass to the total volume of voids on
it.
14. Define: Density Index ( ID) or Relative Compactive.

Ans: The density index is defined as the ratio of the differences between the
voids ratio of the soil in the loosest state and its natural voids ratio & to the
differences between voids ratio in the loosest and densest states.
15. What is compaction? Aim of the compaction

Ans: Compaction is a process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged
and packed together into a closer strata of contact by mechanical means in
order to decrease the porosity ( or voids ratio) of the soil and thus increase its
dry density.
AIM:
• To increase the shear strength soil
• To improve stability and bearing capacity
• To reduce the compressibility
• To reduce the permeability of the soil.
16. Define: percentage of air voids (na) and Air content

Ans: • Percentage of air voids is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to
the total volume of soil mass.
• The air content is defined as the ratio of volume of air void to the volume
of voids.
17 . Liquid limit and plastic limit : define

Ans: • Is the water content at which the soil, changes from liquid to plastic state
liquid.
• The maximum water content at which, soil changes from plastic to semi-
solid state.
9 Footings
18. What is shrinkage limit? For Micro Notes by the

Ans: The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will Student
not result in any more volume reduction.
19. Define the term Liquidity Index.

Ans: The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil
sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural
water content, plastic limit, and plasticity index: LI=(W‐PL)/(LL‐PL) where W
is the natural water content
20. What are the various soil classification systems in practice?

Ans: Various Soil Classification Systems:
• 1‐ Geologic Soil Classification System
• 2‐ Agronomic Soil Classification System
• 3‐ Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
• 4‐American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials System
(AASHTO)
• 5‐ Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
• 6‐ American Society for Testing and Materials System
21. Name common clay minerals?

Ans: • Kaolinite
• Illite
• Montmorillinite
• Hallosite
22. What are the various types of structures present in soil?

Ans: There are six different types of soil structures and they are as follows.
1. Single grained structure
2. Honey comb structure
3. Flocculated structure
4. Dispersed structure
5. Coarse grained skeleton
6. Clay matrix structure.
23. Define water content and name the laboratory tests used for determining
water content.
Ans: The water content of soil is the ratio of mass of water to mass of soil which is
expressed in percentage. Following are the laboratory methods to determine
water content: For Micro Notes by the

Student
• Oven Dry Method
• Pycnometer Method
• Calcium Carbide Method
• Alcoholic method
24. What is the classification of the soil based on particle sizes?

Ans: In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), soils are classified
into groups according to size, and the groups are further divided into coarse,
medium and fine sub-groups.
The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder,
cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Very coarse soils Boulder size > 300 mm
Cobble size 80 - 300 mm
Coarse soils Gravel size (G) Coarse 20 - 80 mm
Fine 4.75 - 20 mm
Sand size (S) Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm
Medium 0.425 - 2 mm
Fine 0.075 - 0.425 mm
Fine soils Silt size (M) 0.002 - 0.075 mm
Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm
25. Define coefficient of curvature and coefficient of uniformity?

Ans: Coefficient of curvature is the ratio (D30)2/(D10. • D60), where D60, D30, and
D10 are the particle diameters corresponding to 60, 30 and 10% finer on the
cumulative particle-size distribution curve, respectively.
The uniformity coefficient Cu is defined as the ratio of (D60 / D10). So when

Cu is greater than 4 to 6, it is understood as a well graded soil and when the
Cu is less than 4, they are considered to be poorly graded or uniformly graded.
Uniformly graded in the sense, the soils have got identical size of the particles.
11 Footings

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Website : www.aceec.ac.

Department of Civil Engineering

III Year B.Tech. (II - Sem)

in association with ACE Engineering Academy

7 All India 1st Ranks in ESE

1. Soil: It is deﬁned as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles,

3. Foundation Engineering or Soil Engineering: It is an applied science dealing

4. Geotechnical Engineering: It is a broader term which includes soil mechanics,

5. Origin of soils: Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and decomposition of

9. Geological Cycle: Weathering of rocks – Transportation – Deposition – Upheaval.

Source of transportation/ Deposition and the associated names of soils:

12. Gravitational and surface forces:

13. Important ﬁeld names of soils:

Loam: It is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. Approximately in equal proportions.

Bentonite: It is chemically weathered volcanic ash. It is highly water absorbent

Marl: It is a stiﬀ marine calcareous clay of greenish colour.

Dune sand: It is a wind transported soil, containing relatively uniform size of

Moorum: It consists of small pieces of disintegrated rock.

Drift: It refers to soil deposit made by glaciers directly or indirectly.

Till: It is an unstratiﬁed deposit formed by melting of a glacier. It consists of

Talus: It is a colluvial deposit of broken rock pieces. It is generally found at the

Humus: It is an organic amorphous earth of top soil, consisting partly decomposed

Muck: It is a mixture of ﬁne particles of inorganic soil and black decomposed

14. Regional soil deposits of India:

For Micro Notes by the

Boulder deposits: These are large quantities of boulders deposited by rivers

For Micro Notes by the

One Mark Questions

02. Aeolian soils are

01. (c) 02. (b)

Previous IES Objective Questions

02. Lacustrine soils are soils For Micro Notes by the

03. Consider the following statements in the context of Aeolian soils:

05. The collapsible soil is associated with

06. Consider the following statements:

For Micro Notes by the

Previous TSPSC Questions

01. An agent responsible for the transportation ofsoil is

02. One of the following is known as Father of Soil Mechanics

03. Water transported soil is

04. Granite is an example of

05. lacustrine soils according to geological classiﬁcations are

Range : Can have any value greater than zero.

3. Porosity (n): For Micro Notes by the

...it is also called percentage voids.

4. Degree of saturation (Sr or S):

5. Air content (ac):

• For a saturated soil, ac = 0 and for a dry soil, ac = 100%

6. Percentage air voids (na):

For Micro Notes by the

• For a saturated soil, na= 0

7. Water content (or) moisture content (w):

8. Bulk unit weight of soil (γ):

9. Dry unit weight of soil (γd):

10. Unit weight of solids (γs):

For Micro Notes by the

• While γs is constant for a given soil, the γd is not constant.

11. Saturated unit weight of soil, (γsat):

12. Submerged unit weight (γsub or g′ )

• It is based on Archimedes’ principle.

13. Speciﬁc Gravity of soil solids or soil (G or Gs):

• As per IS code standard temperature for measuring G is 27oC. For a given

J sat Ge For Micro Notes by the