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INTRO TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY


I. Introduction
● Anatomy examines structures of organisms from molecular to gross
● Physiology examines functions of structures
● Organism>organ system>organ>tissue>cell>organelle>molecule>atom
II. Systems
A. Levels of Organization
1. A​tomic
● Individual atoms or ions that make up molecules
2. M​olecular
● Molecules that maintain the body and create structures
3. O​rganelles
● Components of the cell composed of molecules, cannot survive on their
own
4. C​ells
● Smallest unit of life
● Cells in multicellular organisms depend on each other for survival
● Cells differ in form and function
5. T​issues
● Similar cells working together to perform a common function
a) Epithelial
● Covers exterior
b) Muscular
● Contracting tissue that allows movement
c) Connective
● Strengthens and supports body
d) Neural
● Conducts electrical impulses
(i) Neuroglia
● Nerve glue
6. O​rgans
● Made up of two different tissues, usually 4
● Have a distinct shape and boundaries
7. O​rgan ​S​ystems
● Two or more organs that work together to perform a common function
8. O​rganism
● Any living thing that can survive independently in its environment
B. Twelve Organ Systems
1. Integumentary
● Skin and its derivations that protect, regulate temperature, and prevent
H2O loss
● Hair, nails, sweat/oil glands
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2. Skeletal
● 206 bones, cartilage, and joints that protect the body, give support,
produce blood cells, and provide levers
3. Muscular
● Composed of muscles that attach to bones, produce heat, maintain
posture, and move bones
4. Nervous
● Nerves, spinal cord, brain, and sensory receptors - major regulatory
system, controls endocrine system
5. Endocrine
● Sends out what causes regulations (hormones)
a) Endocrine Glands
● Perform exocytosis to release cells into
blood by diffusion, lacks a duct
b) Exocrine Glands
● Dump cells into a duct, secretes
hormones directly onto a surface
6. Cardiovascular
● Heart / vessels
● Transports nutrients, wastes, and hormones to / away from every cell in
the body
7. Lymphatic
● Lymphatic vessels that are very small
● Depend on other muscles to move fluid (lymph) within them
● Takes fluid to lymph nodes
● Removes foreign substances from blood
8. Immune
● Red bone marrow, spleen, thymus, leukocytes, and things often parts of
other organ systems
9. Pulmonary
● Gas exchange, maintains blood pH,
● Lungs, trachea, bronchi, pharynx, larynx
● Combines with cardiovascular system to make the cardiopulmonary
system
10. Digestive
● Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and other organs that break
down food to absorbable nutrients and eliminates waste
11. Urinary
● Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
● Removes waste from blood (not foreign material)
12. Reproductive
● Genitals and gonads
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III. Factors Necessary for Maintenance


A. M​aintenance ​o​f B
​ ​oundaries
● Body must maintain itself
● Chemical reactions happen in cells - if cell breaks, chemical reaction can’t occur
● Cell failure=tissue failure=organ failure
● No containment means life ceases
B. M​ovement
● Moving as a whole and movement of substances in and out of cells
C. R​esponsiveness
● Detect and react​ to internal / external stimuli
D. G​rowth
● Tied to reproduction
● Two ways - cell size versus number of cells or increasing size
● Cannot happen without reproduction
E. R​eproduction
● Passing on genetic material
● Asexual or sexual reproduction
F. D​igestion
● Breaking down food into smaller molecules that the body can absorb
G. M​etabolism
● All chemical reactions in the body
1. Catabolism
● Breaking down​ molecules to release energy from bonds
2. Anabolism
● Using energy​ to build needed structures
H. D​ifferentiation
● Specialized cells develop from unspecialized cells (stem cells)
I. H​omeostasis
● Maintain a relatively​ stable internal conditions​ upon changing external conditions
● Negative feedback and positive feedback
1. Negative Feedback
● Reverses a situatio​n to revert back to original state
2. Positive Feedback
● Keeps happening​ to increase of change - can be good or bad
IV. Pathology
● Study of disease, disease causing agents, and effects
A. Pathogen
● Disease causing agent​, typically of biological nature (prokaryote, unicellular
eukaryote, or multicellular parasite)
B. Disease
● Abnormal function​ of vital structure, part, or system
● Recognizable set of signs and symptoms
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1. Manifestation
● How diseases show themselves
a) Symptoms
● Subjective experience of descriptions of the patients
● Not visible by the observer
b) Signs
● Directly ​observable​ physical condition resulting from disease or
trauma
c) Syndrome
● Signs and symptoms that occur ​together
2. Duration
a) Acute
● Lasting no more than ​3 weeks
b) Chronic
● Long lastin​g or recurring diseases developing slowly over time
C. Etiology
● Study of causes of diseases
1. Communicable
● Diseases transmitted from person to person
2. Idiopathic
● Diseases whose origins are unknown
D. Pathogenesis
● Stages of a disease
1. Incubation
● First infection takes hold
● Bacteria reproduces, cells rupture
● Mostly asymptomatic
2. Convalescence
● Recovery period​ and immune response
3. Remission
● Chronic situations
● When a chronic condition does not have an episode
E. Epidemiology
● Study of occurrence, distribution, and transmission​ of disease in human
population
1. Endemic
● Disease limited to local area
2. Epidemic
● Disease that spreads to many individuals quickly​ or at the same time
3. Pandemic
● Epidemics that affect a large geographic region or the whole world
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CYTOLOGY
I. Cells
● All living organisms are composed of cells
● The smallest unit capable of living
● Micron - 1 millionth of a meter - ​human cells are 10-100 microns
● Surface of cell increases=volume of cells increases in ​1:3 ratio
A. Cell Theory
● ⅓ unifying theories in biology
● Originally 3 components
1. All living organisms are ​composed of cells
2. Cells are​ fundamental units of structure, function, and organization
3. Cells ​arise from pre-existing cells
New components:
4. Cells contain genetic material (DNA/RNA) that is passed down to new
generations through cell division.
5. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
6. Metabolism (transfer of nrg from bonds of molecules to ATP( usable nrg))
and biochemistry (chemical reactions that sustain life, utilized by living
organisms occur within cell)
B. Cell Function
● Cells are the basic units of life, smallest unit capable of sustaining life
● Chemical reactions occur in cytosol - (area b/w nuclear membrane and plasma
membrane )
1. Cell Size
● Cells are tiny (1-100 microns ; 10-100 in humans) and limited by the
amount of material that can enter/leave
● 1:3 surface area to volume ratio
○ If you keep increasing the size, eventually the surface area won't
be able to keep up w/ the volume.
● Each square micron can allow 16 cubic microns of reactions
● Cell will die if trying to sustain more chemical reactions
C. Cellular Arrangement
1. Unicellular
● Organisms that are made of one cell and are independent
● Can be ​prokaryotic or eukaryotic
2. Colonial
● Single cells living in a colony
● Cells have different DNA and are ​not dependent​ on other cells for survival
● Living in a colony ​increases chance of survival
● Prokaryotic or eukaryotic
● Aiding survival is not the same as dependent
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3. Multicellular
● Any organism consisting of two or more cells that are different types and
depend on each other for survival
● Have ​identical DNA
● Not ​every cell utilizes every gene
D. Types of Human Cells
1. Somatic​(Body)​ Cells
● Everything that is not gender determining (spermatozoa or oocytes)
● Undergo only mitosis
2. Sex Cells
● Germ cells (germination) oocyte / spermatozoa, ​haploid (1 set of dna) and
undergo meiosis​, used for reproduction, meiosis only happens ​in oocytes
after fertilization
II. Cell Structure
A. Plasma Membrane ​(phospholipid bilayer)
● Outer boundary of cell, it encloses cytoplasm and regulates what enters and
leaves the cell
● Composed of lipid bilayer with embedded
proteins used for channels, enzymes, and cell
identification using carbs, cholesterol, and other
steroids
● Permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide, water,
lipids, and alcohol– selectively permeable
● Movement of larger molecules and ions are
regulated by protein channels
1. Membrane Proteins
● Lying on surface of membrane
● Make up ​55% of cell mass
● Integral and peripheral proteins

a) Integral Proteins
● Used for transport and receptors
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(i) Carrier Proteins


● Integral proteins that bind to solutes and carry them across
the membrane
● Some use passive transport, some use active transport
(ii) Leak Channels
● Always open and allow water / ions to flow with
concentration gradient
(iii) Gated Channels
● Proteins that open and close, regulating ion passage
b) Peripheral Proteins
● Bound to inner / outer surface of the membrane
● Serve as enzymes, receptors, and anchor cells to one another
2. Cell Attachment
a) Tight Junctions
● Two adjoining cell membranes partially fused with integral proteins
from different plasma membranes and a web of protein
● Prevents substances from passing between cells
b) Desmosomes
● Very strong attachments that resists stretching, tearing, shearing,
and twisting
● Formed by glycoproteins of two different cell membranes that fuse
together
● Found between skin and cardiac muscle cells
c) Gap Junctions
● Cells linked by protein channels (made from integral proteins) from
adjoining cells
● Fused together but leave gap between membranes
● Allow ions / small molecules to pass from cell to cell, allows
communication between cells
● Found in nerves, muscle, and developing embryonic tissues
3. Membrane Transport
● Plasma membrane is permeable to small, uncharged, nonpolar
substances or lipid permeable
a) Diffusion
● Movement of small molecules from high to low concentration
b) Osmosis
● Diffusion of water across a membrane
c) Facilitated Diffusion
● Substances that are too large, polar, or charged diffusing through
the membrane through protein channels, does not require ATP
d) Active Transport
● Uses special proteins called pumps
● Move substances from low to high concentration using ATP
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4. Vesicle Transport
a) Exocytosis
● Vesicles carry substances through cytoplasm, then diffuse across
plasma membrane, carrying substance out of the cell
● Materials carried out in phospholipids sacs which lyse once
outside of the cell
b) Endocytosis
● Cell pinches in on itself and fuses, creating vesicle that traps
substances within it
● Lysosomes act and break it apart
(i) Phagocytosis
● Large non liquid substances
(ii) Pinocytosis
● Liquid substances
B. Nucleus
● Composed of a double phospholipid bilayer called nuclear membrane
● Contains genetic information in chromatin
● Nucleolus is made from RNA and makes ribosomes
● mRNA can pass, DNA is too large
C. Cytoplasm
● Volume / region between nucleus and cell membrane
● Cytosol is fluid matrix that surrounds it
D. Cytosol
● Composed mainly of H2O and protein / enzymes
● Where majority of cell chemical reactions occur
E. Mitochondria
● Resembles a bacterium
● Contains own DNA / can replicate on its own
● Have external phospholipid bilayer and folded internal phospholipid bilayer called
cristae
● Found in all eukaryotic cells
● Oxidative phosphorylation

F. Ribosomes
● Found in all cells, extremely small and lack membrane
● Made of ribosomal protein and rRNA
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● Assembles proteins made of amino acids found in cytosol


● Float in cytosol or are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
G. Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Part of intramembranous organelles
● Flattened connected membrane channels that go from nucleus to cytoplasm
● Transports substances and provide services for chemical reactions
1. Smooth ER
● Lacks ribosomes
● Where lipids, cholesterol, and fatty acids are made
2. Rough ER
● Has ribosomes
● Makes proteins for extracellular use
● Sent to Golgi apparatus
H. Golgi Apparatus
● Stacks of flattened membranes that looks like a stack of pancakes
● Lipids, fats, and proteins are further processed, packaged in vesicles, and
distributed
● Some vesicles leave, others become lysosomes
I. Lysosomes
● Sac-like structures formed by Golgi apparatus
● Do not leave cell
● Contain digestive enzymes and are acidic
● Break down and digest worn-out / damaged cell parts and large molecules
brought into cell via endocytosis
● Maintains pH of 5
J. Peroxisomes
● Small membrane-bound sacs made by rough ER
● Contain enzymes that reduce organic substances, detoxifying the cell
K. Cytoskeleton
● Can only be viewed with electron microscope
● Made of microtubules, intermediate fibers, and microfilaments
● Give structure and allows movement, supports cells
L. Structures of Cell Locomotion
● Cells within the human body sometimes have structures that help the cell move /
assist in the movement of materials past the cell
1. Cilia
● Small short hairs that project out of plasma membrane
● Consists of phospholipid bilayer that contains cytosol
2. Flagella
● Elongated and used for movement
● Only example in humans is sperm
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HISTOLOGY
I. Introduction to Tissues
● A group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin (endoderm,
mesoderm, ectoderm)
● Work together to perform specific functions
A. Types
1. Epithelial
● Lines cavities, tubular structures, and hollow organs
● Covers organs and body
● Composes endocrine and exocrine glands
2. Connective
● Provides body with support, protection, insulation, and energy storage
● Binds organs
3. Muscle
● Composed of actin and myosin
● Generates force needed for movement and generates heat
4. Neural
● Neuroglia and neurons
● Initiates / conducts electrical impulses that coordinate various body
activities
B. Extracellular Fluid
● All body cells / tissues are surrounded by extracellular fluid
● Composed mainly of water
● Two types: plasma and interstitial fluid
● Serves as medium for transport and chemical reactions
1. Interstitial Fluid
● Extracellular fluid found between cells
2. Plasma
● Nonliving
● Cellular fluid portion of blood, chief extracellular fluid of leukocytes /
erythrocytes
● Yellowish color
II. Epithelial Tissue
● Sheet(s) of cells that blanket/cover the body, organ surfaces, or lines cavities / hollow
structures
● Glandular secretes substances and constitutes glands
A. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
1. Tightly Packed
● Utilize one or more cell junctions and have very limited interstitial fluid
between them
2. Sheet Structure
● Due to tightly packed structure, made of single or multiple layers
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3. Orientation
● Have apical end (exposed and top) that is exposed to a surface (inside
cavity, vessel, or covering)
● Basal end is attached to basement membrane
4. Avascular
● Lack blood vessels
● Dependent on diffusion with connective tissue for transport of nutrients
and wastes
5. Innervation
● Nerve fibers run through epithelial tissue
6. High Mitotic Rate
● Subject to a lot of damage, so have a high capacity for regeneration
7. Multiple Functions
● Performs protection, filtration, lubrication, absorption, and excretion
B. Structure of Epithelial Tissue
1. Attachment
● Attached to connective tissue by basement membrane– holds epithelial
tissue in place reducing damage, consists of basal and reticular lamina

C. Arrangement of Epithelial Cells


● Function of epithelial tissue is determined by number of layers
1. Simple Epithelium
● Epithelial cells arranged in a single layer
● Nuclei of cells are at the same level
● Does not experience a lot of damage
● Located in protected regions of the body such as lining cavities,
passageways, vessels, and chambers of the heart
2. Stratified Epithelium
● Composed of two or more layers
● Found in areas of high use and damage
3. Pseudostratified Epithelium
● Appears to be layered but each cell is attached to basal lamina, though
apical end may not appear to reach surface

D. Shapes of Epithelial Cells


1. Squamous
● Flat and scale-like
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● Contain little cytosol


2. Cuboidal
● Cube shaped cells that are as wide as they are tall
3. Columnar
● Rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide
E. Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple Squamous
● Single layer of squamous cells
● Semi permeable and used for filtration / diffusion
● Found lining vessels, heart / lungs, and make up kidney filtration system
and inner ear

2. Simple Cuboidal
● Mainly used for secretion and absorption
● Single layer of cuboidal cells
● Found lining some kidney tubules, some glands (salivary and pancreas),
and inner surface of ear

3. Simple Columnar
● Single layer of columnar cells
a) Ciliated
● Possess cilia on apical end
● Cilia beat in coordinated manner creating current that moves
particles
● Found lining upper respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, and central
canal of spinal cord

b) Non-Ciliated
● No cilia
● Used for absorption and secretion
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● Found in stomach, anus, and line ducts of some glands


4. Stratified Squamous
● Epithelial tissue made of two or more layers of cells
● Only the most apical appear squamous
● Lower levels appear cuboidal / columnar and become more squamous as
they near the surface
5. Transitional
● Found in organs that stretch or relax
● In relaxed state there are 6-8 layers, but when stretched there are 2 3
● Basal layer is cuboidal or columnar, apical layers have a variety of
appearances
F. Glandular Epithelia
● Glands that secrete any substances (manufactured by endoplasmic reticulum
and packaged by Golgi apparatus) through ducts (tubular structure found in some
cells) or onto a surface
1. Exocrine Glands
● Glands that use ducts to secrete substances directly onto a surface of a
lining / into blood (sweat, salivary, liver, pancreas)
2. Endocrine Glands
● Lack ducts
● Use exocytosis to secrete substances, typically hormones, into
extracellular spaces
● Hormones are made of steroids or polypeptides and help regulate
physiological function (pituitary, adrenal cortex, thyroid)
III. Connective Tissue
● Made mainly of non cellular components
● Make up structural framework of body, protect organs and more, insulates and stores
energy, cushions, support, and interconnects other tissues of the body
● Comprised of fibers, matrix, and cells
A. Matrix
● Made of ground substance / protein fibers
● Separate cells from one another
● Helps facilitate diffusion between connective and epithelial tissues
1. Ground Substance
● Thick, viscous semifluid substance composed mainly of glycoproteins
● Filters foreign bodies and surrounds fibers that comprise matrix
2. Fibers
● Type of fibers found in matrix helps determine type of connective tissue
● Three basic fibers produced by fibroblasts - collagen, reticular, and elastic
B. Cells Found in Connective Tissue
1. Fibroblasts
● Most common cell found in connective tissue
● Only type of cell present in all connective tissues
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● Large cells that secrete protein fibers and also secretes two of the
components that make up ground substance
2. Macrophages
● Very specialized, large amoeboid cells that perform phagocytosis
● Play a key role in body's defense system
● Produced by a type of blood cell
3. Plasma Cells
● Developed from leukocytes
● Produce proteins called antibodies
4. Mast Cells
● Found near blood vessels and play important role in tissue repair
● Secrete histamine (inflammatory agent- increases vasodilation) and
heparin (anticoagulant)
C. Types of Connective Tissue
1. Areolar (Loose)
● Most common connective tissue and least specialized
● Connects skin to muscle
● Cushions and support tissues, organs, blood vessels, nerves, and fills
space between organs
2. Collagenous (Dense)
● Made out of collagen fibers
● Makes up tendons (connect muscle to bone) and ligaments (connect
bone to bone)
3. Elastic
● Stretches and can return to its original length
● Found in structures that stretch or need strength such as arteries, lungs,
trachea, and specialized ligaments of spinal column
4. Adipose
● Directly under skin and surrounding organs, and in yellow marrow
● Composed of adipocytes (cell containing one large drop of liquid that
squeezes organelles against cell membrane)
● Cushions, protects, insulates, and provides energy storage
● Hormonal control
5. Reticular Tissue
● Formed of reticular fibers that form an interwoven framework that
supports functional cells of the spleen, liver, lymph, bone marrow, and
stomach
6. Hyaline
● Most common type of cartilage
● Composes external nose and ear costal cartilage and cartilage found at
the end of long bones
7. Fibrocartilage
● Dense cartilage that contains little ground substance
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● Provides great strength, absorbs pressure and tension


● Composes vertebral discs and menisci in knees
8. Bone
● Comprises skeletal system
● Most rigid of connective tissues - result of calcium carbonate / calcium
phosphate
● Very little ground substance but lots of collagen and therefore is resistant
to shattering
9. Blood
● Considered by some to be an organ
● Connective tissue with liquid matrix called plasma
● Plasma surrounds erythrocytes that carry oxygen, leukocytes, and
platelets
● Blood delivers nutrients, picks up waste, plays role in immune system,
and tissue repair
IV. Muscle Tissue
● Composed of proteins that allow for contractions
● Responsible for generating motion, posture, and heat
● All muscle cells are referred to as fibers
● Cytoplasm is sarcoplasm, and cell membrane is sarcolemma
A. Skeletal Muscle
● Long, thin, multinucleated cells that attach to bone
● Voluntary muscle
B. Cardiac Muscle
● Found only in walls of heart
● Small and only have one nucleus
● Striations
● Join together with special type of desmosomes called intercalcated disks
● Involuntary muscle, moves blood through body
C. Smooth Muscle
● Involuntary, no striations, only one nuclei
● Lines hollow organs
V. Neural Tissue
● Converts stimuli into electrical impulses and transmits them throughout the body
● Neurons and neuroglia make up nerves, spinal cord, and brain
A. Neurons
● Responsible for generating and carrying electrical impulses
1. Soma
● Cell body
● Contains nucleus and other organelles
2. Dendrites
● Extend off soma
● Receive impulses from other neurons
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3. Axon
● Single process that extends from soma
● Conducts impulses away from soma
B. Neuroglia
● Nerve glue
TISSUE DEVELOPMENT
I. Cell Division
● Cells divide through mitosis and meiosis
A. Meiosis
● When genetic material is divided among gametes, giving each gamete a haploid
(n) number of chromosomes
● Starts off with one diploid cell (2n) and results in 4 genetically different haploid
cells
B. Mitosis
● 4 phase process where chromosomes are divided and equally distributed to the
nuclei of each newly-formed cell
● Begins with single cell and results in two genetically identical cells
II. Fertilization, Embryonic, and Fetal Development
A. Fertilization
● Two gametes join in Fallopian tubes creating diploid cell called a zygote
● Must occur in fallopian tube
● Oocyte has lifespan of ~24 hours
B. Embryo
● First 8 weeks of human development beginning with fertilization
● Organism does not resemble adult morphology
● Five characteristics of chordata embryos - pharyngeal slits (1), notochord (2),
dorsal nerve cord (3), post anal (4) , and development (5)

1. Cleavage
● ~24 hours after fertilization, zygote goes through mitosis and begins to
divide into mass of cells that takes around four days to reach the uterus
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2. Implantation
● Solid mass of cells divides into three layered (germ layers) hollow sphere
called blastocyst that implants into uterine wall ~7-8 days after fertilization
C. Fetus
● Period from 8 weeks after fertilization to birth where morphology resembles adult
form
III. Embryonic Cellular Differentiation
● Cells differentiate and become more specialized as embryo develops
A. Stem Cells
● Undifferentiated cells that can replicate and develop into a multitude of cells
1. Adult Stem Cells
● Adults possess several different types of stem cells
● Each type can develop into a variety of cells, but the variations are
somewhat similar to one another

2. Embryonic Stem Cells


● Undifferentiated cells found in an embryo ~13 to 14 days after fertilization
● Cells at this stage can develop into any cell
● After ~13-14 days, cells begin to differentiate slightly and form three germ
layers within blastocyst
B. Germ Layers
● One of three layers of cells found in the blastocyst that germinate into different
tissues
1. Ectoderm
● Outermost germ layer, first to develop
● Develops into integumentary system and neural tissue
2. Endoderm
● Innermost layer, second to develop
● Develops into endocrine system, lung epithelia, and gastrointestinal
epithelia
3. Mesoderm
● Middle layer, last to develop
● Develops into almost all components of skeletal system, all muscle tissue,
and all components of cardiovascular system
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CANCER- An Overview
I. Cancer
● A genetic disease that results in uncontrolled growth of cells (failure of cell division
control) into neoplasm (tumor)
● Some genes code for production of enzymes used to check for mutations in replicated
DNA
● When mutation is found, enzymes halt cell cycle until mutation is repaired
● Genes that help prevent manufacture of mutated cells are called tumor suppressing
genes
● Proto-oncogenes regulate control of cell cycle and can also mutate, becoming
oncogenes leading to cancer
● Mutation of these genes generally occurs after an organism is born due to a replication
mutation or carcinogen
● Since mutation is not passed down, cancer is not hereditary even though it is a genetic
disease
● Cancer is many different diseases and is classified by tissue it affects
A. Genetic Basis of Cancer
● Uncontrolled cytokinesis before mature cell can perform all functions
● Cause of mutation is mutation of one of many genes that code for protein /
enzyme responsible for controlling cell cycle
1. Tumor Suppressing Genes
● Every cell’s DNA contains genes that code for proteins / enzymes that
inhibit cell division and for proteins that help prevent uncontrolled cell
growth
● Often they repair damaged DNA
● Chance for uncontrolled cell division increases when genes are mutated
● Help prevent manufacture of mutated cells
2. Proto-Oncogene
● Normal genes that promote / regulate cell cycle
● Become oncogenes when mutated
3. Oncogenes
● Mutated Gene that constantly produces proteins / enzymes that initiate
unrestrained cytokinesis
● Causes cells to become cancer
II. Neoplasms
● Technically means new growth
● Abnormal growth that grows at an accelerated rate
● Referred to as benign or malignant tumors
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A. Benign
● Grow at slightly accelerated rate
● Surrounded by connective tissue
● Connective tissue capsule does not break and cancer does not spread
● Does not differ from normal surrounding cells
● Some tumors grow in inoperable places, if they cannot be cured by chemo or
radiation, they can be deadly
B. Malignant
● Neoplasms whose DNA has mutated and therefore these cells differ from
surrounding cells in nearby tissues
● Cells resemble immature cells
● Growth is greatly accelerated
● Tumor is uncontrolled
● Neoplasm breaks out of connective tissue capsule which allows cells to spread
1. Carcinoma
● Originate from epithelial tissue and spread by lymphatic system
2. Sarcoma
● Originate from muscle or connective tissue, spread throughout
bloodstream
3. Leukemia
● Cancer of bone marrow that results in production of abnormal blood cells
that do not perform physiological function properly
III. Metastasis
● Spread of cancer from its original site to other tissues via lymph system or bloodstream
● Death from cancer is usually result of metastasis when neoplasms form in other tissues
and interfere with those functions
● If multiplication of new neoplasms is not halted / reversed, normal physiological function
will be compromised until life can no longer be sustained
A. Process of Metastasis
● Malignant tumor is compromised connective tissue envelope
● Cells from primary tumor Escape into body cavity, bloodstream, or lymphatic
system
● Most cancer deaths occur from secondary or tertiary neoplasms because
immune system cannot control spread of cancer
IV. Causes of Cancer
● Result of genetic mutations
● Generally result of three major mechanisms - carcinogens, viruses, and replicative
mutations
A. Carcinogens
● Cancer-causing agents that cause mutations to cell’s DNA (anti-oncogenes)
● Two groups - chemicals and radiation
B. Viruses
● Insert fragments of DNA into genetic material of cells they infect
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● Viral DNA compromises proto-oncogenes of cell


C. Replicative Mutation
● Majority of genetic mutation occurs during synthesis when DNA is replicated
during cell division
● During replication, mutations can occur to the proto-oncogenes causing them to
be ineffective
V. Treatment
● Three major Cancer Treatments - surgery, radiation, and chemo
● Most cases use a combination of the treatments
A. Surgery
● Surgical removal of tumor and immediately surrounding tissue with varying
degrees of effectiveness
● Most effective prior to metastasis
● Usually followed by radiation or chemo
B. Radiation
● Use of x-rays (radioisotopes) to destroy cancer-causing cells
● Extremely precise, usually 3 rays, destroys malignant cells without killing or
mutating healthy cells
C. Chemotherapy
● Poisoning of cancer cells using chemicals
● Hope is that chemicals are more poisonous to the tumor than the tumor is to the
cells
D. RNA
● Can be double-stranded
● Can block and proteins from being manufactured and cease cancer development
PULMONARY SYSTEM
I. Pulmonary System
● Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and atmosphere in the lungs
● Ventilation must occur for gas exchange
● Exchange of these gases is essential to aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration and
regulation of pH levels to an extent
● Responsible for verbal and nonverbal communication
II. Pulmonary Anatomy
● Two regions - upper and lower respiratory tracts
A. Upper Respiratory Tract
● Oral / nasal cavities and pharynx
● Filters, humidifies, and warms air inhaled from atmosphere preventing damage to
lower respiratory tract
1. Oral Cavity
● Mouth
● One of two entrances / exits for air
● Warms air slightly
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2.Nasal Cavity
● Chamber in anterior of skull
● Formed by cranial bones
● Divided into right / left halves by nasal septum made of vomer and
cartilage
● Provides entrance to nasal cavity through nostrils which leads to
vestibules which contain hairs that filter air
● Nasal cavity extends posteriorly to pharynx
● Is lined by epithelial tissue called nasal mucosa which is filled with
capillaries that provide heat from blood
● Secretes mucus with straps smaller particles and a watery antibacterial
fluid
● Also contains cilia that circulate mucus to prevent accumulation
3. Pharynx
● Chamber shared by pulmonary / digestive system that has three regions
a) Nasopharynx
● Superior pharynx
● Lined by ciliated epithelia that helps circulate mucus and filters /
moistens air
● Connected to posterior of nasal cavity
b) Oropharynx
● Begins behind tongue and is the portion of pharynx inferior to
nasopharynx and leads to laryngopharynx
● Epithelial tissue is not ciliated so no filtering occurs
● Facilitates air movement
c) Laryngopharynx
● Inferior pharynx
● Just superior to larynx
● Epithelium is stratified to resist abrasion created by food and to
prevent pathogenic invasion
B. Lower Respiratory Tract
● Larynx, trachea, and lungs which include bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
1. Larynx
● From the epiglottis to cricoid cartilage
● Composed of three large unpaired cartilages - epiglottis, thyroid cartilage,
and cricoid cartilage
● Perform several functions
a) Epiglottis
● Most superior
● Covers opening of larynx during swallowing, preventing food from
entering lower respiratory tract
b) Thyroid Cartilage
● Inferior to epiglottis, and Superior to cricoid cartilage
22

● Adam's apple
● Maintains an open airway for passage of air in / out of the lungs
● Anchors vocal cords
c) Cricoid Cartilage
● Inferior of 3 laryngeal cartilages
● Helps maintain an open airway and supports two superior
cartilages
d) Vocal Cords
● Within three major unpaired cartilages are three smaller minor
paired cartilages found posterior to thyroid
● Extends from one minor pair to thyroid cartilage
● Create sound as air passes and vibrates
2. Trachea
● Directly anterior to esophagus
● Tube composed of 15-20 c-shaped rings that are linked by connective
tissue and smooth muscle
● Interior is lined with ciliated epithelium that secrete mucus
● From inferior cricoid border to where trachea splits into primary bronchi
● Provides passageways for air to the lungs
3. Lungs
● Trachea branches into primary bronchi which leads to each lung
● Right lung is divided into three lobes, left lung is divided into two lobes
● Composed of 150 million air sacs called alveoli
a) Bronchi
● Primary bronchi develops from terminus and become lobar /
secondary bronchi
● Secondary bronchi become segmental or tertiary bronchi which
branch and to give rise to bronchioles
● Give air passage in 2 / throughout each lung and are constructed
with cartilaginous rings
b) Bronchioles
● Arise from tertiary bronchi
● Less than 1 mm in diameter
● Wrapped by smooth muscle
● Branch into terminal bronchioles which are 0.3 - 0.5 mm in
diameter
● End with alveoli, purpose is to carry air to alveoli
c) Alveoli
● Small air-filled chambers / sacs at the end of terminal bronchioles
● Where gas exchange occurs
● One cell layer thick which allows oxygen to diffuse out / carbon
dioxide to diffuse in
● Each lung contains around 150 million alveoli
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● Each is surrounded by a net of capillaries (also 1 cell thick)


● Bring venous blood to alveoli and oxygen diffuses into capillary,
oxygenating blood
● At this point blood is referred to as arterial blood
● In venous blood, hemoglobin is only saturated to 70% potential

III. Functional Mechanisms


A. Ventilation
● Amount of gas reaching alveoli in the lungs resulting in exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between lungs / blood
● Necessary for aerobic cellular respiration
● Sometimes called external respiration
● Driven by changes in intrapulmonary pressure and has two components -
inspiration / expiration
1. Inspiration/Inhalation
● Diaphragm and intercostal contract, increasing thoracic cavity and
intrapulmonary volume
● According to Boyle's theorem, P1V1 = P2V2
● If the volume increases then pressure must decrease
● Intrapulmonary pressure decreases to a level less than the air pressure
and air moves into the lungs
● Movement of air occurs as soon as equilibrium changes
2. Expiration/Exhalation
● Diaphragm and intercostal relax, decreasing thoracic cavity volume and
the intrapulmonary volume
● When intrapulmonary pressure increases to greater than atmospheric
pressure, air moves out of the lungs
B. Air Passage
● External nares, vestibules, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx,
laryngopharynx, epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, trachea, primary
bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles,
alveoli
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1. Lung Volumes
● Lungs have a capacity / volume yet different proportions of this volume
are used
● Typically lung volumes of males is slightly greater than females because
of body size
a) Total Lung Capacity
● Total volume of air - gas that the lung can hold
b) Residual Volume of Gas
● Volume of gas that remains in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
● Prevents lungs from collapsing
c) Tidal Volume
● Volume of air breathed in / out during a single respiration at rest
d) Inspiratory Capacity
● Maximal amount of air that can be inspired after a normal
respiration
e) Vital Capacity
● Maximal amount of air that can be forced in / out in one respiration
C. Gas Exchange
● Occurs as oxygen and carbon dioxide are passed between alveoli and blood in
the capillaries
● Driven by diffusion - carbon dioxide diffuses from high to low concentration (blood
45 mmHg to lungs 40 mmHg)
● Oxygen also moves from high to low concentration (lungs 104 mmHg to blood 40
mmHg)
● Oxygen binds more strongly to hemoglobin than carbon dioxide - around 5% of
carbon dioxide binds to oxygen
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IV. Pathologies
A. Asthma
● Literally means pant or panting
● Triggered by hypersensitivity to a stimulus that results in constriction of
bronchioles due to spasms of smooth muscle in the walls of bronchioles
● Increase of mucus secretion which makes breathing difficult
B. Bronchitis
● Inflammation of the bronchi/bronchioles
● Obstruction or narrowing of bronchi(oles) that is further complicated by increased
mucus secretion that reduces air flow
● Acute bronchitis is typically caused by an easily treatable bacterial infection,
while chronic bronchitis lasts longer than 3 straight months a year for two
consecutive years and is generally the result of environmental factors
C. Pneumonia
● Acute condition resulting from a viral or bacterial (prokaryotic) infection
● Produces toxins that damage mucous membranes and alveolar cells resulting in
swelling
● Infection stimulates an immune response causing additional inflammation, cell
damage and inflammation interfere with gas exchange and ventilation
● Infected cells burst and fill the lungs with fluid
● Walking pneumonia involves a primary infection traveling to the lungs
D. Emphysema
● Blown up or full of air
● Caused by deconstruction of alveolar cells resulting in holes or scar tissue in
alveoli
● Holed alveoli do not empty during gas exchange and do not fill with fresh air
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● No gas exchange, alveoli are lost - less gas exchange and body does not absorb
as much oxygen as it needs
E. Lung Cancer
● Leading cause of cancer deaths in America
● No nerves in lungs so people do not feel the tumor until it has spread or they
can't breathe
● Rarely detected in its most treatable stages, 15% of people diagnosed with lung
cancer survive five or more years
ANATOMICAL TERMS AND REGIONS
I. Anatomical Position
● General orientation of the body that is used as a reference
● Body is erect, feet forward, arms at side, and palms facing forward
● Directional terms refer to cadaver’s perspective
II. Directional Terms
● Inferior - lower / beneath
● Superior - higher / above
● Anterior - front / before
● Posterior - behind / following
● Dorsal - back surface
● Ventral - front slash belly surface
● Proximal - usually refers to structures on an appendage, closer / nearest to a point of
attachment to the body than another structure
● Distal - usually refers to structures on an appendage, farther from the point of
attachment to the body than another structure
● Lateral - away from midline
● Medial - towards midline
● Superficial - on the surface / towards the surface
● Deep - away from surface, internal
III. Planes
● Imaginary slices through 3D objects that are used as reference points
● Sagittal - runs vertically through the navel, divides into right / left halves
● Transverse - parallel to the ground, runs through the navel, inferior / superior parts
● Frontal - running vertically, divides body into ventral dorsal portions
IV. Regions
A. Appendicular
● Appendages, regions that extend off the central (axial) body
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1. Brachial- from shoulder to elbow (arm)


2. Antebrachial- from elbow to wrist (forearm)
3. Manual- hand
4. Femoral- from hip to knee (thigh)
5. Crural- from knee to ankle (leg)
6. Pedal- foot
B. Axial
● Makes up center axis, does not include appendages
1. Cephalic- head (cranial) and face (facial)
2. Cervical- neck (most superior 7 vertebra)
3. Thoracic- area between neck and diaphragm
4. Abdominal- area between diaphragm and pelvis
5. Pelvic- area contained by the pelvis
6. Dorsal- posterior of the body from neck to first lumbar vertebra
7. Lumbar- area from first lumbar vertebra along back of pelvis
V. Body Cavities
● Openings that are enclosed within the body
● May or may not open to exterior
● Contain well arranged and ordered organs / structures
● Two major cavities and four superficial cavities
A. Major Cavities
1. Dorsal Cavity
● Located in dorsal region of the body
● Divided into cranial and spinal cavities
a) Cranial Cavity
● Space in skull that contains brain
b) Spinal Cavity
● Space within spinal column that contains spinal cord
2. Ventral Cavity
● Located more ventrally
● Larger than the dorsal cavity
● Divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities which are further
subdivided
a) Thoracic Cavity
● Bordered at top / sides by ribs and muscle and by diaphragm at
the bottom
● Contains pleural cavities and pericardial cavity
(i) Pleural Cavity
● Two cavities side-by-side that each contain a lung
(ii) Pericardial Cavity
● Found dorsally and in between pleural cavities
● Contains the heart
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b) Abdominopelvic Cavity
● Runs from diaphragm to bottom of pelvis
● Subdivided into two cavities which are not physically divided
(i) Abdominal Cavity
● Inferior border of diaphragm to an imaginary plane that
extends from inferior fifth lumbar vertebra
● Houses stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, small intestine,
and most of large intestine
(ii) Pelvic Cavity
● Directly inferior to abdominal cavity
● Surrounded by pelvic bones
● Contains small portion of large intestine, bladder,
reproductive organs, and rectum
B. Superficial Cavities
1. Oral Cavity
● Mouth
● Continues to the abdominal cavity or thoracic cavity
2. Middle Ear Cavity
● Small cavity found in temporal bone of skull
● Separated from auditory canal by tympanic membrane
● Contains three bones - malleus, incus, and stapes
3. Nasal Cavity
● Deep in the nose behind nasal bone
● Has passage that leads to thoracic cavity
4. Orbital Cavity
● Concave cavity formed by 3 bones of skull - frontal, orbital, and zygomatic
● Houses the eyes
THE MYOCARDIUM
I. Function of the Myocardium
● Generate the force necessary to circulate blood throughout the body via contraction
● Blood is pumped by heart and through body using specific circuits to transport oxygen,
nutrients, carbon dioxide, and wastes within the body, and to deliver blood to lungs for
gas exchange
A. Pulmonary Circuit
● Carries deoxygenated / venous blood (75% oxygen concentration) from right
ventricle, and delivers oxygenated / arterial blood (95 - 97% oxygen
concentration) to left atria
● Includes pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, lungs, and pulmonary veins
● Purpose is to deliver deoxygenated blood to lungs for gas exchange and return
oxygenated blood to heart, contraction of right side propels blood through this
circuit
B. Systemic Circuit
● Delivers oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to organ systems and all cells
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● Returns deoxygenated blood from organ systems / cells to right atria


● Includes aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, and superior /
inferior vena cava
● Purpose is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to every cell and pick up waste /
carbon dioxide from same cells
● Contraction of left side of heart propels blood through this circuit
II. Anatomy of the Cardiac Muscle
● Muscular pump with dual action manner
● Four chambers - atria (two superior chambers) receive blood from body and lungs before
pumping in into ventricles (two inferior chambers) which provide needed force to deliver
blood to lungs / body (periphery)
● Composed of three layers - epicardium, myocardium, endocardium

A. Cardiac Layers
1. Epicardium
● On the heart
● Very thin / transparent layer composed of epithelial / connective tissue
● Outer barrier of heart muscle
● Separated from pericardium (double-layered sac that makes up
pericardial cavity) by pericardial fluid
2. Myocardium
● Muscle of heart
● It is the actual muscle and thick middle layer
● Composed of cardiac muscle cells that are striated, mononucleated,
involuntary, and some can generate their own action potentials
● Responsible for generating force necessary for pumping blood within
heart and through body
3. Endocardium
● Inside heart
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● Thin layer is composed of squamous epithelial cells that cover connective


tissue and lines interior of chambers / valve surfaces
● Very smooth allowing blood to flow easily through chambers to prevent
coagulation
● Lines interior of veins / arteries
B. Chambers
● Two superior and two inferior chambers
● Left / right sides - right side receives venous blood and pumps blood to
pulmonary artery to begin pulmonary circuit, left side receives oxygenated blood
from pulmonary circuit (lungs) and is called arterial blood after leaving heart
through aorta to begin systemic circuit
1. Atria
● Superior chambers of the heart
● Receives blood from systemic / pulmonary circuits
● Atria have thinner myocardial walls and have a pouch like structure called
auricle that slightly increases volume of each atria
● Have larger volume than ventricles and pumps blood into ventricles
a) Right Atria
● Receives venous blood from inferior / superior vena cava and
coronary sulcus
● Pumps blood into right ventricle through tricuspid valve
b) Left Atria
● Receives arterial blood from left / right pulmonary veins which
deliver blood from lungs
2. Ventricles
● Inferior chambers
● Have thicker walls
● They contract generating force necessary to pump blood to lungs
(pulmonary circuit) and to periphery (systemic circuit)
a) Right Ventricle
● Connected to right atria by tricuspid valve
● Receives deoxygenated blood
● Walls are stretched slightly due to overfilling
● This light tension plus thicker myocardium allows right / left
ventricles to contract with greater force than right / left atria
● Pumps blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into
pulmonary trunk (splits into right / left pulmonary arteries)
delivering venous blood to lungs
b) Left Ventricle
● Connected to left atria by bicuspid / mitral valve
● Receives oxygenated blood from left atria
● Stretched slightly when filled with blood, allowing it to contract with
great force sending oxygenated blood through aortic semilunar
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valve into aorta which splits into arteries that deliver blood to
periphery
C. Vessels Associated with the Heart
1. Vena Cava
● Two large veins - superior and inferior - that return venous blood to right
atria
● Superior vena cava drains upper limbs, cephalic region, and thoracic
region of deoxygenated blood, while inferior drains lower limbs,
abdominal and pelvic regions of venous blood
2. Pulmonary Trunk
● Large artery that exits right ventricle and carries venous blood away from
heart
● Splits after leaving heart into left pulmonary artery (goes to left lung) and
right pulmonary artery (goes to right lung)
● Only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood
3. Pulmonary Veins
● Four veins (two right, two left) that return arterial or oxygenated blood
from lungs to left atria
● Only veins that carry oxygenated blood
4. Aorta
● Exits from superior / posterior of left ventricle
● Serves as the main trunk of systemic circuit - it gives rise to the entire
systemic arterial system
● Portion of aorta that exit the left ventricle and goes up is the ascending
aorta and 2 coronary arteries emerge at base
● Aorta bends 180° forming aortic arch
● Three major arteries emerge from aortic arch - brachiocephalic trunk, left
common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery
● Then it turns downward and becomes thoracic aorta, then abdominal
aorta - collectively make up descending aorta
● Many arteries emerge from these sections
a) Coronary Arteries
● Two right and left coronary arteries branch off of aorta delivering
oxygenated blood to heart tissues
● Branch into other arteries, arterioles, and capillaries
b) Coronary Veins
● After blood travels through coronary arteries and capillaries,
deoxygenated blood enters coronary veins which empty into
coronary sinus and into right atria
III. Electrophysiology
● Heart is composed of cardiac muscle cells - involuntary, some create their own action
potentials - autorhythmic
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● Autorhythmic cells of heart are responsible for the action potentials that cause heart to
beat
● Rate of contraction is influenced by nervous system and catecholamines
A. Autorhythmic Cells
● Cardiac muscle cells that generate their own action potentials which stimulate
contractions
1. Sinoatrial Node (SA Node)
● Also called pacemaker
● Superior right atrium where superior vena cava enters
● Bundle of autorhythmic cells that generate action potentials at regular
intervals
● Action potentials spread through both atria and travel towards
atrioventricular node
● As action potentials spread through a cell, it contracts, causing both atria
to contract which pumps blood from atria to ventricles
2. Atrioventricular Node (AV Node)
● Bundle of autorhythmic cells found where interatrial and interventricular
septums meet
● Action potential has weakened due to resistance between SA / AV nodes
● Weakened action potential stimulates cardiac muscle cells in ventricles
causing contraction and blood goes into pulmonary systemic circuit
● Takes 0.1 seconds to generate action potential in atrioventricular node, so
there is time for blood to fill ventricles before contraction
IV. Pathologies
A. Coronary Artery Disease
● Blockage of arteries caused by plaque, fat, and cholesterol
● Less oxygen means heart cannot work to its potential, impedes blood circulation
● Healthy diet and exercise can prevent
● Treated by angioplasty or bypass, untreated can lead to myocardial infarction
B. Myocardial Infarction (MI/Heart Attack)
● Heart muscle death
● Death of muscle tissue due to complete blockage of coronary artery
● Can be result of plaque / cholesterol or due to arterial clot
● Blocking of arteries prevents blood from carrying oxygen to tissues which leads
to tissue death
● Cardiac muscle cannot grow back after dying, if enough tissue dies, the heart
can't function properly and cardiac arrest occurs
● Severity depends on location
C. Arrhythmia
● Irregularity in heart rhythm, defect in conduction system or nodes
● Can be triggered by caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, electrolyte imbalance,
dehydration, or occurs spontaneously
33

1. Ventricular Tachycardia
● Ventricles contract out of sync with the atria
● Caused when atrioventricular node spontaneously generates its own
action potentials without sinoatrial node stimulation, causing ventricles to
not fill up completely before contracting which decreases efficiency
2. Atrial Fibrillation
● When cardiac muscle cells of atria do not contract in a coordinated /
synchronized manner
● Some muscle cells contract while others relax
● Atria are not as efficient and do not completely fill ventricles
D. Cardiac Arrest
● When the heart stops beating
● Can be the result of lack of blood flow to the heart (bleeding or shock), trauma
(electrocution), or oxygen starvation / suffocation
V. Treatments
A. Angioplasty
● Treats coronary artery disease and sometimes blockages associated with
myocardial infarctions
● Catheter is inserted into patient’s femoral artery, then snaked through femoral
artery into aorta then into blocked coronary artery
● Then a small balloon at the end of the catheter is inflated, reducing blockage
● Stent is inserted in site of former blockage with another catheter
● Does not cure coronary artery disease, but treats known blockages
B. Coronary Bypass
● Used when blockages are too severe for an angioplasty
● Small Vein from thoracic or crural region - usually small saphenous vein - is
removed and attached to coronary artery before blockage and again to same
artery after blockage
● Blockage is bypassed and normal blood flow is reestablished
● Single, double, and triple bypass
C. Defibrillation/Cardioversion
● Treats certain arrhythmias
● Electric current is delivered through defibrillator to the heart
● Shock depolarizes heart (resets autorhythmic cells), terminating arrhythmia -
atrioventricular node reestablishes normal cardiac rhythm
D. Ablation
● Removal of material by vaporization
● Treats arrhythmias by vaporizing autorhythmic cells that create the arrhythmia
● Catheter is inserted into femoral veins, sometimes artery
● Electrodes are placed in heart using catheter and electrodes initiate arrhythmia -
once location of defective cells is found, another catheter is inserted to ablate /
vaporize these cells, essentially curing the arrhythmia
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BLOOD
I. Histology
● Blood is responsible for transport of nutrients to all cells and delivery of waste from all
cells
● Major role in maintaining internal bodily homeostasis (temperature, H2O, balance, etc.)
tissue repair, and is a large component of immune system
● Technically a connective tissue, composed of leukocytes, erythrocytes, and
thrombocytes, plasma (extracellular fluid / fluid components of blood), and many proteins
● Considered by most to be an organ - 8% of total body weight
II. Composition
● Primarily composed of two components - plasma and formed elements (they have a
solid structure)
● Plasma is liquid portion and contains water / proteins
● Formed elements refers to cellular components - erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets)
A. Types of Cells
1. Erythrocytes
● Red blood cells
● ~98 - 99% of blood cells, very small (7.5 micrometers)
● Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other
organelles associated with eukaryotic cells
● Hemoglobin takes up too much space
● Resemble a donut, center is filled with hemoglobin
● Very flexible and have large surface area which helps transportation of
oxygen, plasma carries carbon dioxide away from cells
● Hemoglobin is 33% of red blood cell volume (90-95% of cell mass)
a) Hemoglobin
● Protein found in center of erythrocyte, each erythrocyte has
200-300 million hemoglobin molecules
● Responsible for transporting majority of oxygen in blood and body
● Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to 4 oxygen molecules
2. Leukocytes
● White blood cells
● 0.5 - 1% of all blood cells
● Small and nucleated (7-17 micrometers), spherical, lack hemoglobin, can
leave circulatory system and enter tissues
● Major component of immune system - protect body from microorganisms
and remove dead cells / debris via phagocytosis
● 5 types
a) Neutrophils
● Destroy small pathogenic microorganisms via phagocytosis
35

b) Basophils
● Cause inflammation by releasing histamine / heparin
(anticoagulant), tissue injury
c) Eosinophils
● Destroy large pathogens (unicellular protists) and some parasitic
worms
● Release anti-inflammatory agents in allergic reactions
● Phagocytosis in antigen antibody reactions
d) Lymphocytes
● T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells
● Major component of immune system, secrete antibodies and
attack viruses, cancer cells, and transplanted tissues
e) Monocytes
● Major performer of phagocytosis
● Largest leukocytes - engulf infected / cancer cells, cellular debris
and bacteria (prokaryotes)
● Often leave circulatory system to digest infected, dead, and
damaged cells
3. Thrombocytes
● Platelets - not technically cells, but coming from cells
● 2 micrometers, plasma membrane “bags” that contain protein (clotting
factors), filled vesicles, and lack a nucleus
● Form from megakaryoblasts in bone marrow - in bone marrow these cells
break into 2000-4000 membrane bound fragments (platelets)
● Initiate clotting process and form initial plug
a) Coagulation
● Clotting - process that plugs ruptured vessels which stops
bleeding and begins healing process
● Many chemical reactions that depend on 12 clotting factors and
four platelet factors
● Stage 1: formation of platelet plug - platelets adhere to exposed
connective tissue of ruptured vessels filling and rupture and
releasing chemicals, initiating coagulation
● Stage 2: coagulation - utilizes clotting factors to make complex of
phospholipids and proteins (mostly fibrinogen) that creates
framework that allows tissue to heal / regrow
(i) Coagulation / Plasma Factors
● 12 factors (once 13 but 5/6 were found to be same- one
active, one inactive)
● 11 proteins, 1 ion (calcium), necessary for coagulation
Antigen Blood Antibody Accepted ​Whole Accepted
(Erythrocyte) Type (Plasma) Blood Erythrocytes
36

A A Anti B A A&O

B B Anti A B B&O

A&B AB None AB A, B, AB, O

None O Anti A & Anti B O O


Rh Factor- First recognized in Rhesus Monkeys, antigen D (positive or negative)
-If you have antigen D, you are positive, if you don’t, you’re regative
III. Blood Groups
● Cells contain antigens that identify them as belonging to the body
● Unrecognized antigens initiate an immune response
A. ABO Group
● RBCs have two types of antigens (glycolipid on surface of cell membrane): A or B
which can be arranged into four blood types: A, B, AB, and O
● Antibodies within plasma- ex. Type A contains Type B Antibodies
B. Rh Group
● Another antigen found on erythrocyte surface called Rh or antigen D
● If a person has this antigen then they are Rh+, if they lack then they are
considered Rh-
● Blood doesn’t contain any Rh antibodies until they are exposed to Rh antigen first
IV. Immunity
● Blood plays a major role in immunity
● Leukocytes are involved in direct destruction of many pathogens, but pathogens need to
be identified before they can perform phagocytosis
● Happens through antigen-antibody complex
A. Antigen
● Substance that can stimulate immune response
● Macromolecule that has specific shape/electrochemical configuration
● Generally are proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins or lipids found on surface
of cell or virus
● Sometimes is independent molecule such as toxins (ingested or released by
pathogens)
● Presence of antigens stimulates leukocytes to produce antibodies
B. Antibodies
● Proteins found in plasma (mainly globulins)
● Manufactures by leukocytes (lymphocytes: T & B cells)
● Produced when B/T cells encounter an unrecognized antigen
● Manufacture proteins that have structure that is specific to antigens
● Has two binding sites that can attach to two separate antigens on separate
pathogens
● Several antibodies attach to each pathogen with one binding site and to another
pathogen with the other binding site
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● Results in large clump of pathogens and antibodies that is engulfed


(phagocytized) by leukocytes/monocytes
C. Immunity
● After pathogen has been removed, a few antigen specific antibodies remain in
blood
● When the same antigen re-enters body these antibodies are activated and
stimulate lymphocytes to produce more antibodies that destroy pathogen before
it causes noticeable damage
EXAM 12/11/17
● 75 points
● KNOW formed elements & associated molecules
● Plasma & platelet factors
● Hematopoiesis
● Antigen/antibody complex as it pertains to immunity & blood types
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
I. Components
● Heart provides force necessary to send blood through systemic circuit upon contraction
● Blood travels through system of vessels- always contained within vessels & never comes
into contact w/ actual tissues
A. Arteries
● Vessels that carry blood away from heart
● All arteries originate from aorta & carry oxygenated blood
● Major arteries branch into arterioles which branch into capillaries
1. Anatomy
● Arteries are thick vessels that are composed of 3 layers: tunica intima
(inner), tunica media (middle), and tunica adventia (outer)
a) Tunica Intima
● Composed of epithelial tissue/endothelium that lines inside of
artery providing smooth layer allowing blood to flow smoothly
b) Tunica Media
● Composed of smooth muscle allowing for dilation (relaxation) and
constriction/contraction of the vessel
c) Tunica Adventia
● Composed of connective tissue
● Provides strength and flexibility
B. Veins
● Thick vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
● Originate when venules join (venules collect blood from capillaries)
● All veins join to form superior or inferior vena cava
1. Anatomy
● Very similar to structure of arteries, composed of same three layers
● However there are important differences- veins contain valves that
prevent blood from flowing backwards
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● Middle & outer layers of veins are thinner, walls of veins are thinner than
those of arteries
C. Capillaries
● Microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
● Embedded within tissues & allow for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse out of them
into cells, & waste products and CO2 to diffuse out of cells into them
● Come into contact with nearly every cell in the body
● Blood never leaves these vessels
1. Anatomy
● Composed of a single layer of epithelial cells (endothelium)
● Lack a tunica media and tunica adventia
● Single layer allows for diffusion of O2 and nutrients from blood to cells,
and diffusion of CO2 and waste products out of cells into blood
II. Systemic Circulation
● Route that blood travels through body excluding pulmonary circuit
A. Arterial Circuit
● Route that oxygenated (97% O2 saturation) blood follows out of left ventricle
● Composed of all arteries and arterioles in the body
● All arteries/arterioles originate from aorta which branches into three regions:
ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta
1. Ascending Aorta
● Coronary arteries branch off from this region- supply heart with
oxygenated blood
2. Aortic Arch
● As aorta exits heart it travels superiorly before turning inferiorly- this is
aortic arch
● Three arteries branch from here: brachiocephalic artery, left common
carotid artery, and left subclavian artery
a) Brachiocephalic Trunk/Artery
● First artery to exit aortic arch
● Supplies right cephalic region and arm (upper extremity)
● Splits into right common carotid artery (head) and right subclavian
artery (right arm)
● Right subclavian becomes axillary artery as it enters arm and then
becomes brachial artery as it travels to brachial region
● As it enters antebrachial regions it splits into ulnar artery and
radial artery
● On left side of body, left subclavian and left common carotid
arteries perform function of brachiocephalic artery
b) Left Common Carotid Artery
● Second artery to emerge from aortic arch
● Supplies left cephalic region with oxygenated blood
39

c) Left Subclavian Artery


● Supplies left brachial and antebrachial region with oxygenated
blood and gives rise to same arterial anatomy found in right upper
extremity (arm)
3. Descending Aorta
● After aortic arch, aorta descends inferiorly through thorax (descending
thoracic aorta) and the abdomen (descending abdominal aorta)
● Major arteries of thorax and abdomen emerge in these regions
a) Descending Thoracic Aorta
● Two major branches of descending thoracic aorta- visceral
branches (give rise to bronchial artery and esophageal artery) and
parietal branches (give rise to intercostal artery and superior
phrenic artery)
b) Descending Abdominal Aorta
● Two major branches of descending abdominal aorta- visceral
branches (gives rise to celiac artery which branches into left
gastric, common hepatic, splenic, and mesenteric arteries & more)
and parietal branches (gives rise to lumbar and sacral arteries)
which splits into left common iliac artery and right common iliac
artery which continue down both legs
(i) Common Iliac Arteries
● One in each leg that gives rise to internal iliac (pelvic
region) artery and external iliac artery which becomes
femoral artery (femoral region) and popliteal artery
(femoral tibial articulation) as it descends- popliteal artery
becomes anterior and posterior tibial arteries
B. Venous Circuit
● After gas exchange occurs in capillaries they join together to form venules which
create veins
● Inferior veins come together to form inferior vena cava and superior veins come
together to form superior vena cava
● Both venae cavae return deoxygenated (75% saturation) blood back to right atria
of heart
● Name of veins correspond for most part to arteries that serve same reason
1. Superior Veins
● Cephalic vein and basilic vein drain antebrachial region and brachial veins
drain brachial region
● Brachial veins join basilic vein forming axillary vein
● Axillary and cephalic veins form right & left subclavian vein
● Internal jugular drains cephalic region of blood (external jugular which is
more lateral returns blood from cervical region) and joins subclavian vein
to form right and left brachiocephalic veins
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● Right & left brachiocephalic veins form superior vena cava which returns
deoxygenated blood to the right atria of the heart
● Additionally, veins of thorax (bronchial and esophageal) join directly to
superior vena cava
2. Inferior Veins
● Anterior and posterior tibial veins (drain crural region) form popliteal vein
● Popliteal vein joins with one of the veins from pedal region (small
saphenous vein) creating femoral vein
● When femoral vein joins other vein that collects blood from pedal region
(great saphenous vein), they form external iliac vein
● Internal iliac vein drains blood from pelvic region when it connects to
external iliac vein & common iliac veins (left and right)
● Inferior vena cava forms when right and left common iliac veins join
together
● Abdominal veins (splenic vein and inferior/superior veins form hepatic
portal which flows into liver mixing with arterial blood and enter the inferior
vena cava via the hepatic vein, additionally renal veins from kidney attach
to inferior vena cava)
● Inferior vena cava travels to right atria
III. Functions
● Circulatory system transports blood and promotes thermal regulation
A. Transport
● Primary function of circulatory system is transport of blood through the body
● Blood transports nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to all cells in body & picks up
wastes, toxins, and CO2 from cells
● Contraction of heart produces force (blood pressure) that allows blood to travel
through body
1. Blood Pressure
● Force exerted by heart onto blood which creates pressure within vessels
of body
● Two pressures are created:
a) Systolic
● Pressure exerted by heart during systole (contraction) and is
greater of two pressures
● Top number in recorded blood pressure
b) Diastolic
● Pressure exerted by heart during diastole (relaxation) and is lesser
of two pressures
● Bottom number in recorded blood pressure
● Volume of blood ejected by left ventricle is Stroke Volume
***Since blood pressure is product of volume of blood traveling through circulatory system and
resistance of circulatory system (friction contributed by vessels), many components contribute to
blood pressure including cardiac output, heart rate, stroke volume, and peripheral resistance***
41

Cardiac Output=Q, Peripheral Resistance=PR, QxPR=Blood Pressure


Stroke Volume=SV, Heart Rate=HR, SVxHR=Cardiac Output
c) Cardiac Output
● Amount of blood the heart can pump in a minute
● Product of volume of blood that heart ejects into aorta when it
contracts once (roughly volume of left ventricle) and heart rate
(number of times heart beats in one minute)
● Cardiac Output= Stroke Volume x Heart Rate (Q=SVxHR)
● Q is sometimes represented as CO
d) Peripheral Resistance
● Resistance/friction that vessels place on blood
● Essentially determined by diameter of blood vessels
● When resistance increases, heart works harder to overcome it
● Even though blood vessels are lined with endothelium (smooth
surface) it still has some amount of friction which can be
exacerbated by partial blocks (plaque) that are result of
cardiovascular disease
● Arteries and veins can contract and dilate- peripheral resistance is
affected by amount of vascular constriction and dilation
● During activity, arteries/veins serving working muscles are dilated
to provide maximum amounts of blood
● At same time, veins and vessels to non-active tissues constrict
(shunting blood to tissues that need it)
● This constriction is much greater than dilation which increases
peripheral resistance, when combined with greater cardiac output
(associated w/ activity) creates increase in blood pressure
B. Tissue Gas Exchange
● After gas is exchanged in lungs, partial pressure of O2 in capillary is 104 mmHg
● However there is slight mixing of blood that has been shunted from bronchial
veins (deoxygenated blood from systemic circuit) that lowers partial pressure of
O2 to 95 mmHg by the time blood enters pulmonary veins
● Partial pressure of O2 in blood entering systemic circuit (aorta) is also 95 mmHg
(partial pressure of CO2 remains the same at ~40 mmHg)
● O2 in blood of capillary beds embedded in tissues prior to gas exchange has
partial pressure of 95 mmHg and partial pressure of CO2 is 40 mmHg
● Partial pressure of O2 in body tissues is 20 mmHg and CO2 is 46 mmHg
● O2 diffuses from regions of high concentration (blood 95 mmHg) to regions of low
concentration (tissues 20 mmHg)
● CO2 diffuses to regions of high concentration (tissues 46 mmHg) to regions of
low concentration (blood 40 mmHg)
● Blood in capillaries that will travel to venules/veins is now venous/deoxygenated
blood & has partial pressures of 40 mmHg for O2 and 45 mmHg for CO2
42

C. Thermoregulation
● Chemical reactions that are necessary to sustain life are dependent on enzymes
which function optimally at specific temperatures (37 C or 98.6 F)- it is critical to
maintain a stable temperature
● Since plasma component of blood (55%) is composed mainly of water (91%) and
water has high heat capacity (ability to absorb heat with slight increases in
temperature), blood is v important in maintaining body temperature
(thermoregulation)
● When core body temp begins to rise, mass vasodilation (opening of vessels)
occurs which allows heated blood to travel through skin capillaries
● In skin, heat is transferred from blood to sweat glands (sudoriferous glands),
which releases sweat dissipating heat from body
● When core temp of body drops, vasoconstriction (closing of vessels) to the
extremities occurs which concentrates heat to vital organs of body slowing onset
of hypothermia but increasing risk of frostbite to extremities
EXAM 12/20
● 100 points
● KNOW pathways from heart to superior appendages (hands) and from heart to inferior
appendages (feet)
● KNOW which two vessels come together and what new vessel they make
● IDs in packet, ~30-35
● Structure of arteries and veins
● Cardiac output and blood pressure components- simple equation
● Capillary beds & gas exchange
● NOT RESPONSIBLE for last page of ID packet
● NO thermoregulation
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone Tissue Structure-​ bone is a connective tissue that hardens due to deposits of minerals
and metals. It makes up the 206 bones of skeletal system. Components of individual bones are
cartilage, osteocytes, and periosteum
I. Functions
A. Support
● Bone provides support for muscles and cradles other soft tissue and anchors
muscle
B. Protection
● Due to their density and flexibility, bones (skull & ribs) protect organs from impact
injuries
● Bends before it breaks
C. Movement
● Bones act as levers which can move when muscles attached to them contract
● Actual structure and construction of joint determines type of movement that is
possible
43

D. Mineral Homeostasis
● Bone is a reservoir of minerals (calcium & phosphorus)
● It’s important to have large stores of minerals which can be released into blood
since they are needed for all neural transmissions and muscle contractions
E. Hematopoiesis
● Blood cell production
● Bone marrow is found in long bones- two types: red and yellow marrow
1. Red Marrow
● Responsible for erythrocyte and leukocyte production
2. Yellow Marrow
● Contains mainly fat cells
● In extreme situations (sustained blood loss) it can change into red marrow
II. Structure of Long Bones
A. Epiphysis
● The ends of the bone
B. Diaphysis
● The shaft or main portion of the bone
● Connected to epiphyses by a narrow region called metaphysis
C. Articular Cartilage
● Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers epiphyses and forms a joint with
another bone(s)
● Prevents bone from rubbing against bone causing damage
D. Periosteum
● Double layer membrane that covers bone wherever articulating cartilage is
absent
● Separates bones from other body tissues, provides attachment for ligaments and
tendons, gives access to blood vessels and nerves, and is crucial in bone growth
and repair
E. Spongy/Cancellous Bone
● Has a spongy appearance and has spaces where red marrow is stored in adults
● Found in epiphyses of the bone
F. Compact Bone
● More dense than spongy bone
● Lacks spaces and is resistant to directional stresses
● Provides strength and support which resists stress that weight places upon long
bones
● Found in diaphysis of long bones
G. Medullary Cavity
● Cavity within diaphysis of bone and contains yellow marrow
● Lined by membrane known as the endosteum which is made of osteoprogenitor
(bone first generator) cells and generally lacks fibers
44

III. Internal Structure of Bone


A. Cells
● Bone utilizes four types:
1. Osteoprogenitor
● Bone first generate- unspecialized stem cells that undergo mitosis and
can develop into osteoblasts
2. Osteoblasts
● Cells that don’t undergo mitosis because it becomes encased in bone
● Produce proteins (mainly collagen) and organic portion of bone matrix
● Cells literally make bone
● As cells become encased in bone matrix they stop secreting protein and
become osteocytes
3. Osteocytes
● Mature osteoblasts that don’t secrete collagen
● Two major functions: release substances that help release metals and
salts from bone so new ones can replace them (recycle minerals and
metals of the bone), and they can convert into osteoprogenitors or
osteoblasts to repair the bone surrounding osteon if the bone is damaged
due to injury
4. Osteoclasts
● Formed from a monocyte
● Very large and nucleated macrophages that break down and reabsorb
bone fragments
● Play key role in bone growth and repair
B. Matrix of Bone
● Composed mainly of protein fibers collagen (30% mass), calcium phosphate
(50% mass) and other salts like calcium carbonate
● Calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate form crystals which can deal with
compression forces well, but they are not that flexible
● Collagen fibers handle tension and flexion forces well (but not compression
forces) and act as an anchor for crystals
● As a result, matrix is able to withstand flexion and compression relatively well-
slightly flexible and resistant to shattering
C. Osteon (Haversian System)
● Compact bone is composed of structural units called osteons (haversian
systems)
● Osteons are arranged so they run parallel with the long axis of bone
● Made of concentric rings called lamellae which are made out of hard calcified
matrix (matrix of bone)
● Within lamellae are spaces called lacunae which contain an osteocyte
● At center of osteon is the Haversian canal which contains blood vessels and
lymphatic vessels
● Haversian canals are interconnected by Volkmann canals
45

● Contain arteries, veins, and parts of the lymphatic system


D. Trabeculae
● Spongy bone is less dense and more porous than compact bone & isn’t
organized into osteons, lacks blood vessels, and matrix is arranged in plates of
bone matrix surrounding osteocyte called trabeculae
● Arranged in a lattice like manner which creates strength and is resistant to stress
with little weight
● Spaces within are filled with red marrow
IV. Ossification and Bone Development
A. Ossification
● Formation of bone
● Two types: intramembranous and endochondral
1. Intramembranous
● Process that forms bones of the skull, mandible and clavicle
○ Bones that protect things
● Begins with osteoprogenitor cells giving rise to osteoblasts within fibrous
connective tissue
● Then osteoblasts join together and secrete matrix forming fibers and
proteins
● Once matrix is laid, calcium begins to crystallize
● As minerals crystallize, they trap osteoblasts which differentiate into
osteocytes
● Bone matrix forms into trabeculae and blood vessels grow into spaces
between trabeculae
● Connective tissue associated with blood vessels in trabeculae
differentiates into red bone marrow
● Outermost layers of fibrous connective tissue condenses into periosteum,
most superficial layers of the bone become compact bone but spongy
bone remains in the center
2. Endochondral
● How long bones of body form
● Begins with hyaline cartilage framework into which calcium is deposited
● Blood vessels then penetrate cartilage framework
● Blood vessels deposit osteoblasts into cartilage framework
● Osteoblasts break down cartilage replacing it with spongy bone
● When diaphysis is filled w/ spongy bone, osteoclasts hollow out the
medullary cavity and surrounding bone develops into compact bone
● Essentially how fractures heal
B. Postnatal Bone Growth
● Secondary ossification
● Occurs at the epiphyseal plates (portion of epiphysis that is composed of
chondrocytes)
● When growth occurs the chondrocytes divide which increases the length of bone
46

● Ossification (similar to endochondral) occurs in new cells


● Secondary ossification occurs until epiphyseal plates ossify (late adolescence)
C. Fractures
● A break or crack in a bone often caused by torsional or blunt forces received at
an unusual direction rather than by compression
● Classified by nature of damage in the bone(s) and if the broken bone
compromises the epidermis
1. Types
● Five categories of fractures
a) Closed/Simple
● Broken bone doesn’t compromise epidermis- might still have
visible deformity
b) Open/Compound
● Broken bone has compromised epidermis (broken through the
skin)
c) Complete
● Bone is broken completely into two pieces
d) Incomplete
● Simple cracked bone, fracture is in one piece
e) Comminuted
● Bone is broken into several fragments
2. Reduction
● Setting a fracture
● Where broken ends of a bone are aligned so healing can occur
a) Closed Reduction
● Bone is set by manipulating broken ends of the bone underneath
skin
● Skin doesn’t need to be compromised to set bone (no incision
made)
b) Open Reduction
● Surgical procedure requiring skin surface to be compromised for
fracture to be reduced
3. Healing
● When bone is fractured, periosteum and surrounding blood vessels
rupture
● Hematoma (blood clot) forms on damages area, & blood vessels grow
into the hematoma and osteoblasts from the periosteum move into the
hematoma
● Osteoblasts settle near the new blood vessels and form spongy bone
● Phagocytes break up hematoma and osteoclasts break down the bone
fragments
47

● Concurrently fibroblasts (cells that manufacture protein fibers) deposit


fibrocartilage at fracture site which fills in gap in bone with callus
(fibrocartilage patch)
● Callus is replaced by bone through process similar to endochondral
ossification
EXAM 1/8/18
● Explain and diagram structure of an osteon
● Fractures
● Explain trabeculae and why/how they’re different
● Ossification - both types
● Describe long bone structure and explain relations
AXIAL SKELETON
I. Surface Structures
● On surface of bone are several structures that maintain health of bone and aid in
function
A. Depressions and Openings
1. Fossa- a shallow depression
2. Sulcus- a groove, furrow or long depression that accommodates a soft
tissue structure
3. Foramen- an opening/hole through which vessels pass
4. Fissure- an elongated cleft
5. Sinus- a cavity within a bone or formed between bones
B. Processes of Attachment
● Processes are structures extending from surface or main structure of bone
(projections or bumps) that provide points of attachment/connection to muscles
or other bones
48

1. Processes Associated with Articulations


a) Condyle- large rounded projection that tendons or ligaments
attach to
b) Facet- smooth, flat surface that is found where bones articulate
with one another
c) Head- large rounded projection extending from epiphysis via a
neck, forms joint with another bone
d) Trochlea- groove that serves similar functions to a pulley, keeps
another bone in place
2. Processes Associated with Tendons and Ligaments
a) Epicondyle- prominence located above condyle
b) Crest- prominent ridge or border
c) Linea- less prominent ridge
d) Spine- sharp slender process
e) Trochanter- large roughened projection
f) Tuberosity- smaller roughened projection
II. Types of Bone
A. Long
● Have greater length than width
● Possess a shaft and two ends
● Slight curve that increases strength and aids in flexibility
● Diaphysis is composed of compact bone that surrounds medullary cavity, and
epiphysis contains spongy bone
B. Short
● Shaped somewhat like cubes, composed mainly of spongy bone except for near
periosteum
1. Sesamoid
● Type of short bone that is encased in tendon
● Found in locations that are subjected to great pressure
C. Flat
● Thin bones that contain 2 layers of compact bone directly inferior to periosteum
● Two layers of compact bone provide protection for organs and after points of
attachment for muscles (tendons)
D. Irregular
● Usually these bones possess complex shapes that do not fit any category
● Cell structure is similar to that of flat bones
● Large volume of spongy bone sandwiched between two layers of compact bone
that are covered by periosteum
III. Types of Cartilage
A. Hyaline Cartilage
● Most abundant in body
● Contains densely packed collagen fibers in the matrix
49

● As a result of amount of collagen, it is dense enough to provide support and is


slightly flexible, makes up articulating cartilage (found at the ends of bone), costal
cartilage (connects ribs to sternum) and trachea
B. Elastic Cartilage
● Similar to hyaline
● Contains mainly elastic fibers creating a very flexible yet resilient cartilage
● Gives the outer ear its structure
C. Fibrocartilage
● Has a great deal of collagen fibers (interwoven) and very little ground substance
● Collagen fibers and chondrocytes are arranged in alternating rows giving this
cartilage great tensile strength and rigidity
● Cartilage makes up a menisel of the knee and intervertebral disks
IV. Axial Skeleton
● Composed of bones that make up central axis of skeleton
● Includes bones of skull (8), face (14), thoracic cage/bony thorax (3 bones of sternum &
24 ribs), and 33 bones of vertebral column
A. Skull
● Contains 22 bones divided into 2 sets: cranial and facial
1. Cranial Bones
● Form cranium which houses brain, hearing organs, equilibrium organs,
and it provides a point of attachment for head muscles
● Composed of 8 bones: frontal, occipital, ethmoid, sprichoid, parietal (2),
and temporal (2)
● Joints are found where bones meet
● Cranial bones are connected by immovable joints called sutures that are
fibrous and interconnected
a) Frontal (Forehead)
● Forms anterior portion of the cranium and the superior structure of
the eye sockets
● Forehead is created by the frontal squama within which the frontal
sinuses are found
● Above each eye orbit is an orbital foramen which allows a
passage for nerves and blood vessels
b) Occipital
● Forms posterior and base of cranium
● In base of the occipital is foramen magnum (large hole) where
spinal cord enters the skull and becomes brain
● On external surface of occipital bone, lateral to foramen magnum
(one on each side) are occipital condyles that articulate with first
cervical vertebra (atlas) of spinal column
c) Parietals
● 2 bones that form the majority of the superior and lateral portions
of cranium
50

● The four major sutures of the cranium are found where parietal
bones articulate with other bones
d) Temporals
● Form inferior sides and small portion of base of cranium
● The bar like process, zygomatic process, forms part of the cheek
● Just inferior to base of the zygomatic process is auditory meatus
(ear canal)
● Large process inferior to auditory meatus is mastoid process
which is a point of attachment for many neck muscles
e) Sutures
● Immovable joints between bones
● Four major sutures found on the cranium that all join with parietal
bones
(i) Coronal Suture
● Where parietal bones join frontal bone
(ii) Sagittal Suture
● Where the two parietal bones join
(iii) Lambdoid Suture
● Where parietal bones join occipital bone
(iv) Squamous Suture
● Where parietal bones meet temporal bones
f) Sphenoid
● Lies at base of cranium posterior to frontal bone and in between
two temporal bones
● Supports other cranial bones and strengthens cranium (keystone
bone)
● In center of superior surface is a depression called sella turcica
that cradles pituitary gland
● Just anterior to each end of the sella turcica are optical foramen
that serve as passage for optic nerve
g) Ethmoid
● Found anterior of sphenoid between orbits
● Forms superior portion of nasal cavity, a portion of nasal septum
and as part of medial walls for the orbits
● Tiny holes on superior surface are the olfactory foramina which
house olfactory nerves
2. Facial Bones
● Fourteen facial bones: mandible, vomer, maxilla (2), nasals (2), lacrimals
(2), palatines (2). Inferior nasal concha (2) and zygomatics (2)
a) Mandible
● Inferior portion of jaw
● Largest and strongest of the facial bones
● Horizontal portion (constitutes chin) is called body
51

● At superior margin is alveolar process which contains the sockets


for teeth
● At posterior ends are two upright extensions called the rami
● On posterior end of each rami is the mandibular condyle (which
articulates with temporal bone) and at anterior of each rami is
coronoid process to which muscles used for chewing are attached
(i) Hyoid
● Associated with mandible even though it doesn’t attach nor
articulate with mandible
● Inferior to mandible hanging from ligaments attached to
temporal bones
● Supports larynx (voice box) and serves as a point of
attachment for the tongue
● Speech would be impossible without the hyoid
b) Maxilla
● Two bones fused together that form superior portion of jaw, central
portion of facial skeleton (keystone), base of orbits, and anterior
portion of palate
● Maxillae articulate with every other facial bone and provide
strength and stability
c) Nasal Bones
● These bones form bridge of the nose, the rest of the nose is
composed of cartilage
d) Lacrimal Bones
● Posterior and lateral to nasal bones
● Smallest facial bones & make up part of medial wall of each orbit
● Each lacrimal bone contains a fossa/sulcus called lacrimal fossa
which houses lacrimal ducts (tear ducts)
e) Inferior Conchae
● Form lateral walls of nasal cavity
f) Palatine Bones
● Two fused bones that are posterior of maxillae
● Form posterior portion of palate
g) Vomer
● Located superior and posterior to the palatine
h) Zygomatic Bones
● Cheek bones
● Contribute to lateral wall of each orbit
B. Vertebral Column
● Curved, flexible, articulating structure that surrounds and protects spinal cord
● Also supports the head and serves as a point of attachment for ribs and muscles
● Major structural component of axial skeleton and transmits weight and force of
upper body to the legs
52

● In infants there are 33 bones, as child develops nine of these fuse together to
create sacrum and coccyx
● Other 24 bones (vertebrae) are separated by dense fibrocartilage discs called
intervertebral discs
1. Gross Anatomy of Vertebral Column
● Technically vertebral column is composed of 33 bones, nine of which fuse
together into two groups (sacrum and coccyx) during infancy
● 24 independent vertebra and two sets of fused vertebrae are placed into
five divisions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx
a) Cervical
● Top seven vertebrae located in cervical (neck) region
b) Thoracic
● Twelve vertebrae that are inferior to cervical vertebrae
● Found posterior to thoracic cavity
c) Lumbar
● Most inferior independent (not fused) vertebrae that are
immediately superior to pelvis
d) Sacrum
● Also called sacral vertebrae
● Five fused vertebrae that form posterior medial section of pelvis
● Give support and strength to pelvis
e) Coccyx
● Also called coccygeal vertebrae
● Four fused vertebrae that are inferior to sacrum and serve as point
of attachment for structures found in pelvic cavity
2. Organization of Vertebral Column
● Individual vertebrae are placed into divisions/groups based on location
and structural similarities
● Within these divisions the vertebrae are numbered from most superior to
most inferior
● Numbering starts over when next division begins
● To specify a vertebra the first letter of the division is used followed by a
subset number that corresponds with the vertebral position in its division
● Third cervical vertebra is called C3
a) Curves
● Normal vertebral column is curved at very specific locations
● Curves increase strength, absorb shock (curve resembles spring)
and aid in keeping body in balance
3. Gross Anatomy of Vertebra
a) Centrum (Body)
● Thick and disc shaped
● Located at the anterior of the vertebra
● Weight bearing structure of the vertebra
53

● Intervertebral discs rest on the centrum


● Centrum of thoracic vertebra also articulate with head of the ribs
b) Vertebral Foramen
● Large opening posterior to the centrum through which spinal cord
passes
● Vertebral foramen of all vertebra line up to form spinal cavity
c) Transverse Process
● Lateral process that ligaments and tendons attach to in order to
stabilize the vertebral column
● Transverse process of thoracic vertebrae articulate with ribs
d) Spinous Process
● Posterior process that serves as point of attachment for tendons
e) Articular Processes
● Each vertebra has four articular processes
● Located posterior to centrum, with two inferior and two superior
● For the articulation (joint) with the other vertebra
4. Fine Anatomy of Vertebra
a) Cervical Vertebrae Characteristics
● Seven most superior vertebrae
● Located in the cervical region
● Smallest and lightest vertebrae, centrum is oval shaped and
vertebral foramen is larger and triangle-shaped to accommodate
larger size of spinal cord in this region
● Each transverse process possesses a foramen through which
blood vessels pass- ONLY cervical vertebra
● C1 is called the atlas and articulates w/ occipital condyles
● C2 is called the axis and allows head to pivot
b) Thoracic Vertebra
● Next twelve are the thoracic vertebra
● Centrum is roughly heart-shaped and vertebral foramen is more
circular
● Spinous process is long and narrow and points down
c) Lumbar Vertebra
● Five vertebrae are larger and thicker than the others
● Vertebral foramen is triangular and spinous processes are short
and point straight backwards
d) Sacrum
● Five vertebrae that start to fuse with the onset of puberty
(completed by age of 30)
● Fused vertebrae make up medial and posterior portion of the
pelvis
54

● Provides stability to pelvis, protects organs and structures within


pelvic cavity, and serves as a point of attachment for many
muscles
e) Coccyx
● Four fused vertebrae (start fusing in mid twenties) that do not do
much more than provide a point of attachment for some muscles
and support some pelvic organs
C. Thoracic Skeleton
● Term “thorax” refers to the chest or thoracic region which is bordered inferiorly by
the diaphragm and superiorly by the clavicle
● Skeletal thorax is a cage-like structure constructed of bones (sternum, 12 pairs of
ribs, and thoracic vertebrae) and cartilage
● It surrounds the thoracic cavity protecting and supporting the heart, lungs, and
associated structures
● Additionally it supports the upper limbs and serves as point of attachment for
some muscles of the neck, back, and shoulders
1. General Structure of Skeletal Thorax
● 12 thoracic vertebrae make up posterior of thoracic skeleton
● Two ribs articulate with transverse processes and centrum of each
thoracic vertebra
● Ribs curve around and eventually connect to sternum- anterior portion of
skeletal thorax via costal (rib) cartilage (hyaline)
● Spaces between ribs and adjoining costal cartilage is called intercostal
space and is occupied by intercostal muscles that aid in breathing
a) Sternum
● Found on medial line of anterior thoracic wall
● Composed of three bones- manubrium, body, and xiphoid
process- that generally fuse together by the age of 25
(i) Manubrium
● Superior portion of the sternum
● On superior margin of this bone are three notches
● Medial notch is jugular notch and the lateral ones are the
clavicular notches where the clavicles (appendicular
skeleton) articulate with sternum
(ii) Body
● Largest portion of sternum
● Found inferior of manubrium and superior to xiphoid
process
● Where the cartilage from second through seventh ribs
attach
(iii) Xiphoid Process
● Most inferior part of the sternum
55

● Constructed of hyaline cartilage and ossifies around age of


forty
●Point of attachment for abdominal muscles
b) Ribs
● Bowed flat bones
● Head of rib (anterior portion) is the part that articulates with the
centrum of the thoracic vertebrae
● Just lateral to the head is a constricted portion of the rib called the
neck
● Knoblike process where neck joins body is called tubercle which
articulates with transverse process
● Rest of rib (majority) is the body
● Where the body ends is called posterior end and is where rib is
connected by costal/hyaline cartilage to the sternum
(i) Arrangement of Ribs
● Twelve pairs of ribs that all articulate with thoracic vertebra
● Rib pairs are numbered 1-12 which corresponds to
thoracic vertebra that they articulate with
● Pair one is most superior and articulates with T1, etc.
● Ribs fall into three groups depending on how their costal
cartilage attaches to the sternum
● Vertebrosternal are pairs 1-7, vertebrochondral are pairs
8-10, vertebral are 11-12
(ii) Types of Ribs
● Three groups of ribs based upon how they connect to
sternum
● Vertebrosternal ribs are seven superior ribs that are
considered true ribs
○ Attached to sternum by costal cartilage that is
defined and distinct appearing as if the costal
cartilage is a direct extension of the rib
● Vertebrochondral ribs are ribs 8-10 and are also called
false ribs
○ Their costal cartilage joins together (not individually
distinct or defined) and connects to costal cartilage
of seventh pair of ribs
● Vertebral ribs are the 11th and 12th pair of ribs
○ Often called floating ribs because they are the only
ribs that articulate only with vertebra and lack any
attachment to sternum
EXAM 2/6
● Two open responses (what does this bone articulate with)
● All 5 pages of IDs- if it’s not pointing to a structure, it’s pointing to the bone
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● Lab practical- identify the numbers, 75-90 seconds for each station
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
I. Appendicular Skeleton
● Bones of the limbs and of the girdles that attach these appendages to axial skeleton
A. Pectoral Girdle
● Attaches upper limbs to axial skeleton
● Composed of two bones: clavicle and scapula
● Scapula is posterior and is attached to the vertebral column by muscles which
hold it in place
● Clavicle is anterior component and articulates with the sternum and scapula
1. Clavicle
● An S shaped bone
● The medial end that articulates with the sternum is the central extremity
and forms the sternoclavicular joint
● Lateral end is the acromial extremity and articulates with the scapula
forming the acromioclavicular joint
● The clavicle holds the scapula and arm upright and lateral & transmits
forces from the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
2. Scapula
● Large, flat, triangular bone located laterally and posterior of the thorax,
roughly at the level of T2 through T7
● On posterior surface (near superior margin) is a large ridge (spine) that
runs from the medial border to just superior of the lateral angle and
extends into the acromium process
● Acromium process articulates with clavicle
● Spine serves as a point of attachment for several muscles
● Inferior to acromium process is the glenoid fossa, where the humerus
(upper arm) articulates with scapula and forms shoulder joint
● Coracoid process is anterior to the acromium process and is a point of
attachment for the biceps
● Large flat triangular portion of the scapula is referred to as the body and
has many fossas used for muscle attachment
B. Upper Extremities
● Each upper extremity consists of 30 bones: humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges
1. Humerus
● Largest bone of the arm
● At proximal end is the head (rounded) which articulates with the scapula
to form the shoulder joint
● Inferior to the head is the anatomical neck, and just inferior is the surgical
neck
● Lateral to the head is the greater tubercle which serves as a point of
attachment for muscles
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● Halfway down the shaft on the lateral side is the deltoid tuberosity to
which the deltoid muscle attaches
● At distal end of humerus are the lateral and medial epicondyles which
articulate with the radius and ulna
● In between the epicondyles is the trochlea which articulates with the ulna
forming a part of the elbow
2. Forearm
● Formed by radius and ulna, two are connected by interosseous
membrane
● In anatomical position, radius is lateral and ulna is medial
● Proximal ends of the radius and ulna articulate with the humerus forming
the elbow
● At distal end they articulate with the carpals forming the wrist
a) Ulna
● Appears to be medial when in the anatomical position
● Longer of the two bones
● At proximal end is a pointed process (olecranon process) which
makes up part of the elbow and prevents hyperextension of the
forearm
● Just inferior to the olecranon is the trochlear notch that the
trochlea of the humerus articulates with
● Inferior to trochlear notch is coronoid process which makes up the
other portion of the hinge joint of the elbow
● At distal end of ulna is the head (not part of wrist joint)
● Medial to head is styloid process to which ligaments attach
● Ulna is major forearm component of the elbow
b) Radius
● Lateral to ulna (in anatomical position)
● At proximal end is a disk shaped head which articulates with the
humerus
● On medial side of radius inferior to neck is the radial tuberosity
which is another point of attachment for the biceps brachii
● At distal end is the ulnar notch which is where the ulna articulates
with the radius
● On lateral side is the styloid process which attaches to ligaments
from the wrist
● Radius is major forearm component of the wrist
3. Hand
● Distal of ulna and radius
● Three sets of bones: carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
a) Carpals
● Two rows of four bones connected by ligaments
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● More proximal row contains (lateral to medial) triangular, pisiform,


lunate, scaphoid
● More distal row contains (lateral to medial) hamate, capitate,
trapezoid, trapezium
● Make up the wrist
b) Metacarpals
● Five bones that form the palm
● Bones have no names but are numbered #1 (thumb side, lateral)
to #5 (little finger side, medial)
● Proximal end of each metacarpal is called the base, intermediate
portion is the shaft, and distal end is the head
c) Phalanges
● Fourteen bones of the fingers, thumb has two bones and
remaining fingers have 3 bones each
● Single bones are referred to as phalanx
● Like metacarpals, proximal end of each phalanx is the base,
intermediate portion is shaft, distal end is head
● Two bones of the thumb are each called pollex
● In four other fingers, first row of phalanges are called proximal
row, second row is called middle row, third row is distal row
C. Pelvic Girdle
● Consists of two bones (os coxae) aka hip bones that are connected posteriorly by
the sacrum and anteriorly by the pubic symphysis
● Form the pelvis which supports organs and visceral tissue and attaches lower
axial skeleton to lower limbs
● It also transmits mass of upper body to lower limbs
1. Os Coxa
● Two bones that form the pelvis
● Each one has three regions: ilium (superior), pubis (inferior and anterior),
and ischium (inferior and posterior)
a) Ilium
● Forms major portion of each os coxa
● The broad superior part is the ala
● Superior border is known as iliac crest
● Anterior end of the crest is the anterior iliac spine, posterior end is
posterior superior iliac spine
● Inferior to posterior superior iliac spine is sciatic notch through
which sciatic nerve passes to enter the thigh
● Lateral surface of the ilium is called gluteal surface which has
three ridges that the gluteal muscles attach to
● Medial surface of ala is concave and called iliac fossa
b) Ischium
● Inferior posterior portion of os coxa
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● Divided into two regions: body (superior and thicker) and ramus
(inferior)
(i) Body
● On posterior margin of body is ischial spine which attaches
to a ligament that is used to anchor the sacrum
● Inferior to the ischial spine is the lesser sciatic notch
through which nerves and blood vessels pass to enter
pelvic cavity
(ii) Ramus
● Inferior to lesser sciatic notch is a thick and rough surface
called ischial tuberosity to which another supporting
ligament of the sacrum attaches
c) Pubis
● Inferior anterior portion of the os coxa
● Consists of superior rami which is separated from the inferior rami
by the body
● Large opening that is bordered by the rami of the pubis and
ischium is the obturator foramen
● Pubis of each os coxa are separated by a fibrocartilage disc that
forms the pubic symphysis joint
d) Acetabulum
● Fossa formed by iliac, ischium, and pubis
● Socket for the femur forming hip joint
D. Lower Extremities
● Supports the entire mass and any additional force applied to and erect individual
● Each extremity is composed of a femur, patella, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, and
phalanges
1. Femur
● Longest (¼ of height), heaviest, and strongest bone in the body
● Proximal end is the head which articulates with the os coxa at the
acetabulum
● There is a small depression (notch) in the head called fovea capitis which
is attached to acetabulum by a ligament
● Where neck joins acetabulum are two projections
● Lateral projection is the greater trochanter, medial projection is the lesser
trochanter, and they provide attachment for thigh and gluteal muscles
● As shaft continues downward, it is angled slightly to the medial side so
the knees are more in line with the body’s center of gravity (helps
balance)
● On posterior is a ridge called linea aspera which is a point of attachment
for hamstrings
● At distal end where it flares out are two epicondyles (medial and lateral
epicondyle)
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● Inferior (distally) to the epicondyles are the lateral and medial condyles
that articulate with the tibia
● In between two condyles is the intercondylar fossa which articulates with
the patella and helps it to stay aligned
2. Tibia
● Larger of two inferior leg bones
● At proximal end are the lateral condyle and medial condyle which
articulate with the femur
● On anterior face inferior to condyles is the tibial tuberosity which attaches
to the patellar ligament (anchors the patella)
● Inferior to lateral condyle is proximal tibiofibular joint which articulates with
fibula but allows no movement
● At distal end of the tibia on the medial side is the medial malleolus which
articulates with the talus of the ankle/tarsus
● On lateral side is distal tibiofibular joint which articulates with distal end of
fibula
3. Fibula
● Runs along lateral side of tibia
● Supports very little weight and serves primarily as a point of attachment
for many muscles, tendons, and ligaments
● Most superior/proximal portion is the head which articulates with the tibia
● Distal end on lateral side is the lateral malleolus which articulates with the
talus
● Major importance of the fibula is that the muscles and tendons that attach
to it are the muscles and tendons that hold the ankle together
E. Foot
● Segmented appendage composed of three regions: tarsus (seven bones),
metatarsus (five bones), and phalanges (fourteen bones)
1. Tarsus
● Commonly referred to as the ankle which is composed of seven tarsal
bones
● Most superior and is only tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia
● No muscles or tendons attach to the talus- just ligaments
● Inferior to the talus is the calcaneus, more commonly called the heel
● Calcaneus is major weight bearing bone in the tarsus and also is the point
of attachment for the calcaneal/achilles tendon
2. Metatarsus
● Five bones that distribute weight of the body throughout the foot
● Numbered 1-5 starting with 1 at the medial side (hallux)
3. Phalanges
● Fourteen bones that constitute the toes
● Like the fingers each toe is composed of three phalanx, except for the
hallux/big toe which is composed of two phalanx
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4. Arches
● Foot is able to support weight and absorb force due to three arches found
in foot
● These arches are formed and their structure maintained by the bones,
ligaments, and tendons
● Function in a similar manner as the curves in the vertebral column to
absorb and dissipate force
CATABOLISM
I. Cellular Respiration
● Sometimes referred to as internal respiration
● Process by which energy stored within chemical bonds of foodstuffs is transferred to a
form (ATP) that the cell can use
● Occurs within cell (cytoplasm and mitochondria)
A. Adenosine Triphosphate
● Nucleotide (among others) used by all living organisms to transfer energy from
food to cells
● Created from ADP + P as it is needed
● Energy is transferred through process of cellular respiration
● Energy used by cells is stored in bond between second and third phosphate
● When ATP is used, the bond between second and third phosphate is broken
resulting in ADP + P
● Because of its structure ATP is considered to be a nucleotide
● At any given instant each cell in the human body contains one billion molecules
of ATP
● Aver5age ATP molecule exists for 20 seconds before it is used/turned into ADP
● So on average each molecule of ATP is recycled 3 times per minute
● Since total amount of ATP is 50 grams at any given time and it is recycled every
20 seconds, that means that a person who consumes 2500 KCal a day
generates 180 Kg (400 pounds) of ATP per day
B. Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
● Means without oxygen
● Process by which energy within chemical bonds of foodstuffs are transferred to a
form (ATP) that the cell can use without using oxygen
● Occurs in the cytoplasm and results in the very rapid generation of ATP
1. Anaerobic Pathways
a) CP (Creatine Phosphate) ATP Pathway
● Generation of Adenosine Triphosphate/ATP from combination of
Creatine Phosphate/CP and Adenosine Diphosphate/ADP
● CP + ADP → ATP + C
● This process is limited by the amount of CP in the cell and can
provide energy for events less than 10 seconds in duration
b) Fermentation
● Generation of ATP utilizing only reactions of glycolysis
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● Produces ATP rapidly and lactic acid as a byproduct


● Used by the body to generate energy for activities lasting 10-50
seconds
● Limited by the amount of acid created
C. Aerobic Cellular Respiration
● Utilizes oxygen to generate ATP
● Three ways to generate the precursor molecules needed for aerobic catabolism:
glycolysis (carbohydrates), lipolysis (lipids), and gluconeogenesis (proteins)
● Once the foodstuffs have been processed into precursor molecules, the
precursor molecules then enter the citric acid cycle (TCA) then the electron
transport chain (ETC) both of which occur in mitochondria
1. Glycolysis
● Uses carbohydrates to generate precursors for TCA and ETC
● Contributes to ATP production after two minutes of activity
2. Lipolysis
● Triglycerides (fats) are broken down into fatty acids that enter TCA and
then ETC
● Contributes to ATP production after twenty minutes of activity
3. Gluconeogenesis
● Once glucose and glycogen stores are exhausted (three to four hours of
activity), protein is used to help meet the ATP needs of cells
● Essentially protein is broken down into precursors that are used to make
glycogen
D. Aerobic and Anaerobic Generation of ATP
● Generation of ATP is never done by just anaerobic or aerobic cellular respiration
● Both processes always occur together
● Percentage of ATP that each process contributes is determined by metabolic rate
and by length of an activity
Duration of Activity Anaerobic Aerobic

Rest 2-4% 96-98%

10-30 seconds 90% 10%

30-60 seconds 70-80% 20-30%

2 minutes 60% 40%

4 minutes 35% 65%

10 minutes 15% 85%

30 minutes 5% 95%

60+ minutes 1-2% 98-99%


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II. Aerobic Cellular Respiration


● Energy in carbohydrate, protein, and lipid cannot be used directly by cells and must be
transferred to ATP which the cell can readily utilize
● Majority of ATP that is generated receives its energy from chemical bonds of glucose
● Majority of glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen (polysaccharide created by
dehydration reactions)
● Some glucose is found in the blood (blood glucose) and a small amount is stored in
muscle cells
● Glucose can sustain body’s need to generate ATP for ~3-4 hours of activity until all
stores are exhausted if not replenished
● Aerobic cellular respiration of glucose consists of three sets of reactions: glycolysis, TCA
(citric acid cycle), and ETC (electron transport chain)
C​6​H​12​O​6​ + 6O​2​ + 6H​2​O → 6CO​2​ + 12H​2​O
A. Glycolysis
● First set of reactions for both aerobic cellular respiration and fermentation
(anaerobic pathway)
● Utilizes glucose for cellular respiration
1. Uptake of Glucose
● Glucose molecules must be liberated from glycogen (polysaccharide
stored form of glucose)
● Glucagon (hormone) is used to release individual glucose molecules from
glycogen
● Once glucose is in bloodstream it enters cell using insulin
2. First Phosphorylation
● High energy PO​4​ group (from ATP) is added to sixth carbon of the
glucose molecule
● Hexokinase regulates this reaction
● Molecule is now called glucose 6 phosphate
3. Second Phosphorylation
● A second ATP reacts with glucose 6 phosphate, adding a PO4 to the first
carbon
● Mediated by enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase which converts glucose
portion of molecule into an isomer (fructose)
○ Isomer: same chemical formula, different chemical structure
● Molecule is now called fructose 1,6 biphosphate
4. Cleavage of Glucose
● Utilizing energy from two ATP (from first and second phosphorylations)
and enzyme aldolase, splits unstable fructose 1,6 biphosphate into two,
three carbon molecules called glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate (GAP)
a) Reduction
● Gaining electrons (reducing the charge) or hydrogen atoms (H​-​)
b) Oxidation
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● Loss of electrons or gain of hydrogen ions (H​+​)


5. Generation of NADH / Reduction of NAD
● Hydrogen atoms of GAP contain high amounts of energy that can be used
to generate ATP
● To create ATP, hydrogen atoms must be transferred to the mitochondria
● Enzyme Triose Phosphate Dehydrogenase releases an H atom from each
GAP and binds each H atom to a NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide) molecule forming two NADH molecules
● Two NADH molecules have a high amount of energy
● At the same time, a PO​4​ (P​i​, inorganic PO​4​) binds to each GAP
● Each GAP becomes 1,3 diphosphoglycerate (PGAP)
6. Generation of ATP
● Each PGAP loses a phosphate to ADP, creating a molecule of ATP
● Each PGAP becomes phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
● Phosphoglycerokinase is the enzyme used here
7. Dehydration
● An enzyme (enolase) causes each molecule of PGA to lose a molecule of
H2O forming PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate)
8. Production of Pyruvate
● Using pyruvate kinase (enzyme), each PEP gives up its last PO4 to ADP
forming ATP
● Pyruvate is final product of glycolysis
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Products of Glycolysis
-2 ATP (used)
+2 NADH
+4 ATP
NET TOTAL: 2 NADH and 2 ATP
B. The Citric Acid Cycle (TCA) aka Krebs Cycle
● Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
● Mitochondria have their own DNA (resembles prokaryotic DNA) & can reproduce
independently of the cell
● Mitochondria are probably prokaryotic in origin (endosymbiosis) and may be
linked within the cell as a network or as a reticulum
● O​2​ is utilized by mitochondria (cristae) though TCA itself is anaerobic
● However, ETC is aerobic but cannot occur without products of TCA
1. Formation of Acetyl CoA
● Two pyruvate produced by glycolysis diffuse to the mitochondria where
they enter two different cycles of TCA
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● As pyruvate (C​3​) enters the mitochondrion (via specific protein channels)


it is acted upon by pyruvate dehydrogenase which causes pyruvate to
lose an H atom (oxidation) to NAD forming NADH
● Instability caused by loss of the H atom causes pyruvate to lose a CO​2
molecule
● Instantly a molecule of Coenzyme A attaches to the C​2​ molecule (former
pyruvate), creating acetyl CoA
2. Formation of Citric Acid
● TCA begins and ends with a C​4​ molecule called oxaloacetic acid
● Acetyl CoA joins oxaloacetic acid and loses CoA which can be used
again, creating citric acid (C​6​)
3. Oxidation of Citric Acid
● Technically isocitric acid at this point
● Through a series of three reactions, citric acid is oxidized twice by NAD​+
forming two molecules of NADH
● Each time an oxidation occurs here, a CO​2​ molecule is lost
● After the second oxidation, a CoA rejoins the C​4​ molecule forming
succinyl CoA
4. Synthesis of ATP
● Mechanism of two linked reactions
● PO​4​ (P​i​) joins succinyl CoA, knocking off CoA
● Immediately PO​4​ is picked up by GDP (guanosine diphosphate) forming
GTP (guanosine triphosphate)
● GTP transfers PO​4​ (P​i​) to an ADP creating ATP
● Succinate (C​4​) is formed
5. Reformation of Oxaloacetic Acid
● Three reaction process
● Succinate is oxidized by FAD creating FADH, no CO​2​ is given off and the
resulting product is fumarate (C​4​)
● H​2​O is added to fumarate creating malate (C​4​)
● Malate is oxidized by NAD forming NADH, no CO​2​ is given off
● Creates oxaloacetic acid and TCA can occur again
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Products of TCA
Each Pyruvate molecule going through TCA:
4 NADH
1 FADH
1 ATP
or
For each glucose:
8 NADH
2 FADH
2 ATP
C. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
● Series of several proteins embedded in cristae (internal membrane of the
mitochondria)
● Several thousand ETCs in each cristae
● FADH transfers high energy electrons to the electron transport chain creating 2
ATP from 2 ADP + P​i​ and NADH transfers high energy electrons to ETC creating
3 ATP from 3 ADP + P​i
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● Since oxygen is used and a phosphorylation occurs, this process is called


oxidative phosphorylation
1. Oxidation of NADH and FADH
● NADH (from glycolysis and TCA) and FADH (from TCA) diffuse to cristae
● NADH and FADH lose the high energy H atom with its high energy
electrons, the electrons are stripped from the H atom and enter the ETC
● High energy electrons enter ETC leaving H​+​ ions that accumulate on one
side of the membrane
● As electrons pass down the chain of proteins, the energy they possess
will be used by the proteins to pump H​+​ across the membrane (against
the concentration gradient) to a region of high H​+​ concentration
2. Generation of ATP
● Energy within electrons is used to bond P​i​ + ADP, creating ATP
● One NADH enters ETC, 3 ATP are created
● One FADH enters ETC, 2 ATP are created
3. Utilization of O​2
● At the end of ETC, H​+​ ions rejoin with electrons as two H​2​ combine with
O​2​ forming H​2​O
NET TOTALS:
NADH FADH ATP

Glycolysis 2 0 4

TCA 8 2 2

ETC 10 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH 2 FADH x 2 ATP/FADH 34

GROSS 10 2 40
TOTAL Net Total: 36
III. Fermentation
● Anaerobic cellular respiration occurs under the following situations:
○ If ATP is needed rapidly
○ For activities lasting less than two minutes in duration
○ If no O​2​ is available
○ If the mitochondria is overwhelmed/saturated with NADH or FADH
● Anaerobic cellular respiration starts with glycolysis and produces 2 net ATP, 2 NADH
and 2 pyruvate
● Since the 2 NADH do not enter mitochondria, the 2 ATP aren’t used for active transport
of the NADH and instead the 2 ATP can be used for cellular functions
● Since the 2 NADH do not enter mitochondria, they must be oxidized (turned back to
NAD) in the cytosol
● 2 NADH are oxidized by the 2 pyruvate creating 2 molecules of lactic acid (NADH +
Pyruvate = H​+​ Lac + NAD)
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● The NAD is available for additional oxidation and the cell removes and neutralizes the
lactic acid (H​+​ Lac)
● Anaerobic cellular respiration is much quicker than aerobic cellular respiration but
produces far less ATP and additionally produces lactic acid
A. Lactic Acid Neutralization
● During any activity, ATP is generated by both aerobic and anaerobic sources
● Depending on the duration and intensity of the activity, lactic acid may be
produced in excess (production is greater than the cell’s ability to remove it)
● This excess lactic acid (H​+​ Lac) is neutralized by bicarbonate (HCO​3​-​)
● H​+​ Lac + HCO​3​-​ → H​2​O + CO​2​ + Lactate
● This excess CO​2​ must be released from the body through increased ventilation
● Increased ventilation means that more O​2​ is being breathes in with each
inspiration though it is not necessarily being utilized
● In mainly anaerobic activities (less than one minute in duration) this excess O​2​ is
not utilized at the cellular level and is exhaled along with excess CO​2
MUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
I. Functions of Muscle
A. Skeletal Movement
● By converting energy in the chemical bonds of ATP to mechanical energy,
muscles can contract
● Contraction exerts force on bones causing movement (internal or external)
B. Posture
● Muscle contraction doesn’t always produce movement but can also maintain
tension within muscles and on bones that acts to neutralizes forces (gravity) and
maintain position
C. Stabilization and Support
● Strength and density of muscle allows it to stabilize, strengthen, and support
more fragile structures
● Seen in joints and with organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavities
D. Thermogenesis
● As in any mechanical situation where chemical energy is converted to
mechanical energy, heat is generated
● Much of the heat created through contractions is used to maintain a stable body
temperature
II. Types of Muscle and Muscle Tissue
● Composed of proteins that allow for contraction, these tissues are responsible for
generating motion and heat, and maintaining posture
● Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
● Muscle cells are always referred to as fibers, cytoplasm is the sarcoplasm, and the cell
membrane is the sarcolemma
A. Skeletal Muscle
● Long, thin cells that attach to bones and are multinucleated
● Voluntary (contraction and relaxation can be consciously controlled)
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● The protein myosin (part of actin and myosin complex allowing contraction) lines
up in the cells creating striations
B. Cardiac Muscle
● Only found in walls of the heart
● Smaller than skeletal muscle cells
● Usually only have one nucleus but they can be multinucleated
● Have striations
● Branch & join one another using a special type of desmosome called
intercalcated disks
● Involuntary (contractions and relaxations are unconsciously controlled)
● Provides force that moves blood through the body
C. Smooth Muscle
● Involuntary muscles that lack striations and have one nucleus
● Found within walls of hollow organs (bladder), structures (digestive tract), and in
walls of blood vessels
III. Anatomy of a Muscle
● Skeletal muscles are individual organs that attach to the skeleton
● Individual cells are called muscle cells, muscle fibers, or myofibers
● Individual muscle fibers are wrapped in a sheath of connective tissue called endomysium
● Several muscle fibers are bound together by connective tissue called perimysium which
forms a fascicle
● Fascicles are then bound into a muscle by connective tissue called epimysium
● At the origin and insertion, the epimysium becomes a tendon that attaches to a bone
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A. Muscle Fiber
● Individual muscle cells
● Can extend to 30 cm in length
● Membrane of muscle cells is called sarcolemma
● Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated and the nuclei are located on the
periphery of the cell
● Within the cell is filled with mitochondria found in between rows of myofils
(protein threads that constitute the muscle)
B. Myofibril
● Small, threadlike structures made of protein that are contractile components of
each cell
● Each muscle fiber contains hundreds to thousands of myofibrils
● They are short and do not extend the full length of the muscle fiber
● As a result, myofibrils must overlap, creating striations
● These are the result of two types of protein (actin and myosin) overlapping
● Actin and myosin are proteins that make up myofibrils
C. Myosin
● Thick protein fibers that line up to form the A bands
● Each filament of myosin contains a moveable structure (myosin head) which will
attach to specific binding sites on the actin

D. Actin
● Thinner protein filaments that make up the I bands
● On each actin molecule are sites that the myosin head can bind to when the
muscle contracts
IV. Sarcomeres
● Actin and myosin are myofilaments
● Since myofilaments don’t extend the full length of a muscle, they are arranged in
repeating units called sarcomeres
● Each myofibril is composed of ~10,000 sarcomeres arranged end to end
● Sarcomeres are the contractile unit of the muscle
● Each individual one can only contract/shorten a small amount, but when all sarcomeres
in all myofibrils of a muscle are considered, this contraction becomes significant
● Arranged into zones and bands
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A. A Band
● Found in the center of the sarcomere
● Made up of rows of myosin/thick filaments
● Portion of actin/thin filaments overlap edges of myosin at the edges of the A band
● Is the dark section of the sarcomere
1. M Line
● Protein filaments extending off the center of each thick filament
● Connect the center of each thick filament in the A band which stabilizes
the A band
● Central portion of the A band
2. H Zone
● Portion of the A band that doesn’t overlap with thin filaments
● Contains only myosin and is only seen when the sarcomere is
relaxed/resting
3. Zone of Overlap
● Found at the edges of the A band where actin and myosin portions
overlap
B. I Bands
● Extends from A band of one sarcomere to an A band of another sarcomere
● Contains only actin/thin filaments
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1. Z Lines
● Composed of protein that connects one sarcomere to the next
● Marks the boundaries of each sarcomere
V. Movement
● Contraction/movement occurs when the actin and myosin filaments slide past one
another using energy stored in ATP
A. Conditions & Components of Movement
1. Motor Unit
● For a voluntary muscle to move, it must be stimulated by the nervous
system
● A number of muscle fibers (usually ~150) are stimulated by a motor
neuron (nerve attached to muscle fibers)
● The neuron and the fibers that it stimulates are the motor unit
2. Action Potential
● An electric impulse that initiates the sequence of events that results in
muscle contraction
● Caused by the movement of ions across a cell membrane
● Creates an electrical current that can travel from cell to cell and stimulate
contraction
B. Steps of Muscle Contraction
1. An action potential (electrical impulse) travels from the brain down a
motor neuron to the axon terminal (end of nerve) at the neuromuscular
junction (where neuron meets muscle)
2. When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, a neurotransmitter
(acetylcholine) is released and travels across the space between the axon
and the muscle
3. Acetylcholine triggers sodium channels to open, and the Na​+​ ions cross
the sarcolemma (cell membrane) of muscle fibers, generating an action
potential that can travel from muscle cell to muscle cell
4. As the action potential travels along the sarcolemma, it also causes
Calcium​++​ to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca​++​ binds to
troponin (attached to tropomyosin) on actin filaments, changing the shape
of the tropomyosin and causing the myosin binding sites on the actin to
become exposed
5. Myosin heads aren't attached to thin filaments, but possess energy from
an ATP molecule that was previously attached to the myosin head. ATP is
broken down to ADP + P​i​ + energy and is used to attach myosin heads to
binding sites on thin filaments
6. Energy released from the ATP that was previously attached to the myosin
head causes the myosin head to move, which moves the thin filament
bound to it
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7. As thin filaments begin to move towards one another, the Z-discs also
move toward one another, which causes the sarcomere to shorten and
the muscle begins to contract
8. A molecule of ATP attaches to each head of myosin. The binding of ATP
to the myosin head releases the myosin head from the thin filament
(actin). Energy within ATP will be utilized by the myosin head to attach to
thin filaments and move them the next time an action potential stimulates
the muscle fiber
9. As the action potential from the motor neuron continues, the process will
continue and muscle fibers continue to contract
C. Relaxation
● Contraction continues until the action potential ends
● When the action potential stops, the actin and myosin disengage from one
another
● For the sarcomere to return to its relaxed length, another force, usually generated
by contraction of an antagonist muscle, is needed to act on the sarcomere
VI. Muscle Metabolism
A. Types of Muscle
● Two major types of muscle found in the body classified by type of metabolism
(aerobic or anaerobic) that muscles utilize
● Everyone possesses both types (fast twitch and slow twitch) but amounts of each
found in every individual differ
1. Fast Twitch (Low Oxidative/Type II)
● A fast contracting type of muscle fiber with a high capacity of generating
ATP anaerobically
● Predominately used during stop and go/change of pace activities as well
as all out rapid activities lasting less than 45-60 seconds
● In elite sprinters, these fibers constitute 55-65% of the athlete’s muscle
fibers
● They have a lower concentration of mitochondria and can also generate
ATP aerobically but at a slower rate than slow twitch muscle fibers
2. Slow Twitch (High Oxidative/Type I)
● A slow contracting muscle fiber with a high capacity to produce ATP
aerobically using glucose and fatty acids
● Contain high concentration of large mitochondria
● Predominately used in endurance activities lasting more than 5 minutes
● In elite endurance athletes (nordic skiing, cycling, running, etc.) the fibers
constitute 65-80% of the athlete’s muscle fibers
● They have the ability to produce ATP anaerobically but not to the extent
of fast twitch muscle fibers
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VII. Determinants of Muscle Movement


A. Terms for Movement
1. Muscle Tissue
● All of the contractile tissue in the body
2. Muscular System
● Refers to skeletal muscles
● Muscle that is attached to bone and aids movement of bones
3. Origin
● Under normal circumstances, the two articulating bones do not move
equally during muscle contraction
○ Usually, one of the bones remains relatively fixed as the other
moves
● Where the tendon attaches to the fixed bone is the origin
4. Insertion
● Where the tendon of a muscle attached to moving bone
5. Fulcrum
● Fixed point around which a lever moves, a joint
6. Lever
● A rigid structure that moves about the fulcrum, a bone
7. Resistance
● What is being moves
● Includes lever and any load associated with the lever
8. Effort
● Force required to move the resistance
● Generated by muscle
B. Length of Muscle Fibers
● Major factor in range of motion
● The longer the fibers, the more they can contract and the greater the range of
motion
C. Number of Muscle Fibers
● The number of muscle fibers contained within the muscle determines the strength
of the muscle
● The more fibers contained, the stronger the muscle
D. Arrangement of Fascicles
● The manner in which fascicles are arranged within a muscle helps determine
power and range of motion
1. Parallel
● Muscle fibers are arranged to be parallel to the long axis of the bone
● Can contract greatly and produce a large range of motion
2. Pinnate
● Fibers within the fascicle are short and extend off of one side of the
tendon which runs the length of the muscle
● Fibers are attached at an angle appearing like a feather
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● These contract using short directional movements


3. Convergent
● Has a branched origin (usually triangular or fan-like) that converges to a
single tendon at the point of insertion
● Generally create a great deal of power
VIII. Movement of Synovial Joints
● Only synovial joints move freely
A. Angular Movements
● Any increase / decrease in the angle between two bones no matter what body
play in the movement occurs in
● Usually classified by the plane it occurs in
● There are five categories of angular movement
● *in anatomical position*
1. Flexion
● Occurs parallel to the sagittal plane
● Bending motion that decreases the angle between two bones
2. Extension
● Occurs parallel to the sagittal plane
● Opposite of flexion, angle between bones increases
3. Abduction
● Occurs parallel to the frontal plane
● Movement away from the midline of the body
4. Adduction
● Occurs parallel to the frontal plane
● Movement towards the midline of the body
5. Circumduction
● Goes through more than one plane
● Appears circular but it is the sum of flexion, abduction, extension, and
adduction done in succession
● Only ball and socket joints are capable of this movement
B. Gliding Movements
● Observed between articulating flat bones
● Bones slide / glide over one another
● Occurs between carpals, tarsals, vertebrae, and manubrium / clavicle
C. Rotation
● Turning / pivoting movements along the long axis of a bone
● Can be toward the midline (medial rotation) or away (lateral rotation)
● Observed between limbs or atlas / axis
D. Other Movements
1. Movements of Radius & Ulna
a) Pronation
● Movement of ulna and radius that results in palm facing inferiorly
or posteriorly
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b) Supination
● Opposite of pronation
● Results in palm facing anteriorly or superiorly
2. Movements of Foot
a) Inversion
● The sole of the foot turns medially or turns in
b) Eversion
● The sole of the foot turns laterally or turns out
3. General Movements
a) Elevation
● Movement parallel to the frontal plane where structure or portion
of the body moves superiorly
b) Depression
● Movement parallel to the frontal plane where structure or portion
of the body moves inferiorly or downwards
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
● Muscle locations– Many ways to group and classify muscles
○ Direction of fibers, location, shape, size, number of origins, and action
○ For most purposes, they are classified by location
I. Facial Muscles
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION

Masseter Maxilla and Angle of ramus and Closes jaw


zygomatic arch mandible

Temporalis Temporal and frontal Coronoid process Closes jaw


bones and ramus of
mandible

Sternocleidomastoid Sternum and clavicle Mastoid process of Rotates and head,


temporal bone flexes neck

II. Shoulder and Back Muscles


NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION

Trapezius Occipital bone and Spine and acromion Rotation of scapula


multiple vertebrae (C​7 process of scapula
and all thoracic) and clavicle

Latissimus Dorsi T​7​-T​12​ (spinous Shaft of humerus Extension and


process), lumbar rotation of arm
vertebrae, crests of
sacrum and ilium,
ribs 9-12
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Rhomboids (major T​2​-T​5​ (major) Inferior vertebral Elevation, adduction,


and minor) border of scapula inferior rotation of
scapula

Erector Spinae 1. All ribs and 1. Transverse Keeps spine erect


1. Iliocostalis iliac crest process of ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
2. Longissimus 2. Transverse C​4​-C​6​, all ribs
3. Spinalis process of 2. Mastoid
various process and Keeps spine erect
vertebrae transverse ↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
3. Spinous process of
process of multiple
numerous vertebrae, ribs
thoracic and 9 and 10
lumbar 3. Occipital bone
vertebrae and spinous
process of
superior
thoracic
vertebrae

Pectoralis Major Ribs (costal cartilage Greater tubercle of Adducts, flexes, and
of ribs 2-6), sternum, humerus extends arm
clavicle

Pectoralis Minor Ribs 2-5 Coracoid process of Depression of


scapula scapula

Rotator Cuff 1. Scapula 1. Greater Attaches arm to body


1. Infraspinatus 2. Scapula tubercle of and allows rotation
2. Supraspinatus (supraspinous humerus and adduction of the
3. Subscapularis fossa) 2. Greater arm
4. Teres Minor 3. Scapula tubercle of
(subscapular humerus
fossa) 3. Lesser
4. Inferior angle tubercle of
of scapula humerus
4. Greater
tubercle of
humerus

Deltoid Acromion and spine Deltoid tuberosity Flexion, extension,


of scapula, acromial abduction of the arm
extremity of clavicle
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III. Chest and Abdominal Muscles


NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION

Serratus Anterior Ribs 1-8 Medial border of Forward movement


scapula of scapula

Rectus Abdominis Body of pubis (pubic Costal cartilages of Flexion of vertebral


crest) of os coxa and ribs 5-7, xiphoid column
pubic symphysis process

External Obliques Ribcage Iliac crest and fascia Flexion and rotation
of rectus abdominis of vertebral column

Internal Obliques Iliac crest and various Inferior ribs (9 or Flexion and rotation
locations of both os 10-12) and fascia or of vertebral column
coxa rectus abdominis

IV. Arms
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION

Triceps Brachii Lateral head– Olecranon process Extension of


posterior of humerus humerus, radius, and
Medial Head– ulna
posterior of humerus
and scapula (inferior
of glenoid fossa)

Biceps Brachii Short Head– coracoid Radial tuberosity Flexion of radius,


process ulna, and humerus,
Long Head– superior supination of radius
of glenoid fossa of
scapula

Brachialis Anterior distal Coronoid process of Flexion of radius and


humerus ulna ulna

Brachioradialis Lateral epicondyle of Styloid process Flexion and rotation


humerus (distal) of radius of radius and ulna

Flexor Carpi Radialis Medial epicondyle of Metacarpals 2 and 3 Flexion and


humerus abduction of wrist

Extensor Carpi 1. Superior 1. 2nd Extension and


Radialis lateral metacarpal abduction of wrist,
1. Longis condyle 2. 3rd extension of
2. Brevis 2. Lateral metacarpal phalanges
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3. Extensor epicondyle 3. Each phalanx


Digitorum/ 3. Lateral
Ulnaris epicondyle

V. Leg Muscles
● Sartorius and adductors are superior muscles
● Rectus femoris through vastus medialis are quadriceps
● Gluteus maximus and medius are gluteals
● Semitendinosus through biceps femoris are hamstrings
● Tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus are anterior muscles
● Soleus through calcaneal tendon are posterior muscles
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION

Sartorius Superior anterior iliac Tibial tuberosity Flexion of hip and


spine knee

Adductors 1. Inferior ramus 1. Superior linea Adduction and medial


1. Brevis of pubis aspera rotation of the femur
2. Longus 2. Body of pubis 2. Linea aspera
3. Magnus and pubic 3. Linea aspera
symphysis
3. Inferior ramus
of pubis and
ischium

Rectus Femoris Anterior inferior iliac Femoral tendon to Extension of tibia and
spine the patella to the fibula and flexion of
tibial tuberosity via femur
the patellar ligament

Vastus intermedius Greater trochanter Femoral tendon to Extension of tibia and


and anterior/lateral the patella to the fibula and flexion of
surfaces of femur tibial tuberosity via femur
the patellar ligament

Vastus lateralis Greater trochanter of Femoral tendon to Extension of tibia and


femur and linea the patella to the fibula and flexion of
aspera tibial tuberosity via femur
the patellar ligament

Vastus medialis Entirety of linea Femoral tendon to Extension of tibia and


aspera the patella to the fibula and flexion of
tibial tuberosity via femur
the patellar ligament

Gluteus Maximus Iliac crest, sacrum, Iliotibial tract and Extension and lateral
81

coccyx linea aspera inferior rotation of femur


to greater trochanter

Gluteus medius Iliac crest and gluteal Greater trochanter Abduction and medial
surface rotation of femur

Semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity Proximal medial end Flexion of tibia and


of tibia fibula and extension
of femur

Semimembranosus Ischial tuberosity Medial condyle of Flexion of tibia and


tibia fibula and extension
of femur

Biceps Femoris Long head- ischial Head of fibula and Flexion of tibia and
tuberosity lateral condyle of tibia fibula and extension
Short head- linea of femur
aspera

Tibialis Anterior Lateral condyle and Tarsals and Dorsiflexion and


body of tibia metatarsals eversion of foot

Extensor Digitorum Lateral condyle of Phalanges Extension of


Longus tibia and anterior end phalanges
of fibula

Soleus Medial border of tibia Calcaneus via Plantar flexion


and head of fibula calcaneal tendon

Gastrocnemius Lateral and medial Calcaneus via Flexion of tibia and


condyles calcaneal tendon fibula, plantar flexion

Calcaneal Tendon *not a muscle, no Calcaneus Shared by soleus and


origin* gastrocnemius

ARTICULATIONS
● Points of contact between two bones, cartilage and bones, or teeth and bones
● May both facilitate movement or stabilize a structure, prohibiting movement
● Classified in two manners– structure and function
I. Structural Classification
● Based upon construction
A. Fibrous
● Not encapsulated by joint cavity
● Held together by fibrous connective tissue (usually ligaments)
● Generally immobile and stabilize structures
1. Sutures
● Found only between cranial bones
82

● Synarthrosis– cannot be moved


● Joint forms between edges of bones that interlock and are joined by
fibrous connective tissue
● Ossifies by adulthood
2. Syndesmoses
● Joined by dense fibrous tissue (usually ligaments) or by sheets of dense
fibrous connective tissue (interosseous membrane)
● Hold bones together
3. Gomphoses
● Projection fits into socket and is bound to bone via fibrous connective
tissue (ligaments)
● Surrounding nature and fibrous connective tissue
● immoveable
B. Cartilaginous
● Lack joint cavity and articulating bones connect via cartilage
● Rigid (synarthrosis) or slightly moveable (amphiarthrosis)
1. Synchondrosis
● Two articulating bones connected by dense fibrous tissue (cartilage)
● Holds and binds two bones rigidly together
2. Symphysis
● Slightly movable joints where there is a fibrocartilage disc that separates
articular cartilage of articulating bones
C. Synovial
● Freely moving articulations (diarthrosis)
1. Characteristics of Synovial Joints
● Articulating bones are separated by a fluid filled cavity
● Ends are covered with articular cartilage (reduces friction and absorbs
force)
● Entire joint is enclosed by a double layer membrane, inner layer contains
the synovial cavity
● Cavity contains synovial fluid which reduces friction
● Ligaments strengthen joint and hold bones together, can be part of or
independent of capsule
II. Types of Synovial Joints
A. Gliding
● Articulation between two flat bones that have a flat or slightly curved surface
● Can only move back and forth or side to side (no other movement is allowed due
to proximity of other bones)
● Only very slight movement between individual bones which can be magnified as
more bones moving in unison
B. Hinge
● Convex or protruding process of one bone fits into concave recess of another
forming a monaxial joint
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● Movement occurs only in one plane and is similar to movements associated with
a hinge
C. Pivot
● Raised or rounded process of one bone that fits into a ring of bone(s) or
ligaments of another
● Another monaxial joint
● Only allows for rotation
D. Ellipsoidal
● A.k.a. condyloid joints
● Oval condyle of one bone fits into oval depression or cavity of another which
allows for movement in two directions (back and forth and side to side) and is
biaxial
● May have either one or two condyles
1. Bicondylar
● Ellipsoidal joint that utilizes two condyles of one bone that fit into two oval
cavities/depressions of one another
● Because there are two points of contact between articulating bones,
movement only occurs in one plane
● Sometimes called modified hinge joints
E. Saddle
● Convex (rider-like) face of one bone fits into concave (saddle-like) face of another
● Allows for movement through more than one plane
● Angular and circumduction but not rotation
F. Ball and Socket
● Ball shaped process of one bone (head) fits into socket or depression of another
● Performs angular, circumduction, rotation, and triaxial movements
III. Structure of Specific Joints
A. Knee (Tibiofemoral)
● Largest joint in the body & most complicated
● Structurally, it is a bicondylar joint, though functionally, it resembles a hinge
● Three articulations– one between patella & femur, and two between femur & tibia
(medial condyle of femur to medial condyle of tibia, lateral condyle to lateral
condyle)
● Not a typical synovial joint because it isn’t encapsulated by a single membrane
nor a common synovial cavity
● Instead it is surrounded by a network of ligaments and tendons that support and
hold the joint together
1. Bones
● Comprised of three bones– patella, femur, and tibia
● Lateral and medial condyles of both the femur and tibia articulate with one
another with two fibrocartilage pads (lateral and medial menisci) between
the femur and tibia
84

● Patella is embedded within patellar tendon (continues inferiorly to tibia as


the patellar ligament) and glides over distal condyles of the femur
● Patella functions as a fulcrum (pivot point) and prevents hyperextension
2. Ligaments
● Dense bands of fibrous connective tissue, hold bone to bone and give
joint strength and support
● Major ligaments of knee include anterior cruciate, posterior cruciate,
patellar, fibular collateral (lateral), and tibial collateral (medial)
a) Patellar Ligament
● Holds patella to tibia (attaches at tibial tuberosity)
● Supports and strengthens the anterior portion of the knee
● Superior portion of the patella is attached to femoral tendon which
extends from the rectus femoris
b) Tibial Collateral Ligament
● Found on medial side of the knee
● Connects medial condyle of femur to medial condyle of tibia
● Strengthens medial side of the knee along with the FCL
● Gives stability to knee and prevents side to side movement
c) Fibular Collateral Ligament
● Found on lateral side of the knee
● Connects lateral condyle of femur to the head of the fibula
● Strengthens lateral side of knee
● Prevents side to side movement and stabilizes joint along with
TCL
d) Anterior Cruciate Ligament
● Originates on anterior face of tibia
● Attaches anterior portion of tibia to posterior side of the lateral
condyle of the femur
● Prevents tibia from sliding forward (anterior stabilization) and
hyperextension
e) Posterior Cruciate Ligament
● Originates on posterior face of tibia
● Attaches posterior portion of tibia to anterior side of the medial
condyle of the femur
● Prevents tibia from sliding backward
3. Menisci
● Two fibrocartilage discs menisci that separate the tibia and the femur
● Lateral meniscus sits between lateral condyles of femur and tibia, medial
meniscus sits between medial condyles of femur and tibia
● Two menisci are attached to each other by the transverse ligament
● They allow femur and tibia to fit tightly even as bones change position,
absorb force, and provide lateral (side to side) stability
85

4. Bursae
● Fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid
● Located between bones and tendons
● Reduce friction and absorb force between bones
● Twelve bursae, named for location and structure they separate
IV. Common Injuries
A. Sprains
● Result of sudden pulling/wrenching on joint
● Ligaments are pulled or stretched which causes a loosening of the joint
● Three grades:
○ Grade I– ligaments are stretched but still intact
○ Grade II– ligaments are stretched and partially torn
○ Grade III– ligaments are completely ruptured (torn)
● Grade I sprains usually heal after a few days, but more severe sprains take
longer than broken bones to heal (lower blood supply)
B. Bursitis
● Inflammation of bursae caused by trauma or infection
● Pressure caused by inflammation causes pain and restricts movement
C. Dislocation
● Displacement of articulating bones of a joint that results in a loss of contact
(separation) between them
● Can’t have dislocation without a sprain
D. Arthritis
● Inflammation of joint resulting in damage to articular cartilage (abnormal
ossification) of articulating bones
● Causes pain and restricts movement
● Causes vary
1. Osteoarthritis
● Damage resulting from daily wear & tear that accumulates over many
years, usually decades
2. Rheumatoid
● Immune system disorder where immune system attacks joint tissue
(among others), resulting in arthritis
● Thought to be genetic or perhaps caused by an immune response to a
virus
QUIZ 4/26
● 40 points
● Knee IDs
● Anatomical question
● No different types of joints, just the knee & movements that cruciates prevent
● Injuries & their relationships
86

NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. Nervous System
● All neural tissue (neurons, neuroglia, & axillary components) in the body
● Allows sensation and response to environment, movement, information integration, and
body function regulation
● Two main components: central and peripheral
A. Components of the Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
● Brain and spinal cord
○ Doesn’t include nerves that branch off spinal cord (spinal nerves)
nor nerves that originate from brain (cranial nerves)
● Processes and integrates sensory information and plans/coordinates
response to stimuli
2. Peripheral Nervous System
● Spinal nerves (31 pairs) that extend off spinal cord and cranial nerves that
originate from brain
● Links CNS with sense organs and other systems using sensory neurons
(afferent neurons that bring information sensed by the organism to CNS)
and motor neurons (efferent neurons that carry impulses to muscles and
glands)
● Composed of two subdivisions– somatic and autonomic
a) Somatic Nervous System
● Motor/efferent neurons
● Responsible for voluntary (occasionally involuntary)
reflexes/neural impulses that innervate skeletal muscle
● Mostly voluntary
b) Autonomic Nervous System
● Involuntary part of PNS
● Composed of neurons that regulate body systems and innervate
involuntary (smooth/cardiac) muscle
● Composed of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
(i) Sympathetic/Thoracolumbar Nervous System
● Regulates fight or flight response
● Stimulates cellular metabolism
● Recruits energy reserves
● Increases heart and ventilation rates and alertness
● Prepares organism for danger
(ii) Parasympathetic/Craniosacral Nervous System
● Reduces heart and ventilation rates
● Decreases cellular metabolism
● Increases storage of energy reserves
● Prepares organism for rest
87

II. Neuron Structure


A. Neurons
● Component of nervous system that generate and transfer action potentials/neural
impulses within the body
1. Dendrites
● Extensions of cytoplasm from soma
● Receives information (neurotransmitters) from across the synapse (small
gap between different neurons) and generates action
potentials, sending impulse to the next neuron
2. Soma
● Cell body of neuron
● Contains nucleus and organelles
including ribosomes which make proteins needed to
maintain the neuron
3. Axon
● Transmits action potential from
soma to terminal
● Along axon is a myelin sheath that
surrounds sections of the axon and is composed of
neuroglia
4. Axon Terminal
● End of an axon
● Divides into several branches
● End of each branch is called synaptic terminal which will release
neurotransmitters into the synapse when stimulated by an action potential
● Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse, thus stimulating dendrites of
the other neuron to generate action potential or neural impulses
B. Neuroglia
● Compose majority of nervous system
● Provide structural support, protection from bacteria and other foreign bodies &
help form blood brain barrier
● Composed of 5 different cell types
1. Schwann Cells
● Technically a cell of neuroglia, but it is associated with axons of PNS
neurons
● They wrap around segments of the axon, creating a myelin sheath (not
conductive)
● Gaps between myelin sheaths are nodes of Ranvier
● When the action potential travels down a myelinated axon, it will jump
from node to node, reducing resistance that the impulse faces and
increases speed
88

2. Blood Brain Barrier


● Astrocytes (one of the five types of neuroglia) surround basement
membranes of blood capillaries, creating a barrier between capillaries and
brain cells
● This inhibits passage of large substances such as bacteria, viruses, and
large molecules (pharmaceuticals) while allowing small molecules (O2,
CO2, CHO’s) to pass
● Protects brain from foreign particles that may enter the blood
● Also makes it difficult to treat infections and mental illness with
medications
C. Types of Neurons
● Several different types of neurons that perform many different functions and
therefore have different structure
1. Anaxonic
● Small neurons located within CNS and also in sense organs
● Soma is surrounded by axons & dendrites that are indistinguishable from
one another

2. Unipolar
● Soma lies off of the side of a continuous structure that contains dendrites
on one end and the axon terminal on the other
● Axon is myelinated
● Sensory neurons and are found in PNS
89

3. Bipolar
● Similar in structure to unipolar neurons with two exceptions
● Soma lies between dendrites and axon (not off to side)
● Axon is not myelinated
● Rare and found in eye & ear

4. Multipolar
● Most common neurons in CNS
● All motor neurons
● Consists of many dendrites extending off soma and a single myelinated
axon that may or may not branch
D. Functions
● Neurons can also be classified by their functions
● Three major functional classifications: sensory, motor, and interneurons
1. Sensory Neurons
● Belong to PNS
● Afferent (bring impulses toward CNS) neurons
● Unipolar neurons that link sensory receptor to CNS (brain or spinal cord)
● Collect information regarding the external environment (somatic neurons)
and the internal environment of our bodies (visceral sensory neurons)
● Typically unipolar
● Associated with sensory neurons are sensory receptors
a) Sensory Receptors
● Specialized cells/dendritic processes of a sensory neuron that
monitor internal and external environment
90

● When stimulated, they generate an action potential that travels to


the central nervous system via a sensory neuron
● Three types
(i) Exteroreceptors
● Interpret external environment
○ Hearing, sight, taste, pressure, temperature, and
touch
(ii) Proprioceptors
● Kinesthetic receptors that provide information concerning
position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints
(iii) Interoceptors
● Provide information regarding internal environment of body
○ Cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, urinary,
reproductive
● Pain receptors
2. Motor Neurons
● Part of the somatic nervous system
● Efferent neurons (carry information away from central nervous system) to
peripheral effectors (muscles or glands)
● Involuntary/smooth muscles are innervated by visceral motor neurons and
are part of the autonomic nervous system
● Typically multipolar
3. Interneurons
● Association neurons
● Most numerous type of neuron in the body (more than all others
combined)
● Only found within the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system)
● Integrating and processing all of the information
● Typically anaxonic
III. Neural Transmission
A. Plasma Membrane
● Plays a key role in generation & transmission of neural impulses
● Almost​ impenetrable to ions (charged atoms), and has specific channels that
open and close, allowing ions to cross the membrane
● Since each ion has a charge (+ or -), a charge or electrical impulse can be
created by changing the concentration of ions on each side of the membrane
B. Resting Membrane Potential
● Concentration of ions on each side of the membrane when no neural impulse
(action potential is traveling through the neuron) is present
● In a resting neuron, there are more K+ ions intracellularly (because plasma
membrane is slightly permeable to K+) and there is a higher extracellular
concentration of Na+ ions (plasma membrane is impermeable to Na+)
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● Even though there is no impulse traveling through the neuron, it is charged (there
are not equal numbers of positive ions and negative ions on each side of the
membrane)
● Because proteins have a slight negative charge and the greater presence of Cl-
ions than K+ within the neuron, there is a slight negative charge intracellularly
(-90 mv)
● Because there is a greater concentration of K+ and Na+ ions outside of the cell,
there is an extracellular positive charge
● Since there is a positive charge on one side of the plasma membrane and a
negative charge on the other side, the resting neuron is said to be polarized
C. Action Potential
● When a dendrite receives neurotransmitters from another neuron, a few Na+
channels open on a small segment of the axon
● This causes positive ions to diffuse through the channels, increasing the
concentration of positive ions in that segment of the axon and creating a slight
intracellular positive charge (+20 mv)
● This intracellular change in charge to a less negative state is called
depolarization
● Change in charge in one segment causes Na+ channels in an adjacent segment
to open, and charge moves along the axon
● Movement of an electrical charge is called current, and the current is a neural
impulse (action potential)
D. Repolarization
● As soon as the intracellular charge along a segment of the axon reaches +20 mv,
the Na channels close (Na stops diffusing in) and K channels open
● Since there is a greater concentration inside the neuron than out, the K+ ions
diffuse out
● With no additional Na+ ions entering the cell and K+ ions leaving the cell,
intracellular charge returns to -90 mv and intracellular concentrations of Na+ and
K+ are returned to resting potential levels by Na+/K+ pumps (active transport)
E. Refractory Period
● Period of time when a neuron cannot generate another action potential & exists
from the time Na channels close until the segment of axon returns to the ion
concentrations present during resting membrane potential
● Typically lasts .0004 sec to .004 sec
○ When one considers the time that is needed to generate an action
potential and the time of the refractory period, between 10 and 100
impulses can be conducted per second per neuron
● One segment at a time
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ANATOMY OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM


I. Multi Neuron Complexes
A. Nerves
● Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are put into two categories- spinal
nerves (originate and emerge from spinal cord) and cranial nerves (originate and
emerge from brain)
● Regardless of origin, they have the same structure
1. Nerve Structure
● Myelinated axons of individual neurons are surrounded by connective
tissue fibers called endoneurium
● Encapsulated neurons are arranged into bundles called fascicles
● Each fascicle is surrounded by connective tissue fibers called perineurium
● Perineuriums of all fascicles of the nerves are interconnected, within this
are lymph vessels and blood vessels (which branch and penetrate the
endoneuriums)
● Bundled fascicles which form the nerve are surrounded by a layer of
collagen fibers (connective tissue) called epineurium which is outermost
layer
2. Spinal Nerves
● Emerge from spinal cord through vertebral foramen of vertebra
● Given the name of the vertebra from which they originate
● Cervical region gives rise to eight spinal nerves, thoracic region gives rise
to twelve, lumbar and sacral each give rise to five
a) Plexus
● Means braid
● Anterior rami of thoracic (spinal) nerves T2-T12 go directly to the
body structures they serve (these nerves do NOT form a plexus)
● Anterior rami of all other spinal nerves (cervical, lumbar, sacral,
and T1) form networks (anterior rami join together and branch)
called a plexus
● Each spinal nerve joins with others to form trunks that divide into
branches which are the major nerve that serves a region (& will
branch into smaller, more specific nerves)
● Major plexuses are:
○ Cervical plexus (C1-C4)
○ Brachial plexus (C5-T1)
○ Lumbar plexus (L1-L4)
○ Sacral plexus (L4-S4)
○ Coccygeal plexus (S4-coccyx)
■ NO thoracic plexus because there aren’t very many
complex movements
● From each plexus emerges nerves & the name of the nerve often
indicates the region they serve or course that they travel
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b) Major Spinal Nerves


(i) Cervical Plexus (C1-C4)
● SENSORY:
○ Lesser occipital (C2), sensation of scalp
○ Greater auricle (C2-C3), sensation of outer ear
● MOTOR:
○ Ansa Cervicalis (C1, C2-C3), anterior neck muscles
superior to hyoid bone
○ Phrenic (C3-C5), diaphragm (involuntary)
necessary for breathing
(ii) Brachial Plexus (C5-T1)
● MOTOR:
○ Musculocutaneous (C5-C7), controls biceps brachii
and brachialis
○ Axillary (C5-C6), controls deltoid and teres minor
○ Median (C5-T1), controls flexors of antebrachial
region
○ Radial (C5-C8, T1), controls triceps brachii and
extensors of forearm
○ Ulnar (C8-T1), controls most muscles of hand
(iii) Thoracic Region (T2-T12)
● Do not form plexuses
● T2-T12 stimulate intercostal muscles and provide sensory
info from skin of thoracic region
(iv) Lumbar Plexus (L1-L4)
● Iliohypogastric (L1), controls muscles of abdominal wall,
sensation of skin of buttocks and inferior abdomen
● Femoral (L2-L4), controls flexor & extensor muscles of
femoral region, sensation of medial side of leg & foot
● Obturator (L2-L4), controls adductors
(v) Sacral Plexus (L4-S4)
● Superior gluteal (L4-L5, S1), controls gluteus medius &
minimus
● Sciatic (L4-S3), gives rise to:
○ Tibial (L4-S3), controls gastrocnemius, soleus, and
flexor digitorum longus
○ Common Peroneal (L4-S2), controls tibialis anterior
& extensor digitorum longus
(vi) Coccygeal Plexus (S4-coccyx)
3. Cranial Nerves
● 12 peripheral nerve pairs of the brain, 10 of which originate from brain
stem and two from inferior ventral portion of the brain
● Exit the skull through foramina
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● Assigned roman numerals I-XII based roughly on longitudinal location


○ I. Olfactory– sensory, smell
○ II. Optic– sensory, vision
○ III. Oculomotor– somatic motor, moves eye, eyelid, regulates size
of pupil & shape of lens
○ IV. Trochlear– somatic motor, moves eye
○ V. Trigeminal– somatic motor and sensory, chewing and dental
sensation
○ VI. Abducent– somatic motor, moves eye
○ VII. Facial– somatic motor and sensory, facial expression, taste,
controls salivary and lacrimal glands
○ VIII. Vestibulocochlear– sensory, hearing & balance
○ IX. Glossopharyngeal– sensory, taste and transfers info regarding
blood pressure & pH, O2 and CO2 levels from carotid arteries
○ X. Vagus– sensory and somatic motor, innervates soft palate,
pharynx, & larynx for speech, taste, monitors blood pressure, O2
& CO2 levels in aorta & regulates function of thoracic & abdominal
organs
○ XI. Accessory– actually a spinal nerve that enters cranial cavity
through foramen magnum then exits through jugular foramen.
Somatic motor, innervates sternocleidomastoid & trapezius
○ XII. Hypoglossal– somatic motor, controls movement of tongue
B. Spinal Cord
● Dorsally located structure that is encased within spinal cavity
● Further protection is given by ligaments, tendons, and muscles associated with
vertebral column
● Composed of dense & fairly fragile neural tissue
● Actual spinal cord itself is approx. 45 cm long (18 in) from medulla to L1 where
structure changes and becomes cauda equina & is 1.4 cm wide at most
1. External Anatomy
● Housed within spinal cavity
● Spinal cavity is lined by a layer of connective & adipose tissue & covered
by three layers of connective tissue called spinal meninges that continue
through foramen magnum & become cranial meninges
● Cerebral-spinal fluid surrounds spinal cord within spinal cavity
● Two external grooves– one anterior (anterior median fissure) & one
posterior (posterior median sulcus)
● Two locations along spinal cord appear swollen or enlarged (cervical and
lumbar enlargements)
○ These are segments that have a greater amount of gray matter in
order to deal with sensory and motor control of limbs
● Each spinal nerve has two roots
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○ Dorsal root has a small ganglion bring sensory/afferent info to


spinal cord
○ Ventral root lacks a ganglion and sends efferent/motor impulses to
periphery
● Spinal cord of an adult is unbranched until approx. L1
○ At this point it branches into bundles of spinal nerves & is called
cauda equina
2. Internal Anatomy
● Composed of two types of neural tissue– white and gray matter
● White matter is made of bundles and myelinated axons, motor neurons &
sensory neurons, surrounds gray matter which contains unmyelinated
neurons & vast amounts of neuroglia
a) Gray Matter
● Has roughly the shape of the letter H
● Located centrally & surrounded by white matter
● Central part (crossbar of H) of gray matter is called gray
commissure
○ In the middle of gray commissure is spinal canal
● Two anterior gray horns extending from gray commissure, they
extend and become anterior roots of spinal nerve
● Two gray posterior horns also extend & become dorsal roots of
spinal nerve
● Bulge found between anterior & posterior gray horns is called
lateral gray horn
● Gray matter processes sensory info it receives & issues motor
commands to peripheral effectors
● Anterior gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei and are involved
in controlling muscles
● Posterior gray horns are composed of somatic sensory cells
● Lateral gray horns are found only in thoracic and lumbar regions &
contain mainly visceral motor neurons
b) White Matter
● Surrounds gray matter
● Each side is divided into three columns or funiculi
● Anterior column is found between anterior gray horns
● Posterior column is located between posterior gray horns
● Remaining white matter found between anterior & posterior
columns is lateral column (two)
● Each part of white matter is composed of specific neurons
(sensory or motor) that help to control muscle groups
C. Brain
● Contains nearly 98% of body’s neural tissue
● Technically part of the spinal cord, however it is much more complex
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● Since it has such a great concentration of neurons (tens of billions) which are
able to interconnect to a greater extent, it is able to perform its major purposes
● Responsible for processing, analyzing, & integrating info while also monitoring &
regulating all body functions
1. Brain Structure
● Organized into six major regions– cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon,
mesencephalon, pons, & medulla oblongata
a) Cranial Meninges
● Continuous w/ spinal meninges
● Three layers that surround the brain
● Most superficial layer is dura mater, intermediate layer is
arachnoid, and pia mater is deepest & actually adheres to surface
of the brain
● Meninges protect the brain from injury
● Separate the brain from bones of cranium and contain
cerebrospinal fluid in its layer
● Meninges aren’t apart of the blood brain barrier, which is found
surrounding cranial capillaries
b) Cerebrum
● Forms majority of brain
● Divided into left and right hemispheres
● Each hemisphere is further subdivided into lobes determined by
fissures which are named roughly in correspondence to cranial
bone that covers them (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)
● Within cerebrum are three ventricles (chambers) that are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
● Responsible for intellect, conscious thought, complex movement,
sensation, memory, & speech
c) Cerebellum
● Second largest portion of the brain
● Lies inferior to occipital lobe of the cerebrum and attaches to
dorsal part of brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons, and
mesencephalon)
● Has two hemispheres which are further divided into lobes
● Controls skeletal muscle contraction including equilibrium,
posture, and coordination
d) Diencephalon
● Sits on superior end of brain stem, though it isn’t part of the brain
stem
● Links the cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) to the brain stem
● Consists of thalamus (more superior portion) and the
hypothalamus (inferior portion)
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○ Thalamus is responsible for processing & relaying sensory


information from spinal cord and brain stem to rest of the
brain
○ Hypothalamus lacks blood brain barrier and is responsible
for controlling emotions & maintaining homeostasis
(autonomic functions & hormone production)
e) Mesencephalon
● Most superior part of brainstem found in between pons and
diencephalon
● Responsible for generating somatic motor reflexes, maintaining
consciousness and the processing of visual/auditory information
f) Pons
● Found on brain stem directly inferior to mesencephalon
● Connects spinal cord (via brain stem) to cerebellum
● Helps to control ventilation, responsible for somatic subconscious
motor control, visceral motor control, & relays sensory info to
cerebellum & thalamus
● Karen Quinlan
g) Medulla Oblongata
● Most inferior portion of the brain stem
● Connects spinal cord to brain
● Involved in regulation of many autonomic functions such as
○ Heart rate
○ Blood pressure
○ Swallowing
○ Ventilation rate
○ Digestion
● Also serves to relay sensory info between thalamus and rest of
brain stem
+ANABOLIC REACTIONS
I. Proteins
● Made of long chains of amino acids (100-10,000+) linked by peptide bonds, always
contain C, H, O, and N and perform a specific function
● All enzymes are made out of proteins w/ exception of one group (RNA can act as an
enzyme)
A. Amino Acids
● Subunits that compose proteins
● 20 amino acids that make up all proteins, order determines type of protein
● All composed of five structures:
○ Central carbon (C)
○ H atom
○ Amino group (NH2)
○ Carboxyl group (COOH-)
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○ Side chain (R group) which is different for each of the 20 amino acids
● Polypeptide is 10-2000 amino acids bound together
● A protein can be a single polypeptide or several different polypeptides attached
by peptide bonds
● Proteins composed of more than one polypeptide have specific regions, each
region is a polypeptide and may have a specific function
B. Peptide Bonds
● Covalent bonds between amino acids that make up polypeptides and proteins
● Form between C of carboxyl and N of amino group
● Formed by dehydration reaction
● Carboxyl gives up hydroxide (OH-) and amino group gives up hydrogen ion (H+)
● Resulting covalent bond (peptide bond) links amino acids together
C. Protein Structure
● Proteins have levels of structure that determine their function
● Four levels
1. Primary Structure
● Specific order that amino acids line up in a protein
● Order that amino acids occur in is unique for each protein
2. Secondary Structure
● Helixes (twists) and pleats (bends) that occur in a protein
3. Tertiary Structure
● Helixes and pleats are bent and folded into the three dimensional shape
of a polypeptide
4. Quaternary Structure
● Found only in proteins containing two or more polypeptides
● Determined by how polypeptides are arranged
II. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
● Large molecule (1.4 meters long in humans) that cannot leave nucleus
● Made of nucleotides that occur in a sequence that forms a code
● This code holds instructions for construction of proteins made by ribosomes
● Since actual proteins and therefore genes are unique for each species, different species
have different DNA
A. Triplets/Codons
● Genetic code is broken into sequences of three consecutive nitrogen bases
called a triplet (DNA) or codon (mRNA)
● Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid
● Since proteins are made of amino acids, order of triplets/codons corresponds to
order that amino acids occur in a protein
● 64 codons/triplets (4x4x4) so each amino acid has more than one codon
● Additionally there is a “start” codon/triplet that signals beginning of instructions &
three “stop” codons/triplets that signal end of instructions
B. Genes (Transcriptional Units)
● Instructions for construction of one protein is called a gene
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● On a DNA strand, each gene is preceded by a promoter region


○ Generally 50-100 nitrogen bases long of the same base or two repeating
bases (CCCCCC or TATATATATA) which signals location of a gene
○ Repeating bases create a shape that corresponds to polymerase that
allows us to transcribe DNA into RNA
○ Poly A region (different from poly A tail) follows promoter region which
allows polymerase to figure out where it’s going to bind
○ First triplet is always TAC
1. Protein Coding and Non Protein Coding Gene Segments
● Not all sections of a gene code for proteins
a) Exons
● Protein coding portion of a gene
● Portion of gene that will be expressed
● Composed less than 1% of DNA
● Exons within a gene can be combined in different combinations
○ One gene can code for multiple proteins
b) Introns
● Non protein coding portion of a gene
● Separates exons in a gene
● May code for RNA molecules
● Repeating segments of N2 bases within the gene
2. Strands of DNA
● DNA is composed of two complementary strands allowing for easy
replication
● Sense strand & anti-sense strand
a) 3’ and 5’
● Deoxyribose is composed of five carbons (1-5)
● On the strands (sides) of the double helix, carbon #5 of one
deoxyribose is bound to a phosphate (PO4) and that phosphate is
bound to carbon #3 of the next deoxyribose
● At the ends of DNA strand is a deoxyribose with a carbon #5 that
is bound to a PO4 that isn’t bound to another deoxyribose
○ This is the beginning of the strand and is referred to as the
5’ end
● At the other end of the strand, the last deoxyribose’s carbon #3 is
not bound to a phosphate but instead is bound to a hydroxide
(OH-) group
○ This is the end of the strand and is referred to as 3’ end
b) Antisense/Template Strand
● Only one of the two strands of DNA is transcribed (copied to
mRNA)
● This is the template strand since it is used to transcribe the mRNA
(transcript or tRNA)
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c) Sense Strand/Non Template Strand


● Aka coding strand
● Not used in transcription to create mRNA (transcript)
● Named for having same sequences as mRNA except it uses
thymine instead of uracil
***sense and antisense strands differ for each gene– the antisense strand
for one gene might be the sense strand for another gene***
C. Genetic Code
● Genetic code is the codon(s) that code for a specific amino acid and is the same
for every species
○ Means that it is universal
● Term “genome” refers to complete complement of an organism’s genes
III. Ribonucleic Acid
● Nucleic acid similar to DNA but has four important differences:
○ RNA uses five carbon sugar ribose
○ Uses uracil instead of thymine
○ Made of a single strand though it may be folded or twisted
○ Much shorter
● In specific situations, it acts as a catalyst/enzyme
○ Since RNA is biological it is considered to be an enzyme, though it is not a
protein
● Three types of RNA used in protein synthesis: messenger (mRNA/transcript), ribosomal
(rRNA), and transfer (tRNA)
A. Messenger RNA
● Template copy of one DNA gene that codes for one protein
● mRNA takes this copied info from nucleus to ribosome where protein is
manufactured
B. Ribosomal RNA
● Type of RNA that (along with ribosomal protein) composes two subunits of a
ribosome
● During protein synthesis, two subunits (composed of rRNA and ribosomal
protein) combine to form a ribosome
● Since protein synthesis is a complex chemical reaction & rRNA helps regulate it,
rRNA has enzymatic properties and is considered to be an enzyme
C. Transfer RNA
● Found in cytoplasm
● Interprets codons of mRNA and brings appropriate amino acid to the ribosome
IV. Protein Synthesis
● Human DNA contains ~23,688 protein producing genes & is too long to leave nucleus
● Must be transferred from DNA to mRNA
● mRNA takes info out of nucleus to ribosome
○ Two part process: transcription and translation
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A. Transcription
● Occurs in nucleus
● Consists of three steps:
○ Binding of polymerase
○ Synthesis of mRNA (elongation)
○ Modification of pre mRNA
1. Binding of Polymerase
● Genes on DNA (sense strand) have a promoter region that is a sequence
of repeating N2 bases that precedes the gene
● Groups of proteins called transcription factors help an enzyme called RNA
polymerase II bind to the promoter region

2. Synthesis of mRNA (Elongation)


● Polymerase II begins to unwind & open DNA, starting at promoter region
● Polymerase II untwists & exposes 10-20 DNA N2 bases at a time,
allowing complementary RNA nucleotides to pair with exposed DNA
bases
● Once mRNA nucleotides attach to one another, the growing strand of
mRNA disengages from DNA and the DNA reforms
● Begins to end after mRNA transcribes two termination triplets (TTATTT)
● Continues for another 10-30 nucleotides before pre mRNA molecules
disengage from polymerase II
● Transcription occurs at a rate of 60 nucleotides per second

3. Modification of Pre-mRNA
● mRNA must be modified after transcription and before it leaves the
nucleus through nuclear pores
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● After transcription, the 5’ end has a modified guanine (guanine cap)


added which identifies the end that is to attach to a ribosome
● At 3’ end, a tail of 50-250 adenines (poly A tail) is added to help prevent
degradation
● Pre mRNA includes introns as well as exonsm snRNPs (small nuclear
ribonuclear proteins) cut out the introns, and with other proteins, splice
the exons together, creating a functional mRNA molecule which exits the
nucleus

B. Translation
● Using info on mRNA to synthesize a protein
● Four part process
1. Initiation
● 5’ end of mRNA binds to small subunit of the ribosome
● Just past guanine cap is the codon that serves as start sequence (AUG)
● An initiator tRNA (anticodon is UAC, amino acid is methionine) binds to
mRNA start sequence (utilizing H-bonds) with its anticodon and the major
portion of tRNA attaches briefly to larger subunit
● tRNA is then moved over slightly by ribosome
2. Elongation
● Translocation also occurring
● mRNA next codon is exposed
● Codon is recognized by a tRNA molecule with appropriate anticodon
● An enzyme briefly attaches this next tRNA to the large subunit
● Then another enzyme (ribozyme RNA) allows for formation of a peptide
bond between first amino acid (methionine) and second amino acid
● Ribosome slides both tRNAs over, & first tRNA separates from amino
acids (growing polypeptide chain) leaving amino acids attached to second
tRNA
3. Translocation
● mRNA molecule is moved by ribosome one codon over
○ Exposes next codon
○ Also causes first tRNA to separate from mRNA
● tRNA returns to cytosol where it will attach to another amino acid (same
type of amino acid that was given to the polypeptide)
● Both processes will occur until stop codon is reached
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4. Termination
● When stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is exposed on ribosome, a protein
that acts as a release factor binds to mRNA causing polypeptide/protein
to be released
● Two subunits
***usually after a ribosome moves past “START” codon, another ribosome
attaches to mRNA (forming a string of ribosomes called polyribosomes), building
another polypeptide/protein. This continues until mRNA begins to degrade (3
mins). It takes less than a minute to construct an average sized protein***

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