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2. Skeletal
● 206 bones, cartilage, and joints that protect the body, give support,
produce blood cells, and provide levers
3. Muscular
● Composed of muscles that attach to bones, produce heat, maintain
posture, and move bones
4. Nervous
● Nerves, spinal cord, brain, and sensory receptors - major regulatory
system, controls endocrine system
5. Endocrine
● Sends out what causes regulations (hormones)
a) Endocrine Glands
● Perform exocytosis to release cells into
blood by diffusion, lacks a duct
b) Exocrine Glands
● Dump cells into a duct, secretes
hormones directly onto a surface
6. Cardiovascular
● Heart / vessels
● Transports nutrients, wastes, and hormones to / away from every cell in
the body
7. Lymphatic
● Lymphatic vessels that are very small
● Depend on other muscles to move fluid (lymph) within them
● Takes fluid to lymph nodes
● Removes foreign substances from blood
8. Immune
● Red bone marrow, spleen, thymus, leukocytes, and things often parts of
other organ systems
9. Pulmonary
● Gas exchange, maintains blood pH,
● Lungs, trachea, bronchi, pharynx, larynx
● Combines with cardiovascular system to make the cardiopulmonary
system
10. Digestive
● Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and other organs that break
down food to absorbable nutrients and eliminates waste
11. Urinary
● Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
● Removes waste from blood (not foreign material)
12. Reproductive
● Genitals and gonads
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1. Manifestation
● How diseases show themselves
a) Symptoms
● Subjective experience of descriptions of the patients
● Not visible by the observer
b) Signs
● Directly observable physical condition resulting from disease or
trauma
c) Syndrome
● Signs and symptoms that occur together
2. Duration
a) Acute
● Lasting no more than 3 weeks
b) Chronic
● Long lasting or recurring diseases developing slowly over time
C. Etiology
● Study of causes of diseases
1. Communicable
● Diseases transmitted from person to person
2. Idiopathic
● Diseases whose origins are unknown
D. Pathogenesis
● Stages of a disease
1. Incubation
● First infection takes hold
● Bacteria reproduces, cells rupture
● Mostly asymptomatic
2. Convalescence
● Recovery period and immune response
3. Remission
● Chronic situations
● When a chronic condition does not have an episode
E. Epidemiology
● Study of occurrence, distribution, and transmission of disease in human
population
1. Endemic
● Disease limited to local area
2. Epidemic
● Disease that spreads to many individuals quickly or at the same time
3. Pandemic
● Epidemics that affect a large geographic region or the whole world
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CYTOLOGY
I. Cells
● All living organisms are composed of cells
● The smallest unit capable of living
● Micron - 1 millionth of a meter - human cells are 10-100 microns
● Surface of cell increases=volume of cells increases in 1:3 ratio
A. Cell Theory
● ⅓ unifying theories in biology
● Originally 3 components
1. All living organisms are composed of cells
2. Cells are fundamental units of structure, function, and organization
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells
New components:
4. Cells contain genetic material (DNA/RNA) that is passed down to new
generations through cell division.
5. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
6. Metabolism (transfer of nrg from bonds of molecules to ATP( usable nrg))
and biochemistry (chemical reactions that sustain life, utilized by living
organisms occur within cell)
B. Cell Function
● Cells are the basic units of life, smallest unit capable of sustaining life
● Chemical reactions occur in cytosol - (area b/w nuclear membrane and plasma
membrane )
1. Cell Size
● Cells are tiny (1-100 microns ; 10-100 in humans) and limited by the
amount of material that can enter/leave
● 1:3 surface area to volume ratio
○ If you keep increasing the size, eventually the surface area won't
be able to keep up w/ the volume.
● Each square micron can allow 16 cubic microns of reactions
● Cell will die if trying to sustain more chemical reactions
C. Cellular Arrangement
1. Unicellular
● Organisms that are made of one cell and are independent
● Can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic
2. Colonial
● Single cells living in a colony
● Cells have different DNA and are not dependent on other cells for survival
● Living in a colony increases chance of survival
● Prokaryotic or eukaryotic
● Aiding survival is not the same as dependent
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3. Multicellular
● Any organism consisting of two or more cells that are different types and
depend on each other for survival
● Have identical DNA
● Not every cell utilizes every gene
D. Types of Human Cells
1. Somatic(Body) Cells
● Everything that is not gender determining (spermatozoa or oocytes)
● Undergo only mitosis
2. Sex Cells
● Germ cells (germination) oocyte / spermatozoa, haploid (1 set of dna) and
undergo meiosis, used for reproduction, meiosis only happens in oocytes
after fertilization
II. Cell Structure
A. Plasma Membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
● Outer boundary of cell, it encloses cytoplasm and regulates what enters and
leaves the cell
● Composed of lipid bilayer with embedded
proteins used for channels, enzymes, and cell
identification using carbs, cholesterol, and other
steroids
● Permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide, water,
lipids, and alcohol– selectively permeable
● Movement of larger molecules and ions are
regulated by protein channels
1. Membrane Proteins
● Lying on surface of membrane
● Make up 55% of cell mass
● Integral and peripheral proteins
a) Integral Proteins
● Used for transport and receptors
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4. Vesicle Transport
a) Exocytosis
● Vesicles carry substances through cytoplasm, then diffuse across
plasma membrane, carrying substance out of the cell
● Materials carried out in phospholipids sacs which lyse once
outside of the cell
b) Endocytosis
● Cell pinches in on itself and fuses, creating vesicle that traps
substances within it
● Lysosomes act and break it apart
(i) Phagocytosis
● Large non liquid substances
(ii) Pinocytosis
● Liquid substances
B. Nucleus
● Composed of a double phospholipid bilayer called nuclear membrane
● Contains genetic information in chromatin
● Nucleolus is made from RNA and makes ribosomes
● mRNA can pass, DNA is too large
C. Cytoplasm
● Volume / region between nucleus and cell membrane
● Cytosol is fluid matrix that surrounds it
D. Cytosol
● Composed mainly of H2O and protein / enzymes
● Where majority of cell chemical reactions occur
E. Mitochondria
● Resembles a bacterium
● Contains own DNA / can replicate on its own
● Have external phospholipid bilayer and folded internal phospholipid bilayer called
cristae
● Found in all eukaryotic cells
● Oxidative phosphorylation
F. Ribosomes
● Found in all cells, extremely small and lack membrane
● Made of ribosomal protein and rRNA
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HISTOLOGY
I. Introduction to Tissues
● A group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin (endoderm,
mesoderm, ectoderm)
● Work together to perform specific functions
A. Types
1. Epithelial
● Lines cavities, tubular structures, and hollow organs
● Covers organs and body
● Composes endocrine and exocrine glands
2. Connective
● Provides body with support, protection, insulation, and energy storage
● Binds organs
3. Muscle
● Composed of actin and myosin
● Generates force needed for movement and generates heat
4. Neural
● Neuroglia and neurons
● Initiates / conducts electrical impulses that coordinate various body
activities
B. Extracellular Fluid
● All body cells / tissues are surrounded by extracellular fluid
● Composed mainly of water
● Two types: plasma and interstitial fluid
● Serves as medium for transport and chemical reactions
1. Interstitial Fluid
● Extracellular fluid found between cells
2. Plasma
● Nonliving
● Cellular fluid portion of blood, chief extracellular fluid of leukocytes /
erythrocytes
● Yellowish color
II. Epithelial Tissue
● Sheet(s) of cells that blanket/cover the body, organ surfaces, or lines cavities / hollow
structures
● Glandular secretes substances and constitutes glands
A. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
1. Tightly Packed
● Utilize one or more cell junctions and have very limited interstitial fluid
between them
2. Sheet Structure
● Due to tightly packed structure, made of single or multiple layers
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3. Orientation
● Have apical end (exposed and top) that is exposed to a surface (inside
cavity, vessel, or covering)
● Basal end is attached to basement membrane
4. Avascular
● Lack blood vessels
● Dependent on diffusion with connective tissue for transport of nutrients
and wastes
5. Innervation
● Nerve fibers run through epithelial tissue
6. High Mitotic Rate
● Subject to a lot of damage, so have a high capacity for regeneration
7. Multiple Functions
● Performs protection, filtration, lubrication, absorption, and excretion
B. Structure of Epithelial Tissue
1. Attachment
● Attached to connective tissue by basement membrane– holds epithelial
tissue in place reducing damage, consists of basal and reticular lamina
2. Simple Cuboidal
● Mainly used for secretion and absorption
● Single layer of cuboidal cells
● Found lining some kidney tubules, some glands (salivary and pancreas),
and inner surface of ear
3. Simple Columnar
● Single layer of columnar cells
a) Ciliated
● Possess cilia on apical end
● Cilia beat in coordinated manner creating current that moves
particles
● Found lining upper respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, and central
canal of spinal cord
b) Non-Ciliated
● No cilia
● Used for absorption and secretion
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● Large cells that secrete protein fibers and also secretes two of the
components that make up ground substance
2. Macrophages
● Very specialized, large amoeboid cells that perform phagocytosis
● Play a key role in body's defense system
● Produced by a type of blood cell
3. Plasma Cells
● Developed from leukocytes
● Produce proteins called antibodies
4. Mast Cells
● Found near blood vessels and play important role in tissue repair
● Secrete histamine (inflammatory agent- increases vasodilation) and
heparin (anticoagulant)
C. Types of Connective Tissue
1. Areolar (Loose)
● Most common connective tissue and least specialized
● Connects skin to muscle
● Cushions and support tissues, organs, blood vessels, nerves, and fills
space between organs
2. Collagenous (Dense)
● Made out of collagen fibers
● Makes up tendons (connect muscle to bone) and ligaments (connect
bone to bone)
3. Elastic
● Stretches and can return to its original length
● Found in structures that stretch or need strength such as arteries, lungs,
trachea, and specialized ligaments of spinal column
4. Adipose
● Directly under skin and surrounding organs, and in yellow marrow
● Composed of adipocytes (cell containing one large drop of liquid that
squeezes organelles against cell membrane)
● Cushions, protects, insulates, and provides energy storage
● Hormonal control
5. Reticular Tissue
● Formed of reticular fibers that form an interwoven framework that
supports functional cells of the spleen, liver, lymph, bone marrow, and
stomach
6. Hyaline
● Most common type of cartilage
● Composes external nose and ear costal cartilage and cartilage found at
the end of long bones
7. Fibrocartilage
● Dense cartilage that contains little ground substance
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3. Axon
● Single process that extends from soma
● Conducts impulses away from soma
B. Neuroglia
● Nerve glue
TISSUE DEVELOPMENT
I. Cell Division
● Cells divide through mitosis and meiosis
A. Meiosis
● When genetic material is divided among gametes, giving each gamete a haploid
(n) number of chromosomes
● Starts off with one diploid cell (2n) and results in 4 genetically different haploid
cells
B. Mitosis
● 4 phase process where chromosomes are divided and equally distributed to the
nuclei of each newly-formed cell
● Begins with single cell and results in two genetically identical cells
II. Fertilization, Embryonic, and Fetal Development
A. Fertilization
● Two gametes join in Fallopian tubes creating diploid cell called a zygote
● Must occur in fallopian tube
● Oocyte has lifespan of ~24 hours
B. Embryo
● First 8 weeks of human development beginning with fertilization
● Organism does not resemble adult morphology
● Five characteristics of chordata embryos - pharyngeal slits (1), notochord (2),
dorsal nerve cord (3), post anal (4) , and development (5)
1. Cleavage
● ~24 hours after fertilization, zygote goes through mitosis and begins to
divide into mass of cells that takes around four days to reach the uterus
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2. Implantation
● Solid mass of cells divides into three layered (germ layers) hollow sphere
called blastocyst that implants into uterine wall ~7-8 days after fertilization
C. Fetus
● Period from 8 weeks after fertilization to birth where morphology resembles adult
form
III. Embryonic Cellular Differentiation
● Cells differentiate and become more specialized as embryo develops
A. Stem Cells
● Undifferentiated cells that can replicate and develop into a multitude of cells
1. Adult Stem Cells
● Adults possess several different types of stem cells
● Each type can develop into a variety of cells, but the variations are
somewhat similar to one another
CANCER- An Overview
I. Cancer
● A genetic disease that results in uncontrolled growth of cells (failure of cell division
control) into neoplasm (tumor)
● Some genes code for production of enzymes used to check for mutations in replicated
DNA
● When mutation is found, enzymes halt cell cycle until mutation is repaired
● Genes that help prevent manufacture of mutated cells are called tumor suppressing
genes
● Proto-oncogenes regulate control of cell cycle and can also mutate, becoming
oncogenes leading to cancer
● Mutation of these genes generally occurs after an organism is born due to a replication
mutation or carcinogen
● Since mutation is not passed down, cancer is not hereditary even though it is a genetic
disease
● Cancer is many different diseases and is classified by tissue it affects
A. Genetic Basis of Cancer
● Uncontrolled cytokinesis before mature cell can perform all functions
● Cause of mutation is mutation of one of many genes that code for protein /
enzyme responsible for controlling cell cycle
1. Tumor Suppressing Genes
● Every cell’s DNA contains genes that code for proteins / enzymes that
inhibit cell division and for proteins that help prevent uncontrolled cell
growth
● Often they repair damaged DNA
● Chance for uncontrolled cell division increases when genes are mutated
● Help prevent manufacture of mutated cells
2. Proto-Oncogene
● Normal genes that promote / regulate cell cycle
● Become oncogenes when mutated
3. Oncogenes
● Mutated Gene that constantly produces proteins / enzymes that initiate
unrestrained cytokinesis
● Causes cells to become cancer
II. Neoplasms
● Technically means new growth
● Abnormal growth that grows at an accelerated rate
● Referred to as benign or malignant tumors
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A. Benign
● Grow at slightly accelerated rate
● Surrounded by connective tissue
● Connective tissue capsule does not break and cancer does not spread
● Does not differ from normal surrounding cells
● Some tumors grow in inoperable places, if they cannot be cured by chemo or
radiation, they can be deadly
B. Malignant
● Neoplasms whose DNA has mutated and therefore these cells differ from
surrounding cells in nearby tissues
● Cells resemble immature cells
● Growth is greatly accelerated
● Tumor is uncontrolled
● Neoplasm breaks out of connective tissue capsule which allows cells to spread
1. Carcinoma
● Originate from epithelial tissue and spread by lymphatic system
2. Sarcoma
● Originate from muscle or connective tissue, spread throughout
bloodstream
3. Leukemia
● Cancer of bone marrow that results in production of abnormal blood cells
that do not perform physiological function properly
III. Metastasis
● Spread of cancer from its original site to other tissues via lymph system or bloodstream
● Death from cancer is usually result of metastasis when neoplasms form in other tissues
and interfere with those functions
● If multiplication of new neoplasms is not halted / reversed, normal physiological function
will be compromised until life can no longer be sustained
A. Process of Metastasis
● Malignant tumor is compromised connective tissue envelope
● Cells from primary tumor Escape into body cavity, bloodstream, or lymphatic
system
● Most cancer deaths occur from secondary or tertiary neoplasms because
immune system cannot control spread of cancer
IV. Causes of Cancer
● Result of genetic mutations
● Generally result of three major mechanisms - carcinogens, viruses, and replicative
mutations
A. Carcinogens
● Cancer-causing agents that cause mutations to cell’s DNA (anti-oncogenes)
● Two groups - chemicals and radiation
B. Viruses
● Insert fragments of DNA into genetic material of cells they infect
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2.Nasal Cavity
● Chamber in anterior of skull
● Formed by cranial bones
● Divided into right / left halves by nasal septum made of vomer and
cartilage
● Provides entrance to nasal cavity through nostrils which leads to
vestibules which contain hairs that filter air
● Nasal cavity extends posteriorly to pharynx
● Is lined by epithelial tissue called nasal mucosa which is filled with
capillaries that provide heat from blood
● Secretes mucus with straps smaller particles and a watery antibacterial
fluid
● Also contains cilia that circulate mucus to prevent accumulation
3. Pharynx
● Chamber shared by pulmonary / digestive system that has three regions
a) Nasopharynx
● Superior pharynx
● Lined by ciliated epithelia that helps circulate mucus and filters /
moistens air
● Connected to posterior of nasal cavity
b) Oropharynx
● Begins behind tongue and is the portion of pharynx inferior to
nasopharynx and leads to laryngopharynx
● Epithelial tissue is not ciliated so no filtering occurs
● Facilitates air movement
c) Laryngopharynx
● Inferior pharynx
● Just superior to larynx
● Epithelium is stratified to resist abrasion created by food and to
prevent pathogenic invasion
B. Lower Respiratory Tract
● Larynx, trachea, and lungs which include bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
1. Larynx
● From the epiglottis to cricoid cartilage
● Composed of three large unpaired cartilages - epiglottis, thyroid cartilage,
and cricoid cartilage
● Perform several functions
a) Epiglottis
● Most superior
● Covers opening of larynx during swallowing, preventing food from
entering lower respiratory tract
b) Thyroid Cartilage
● Inferior to epiglottis, and Superior to cricoid cartilage
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● Adam's apple
● Maintains an open airway for passage of air in / out of the lungs
● Anchors vocal cords
c) Cricoid Cartilage
● Inferior of 3 laryngeal cartilages
● Helps maintain an open airway and supports two superior
cartilages
d) Vocal Cords
● Within three major unpaired cartilages are three smaller minor
paired cartilages found posterior to thyroid
● Extends from one minor pair to thyroid cartilage
● Create sound as air passes and vibrates
2. Trachea
● Directly anterior to esophagus
● Tube composed of 15-20 c-shaped rings that are linked by connective
tissue and smooth muscle
● Interior is lined with ciliated epithelium that secrete mucus
● From inferior cricoid border to where trachea splits into primary bronchi
● Provides passageways for air to the lungs
3. Lungs
● Trachea branches into primary bronchi which leads to each lung
● Right lung is divided into three lobes, left lung is divided into two lobes
● Composed of 150 million air sacs called alveoli
a) Bronchi
● Primary bronchi develops from terminus and become lobar /
secondary bronchi
● Secondary bronchi become segmental or tertiary bronchi which
branch and to give rise to bronchioles
● Give air passage in 2 / throughout each lung and are constructed
with cartilaginous rings
b) Bronchioles
● Arise from tertiary bronchi
● Less than 1 mm in diameter
● Wrapped by smooth muscle
● Branch into terminal bronchioles which are 0.3 - 0.5 mm in
diameter
● End with alveoli, purpose is to carry air to alveoli
c) Alveoli
● Small air-filled chambers / sacs at the end of terminal bronchioles
● Where gas exchange occurs
● One cell layer thick which allows oxygen to diffuse out / carbon
dioxide to diffuse in
● Each lung contains around 150 million alveoli
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1. Lung Volumes
● Lungs have a capacity / volume yet different proportions of this volume
are used
● Typically lung volumes of males is slightly greater than females because
of body size
a) Total Lung Capacity
● Total volume of air - gas that the lung can hold
b) Residual Volume of Gas
● Volume of gas that remains in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
● Prevents lungs from collapsing
c) Tidal Volume
● Volume of air breathed in / out during a single respiration at rest
d) Inspiratory Capacity
● Maximal amount of air that can be inspired after a normal
respiration
e) Vital Capacity
● Maximal amount of air that can be forced in / out in one respiration
C. Gas Exchange
● Occurs as oxygen and carbon dioxide are passed between alveoli and blood in
the capillaries
● Driven by diffusion - carbon dioxide diffuses from high to low concentration (blood
45 mmHg to lungs 40 mmHg)
● Oxygen also moves from high to low concentration (lungs 104 mmHg to blood 40
mmHg)
● Oxygen binds more strongly to hemoglobin than carbon dioxide - around 5% of
carbon dioxide binds to oxygen
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IV. Pathologies
A. Asthma
● Literally means pant or panting
● Triggered by hypersensitivity to a stimulus that results in constriction of
bronchioles due to spasms of smooth muscle in the walls of bronchioles
● Increase of mucus secretion which makes breathing difficult
B. Bronchitis
● Inflammation of the bronchi/bronchioles
● Obstruction or narrowing of bronchi(oles) that is further complicated by increased
mucus secretion that reduces air flow
● Acute bronchitis is typically caused by an easily treatable bacterial infection,
while chronic bronchitis lasts longer than 3 straight months a year for two
consecutive years and is generally the result of environmental factors
C. Pneumonia
● Acute condition resulting from a viral or bacterial (prokaryotic) infection
● Produces toxins that damage mucous membranes and alveolar cells resulting in
swelling
● Infection stimulates an immune response causing additional inflammation, cell
damage and inflammation interfere with gas exchange and ventilation
● Infected cells burst and fill the lungs with fluid
● Walking pneumonia involves a primary infection traveling to the lungs
D. Emphysema
● Blown up or full of air
● Caused by deconstruction of alveolar cells resulting in holes or scar tissue in
alveoli
● Holed alveoli do not empty during gas exchange and do not fill with fresh air
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● No gas exchange, alveoli are lost - less gas exchange and body does not absorb
as much oxygen as it needs
E. Lung Cancer
● Leading cause of cancer deaths in America
● No nerves in lungs so people do not feel the tumor until it has spread or they
can't breathe
● Rarely detected in its most treatable stages, 15% of people diagnosed with lung
cancer survive five or more years
ANATOMICAL TERMS AND REGIONS
I. Anatomical Position
● General orientation of the body that is used as a reference
● Body is erect, feet forward, arms at side, and palms facing forward
● Directional terms refer to cadaver’s perspective
II. Directional Terms
● Inferior - lower / beneath
● Superior - higher / above
● Anterior - front / before
● Posterior - behind / following
● Dorsal - back surface
● Ventral - front slash belly surface
● Proximal - usually refers to structures on an appendage, closer / nearest to a point of
attachment to the body than another structure
● Distal - usually refers to structures on an appendage, farther from the point of
attachment to the body than another structure
● Lateral - away from midline
● Medial - towards midline
● Superficial - on the surface / towards the surface
● Deep - away from surface, internal
III. Planes
● Imaginary slices through 3D objects that are used as reference points
● Sagittal - runs vertically through the navel, divides into right / left halves
● Transverse - parallel to the ground, runs through the navel, inferior / superior parts
● Frontal - running vertically, divides body into ventral dorsal portions
IV. Regions
A. Appendicular
● Appendages, regions that extend off the central (axial) body
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b) Abdominopelvic Cavity
● Runs from diaphragm to bottom of pelvis
● Subdivided into two cavities which are not physically divided
(i) Abdominal Cavity
● Inferior border of diaphragm to an imaginary plane that
extends from inferior fifth lumbar vertebra
● Houses stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, small intestine,
and most of large intestine
(ii) Pelvic Cavity
● Directly inferior to abdominal cavity
● Surrounded by pelvic bones
● Contains small portion of large intestine, bladder,
reproductive organs, and rectum
B. Superficial Cavities
1. Oral Cavity
● Mouth
● Continues to the abdominal cavity or thoracic cavity
2. Middle Ear Cavity
● Small cavity found in temporal bone of skull
● Separated from auditory canal by tympanic membrane
● Contains three bones - malleus, incus, and stapes
3. Nasal Cavity
● Deep in the nose behind nasal bone
● Has passage that leads to thoracic cavity
4. Orbital Cavity
● Concave cavity formed by 3 bones of skull - frontal, orbital, and zygomatic
● Houses the eyes
THE MYOCARDIUM
I. Function of the Myocardium
● Generate the force necessary to circulate blood throughout the body via contraction
● Blood is pumped by heart and through body using specific circuits to transport oxygen,
nutrients, carbon dioxide, and wastes within the body, and to deliver blood to lungs for
gas exchange
A. Pulmonary Circuit
● Carries deoxygenated / venous blood (75% oxygen concentration) from right
ventricle, and delivers oxygenated / arterial blood (95 - 97% oxygen
concentration) to left atria
● Includes pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, lungs, and pulmonary veins
● Purpose is to deliver deoxygenated blood to lungs for gas exchange and return
oxygenated blood to heart, contraction of right side propels blood through this
circuit
B. Systemic Circuit
● Delivers oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to organ systems and all cells
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A. Cardiac Layers
1. Epicardium
● On the heart
● Very thin / transparent layer composed of epithelial / connective tissue
● Outer barrier of heart muscle
● Separated from pericardium (double-layered sac that makes up
pericardial cavity) by pericardial fluid
2. Myocardium
● Muscle of heart
● It is the actual muscle and thick middle layer
● Composed of cardiac muscle cells that are striated, mononucleated,
involuntary, and some can generate their own action potentials
● Responsible for generating force necessary for pumping blood within
heart and through body
3. Endocardium
● Inside heart
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valve into aorta which splits into arteries that deliver blood to
periphery
C. Vessels Associated with the Heart
1. Vena Cava
● Two large veins - superior and inferior - that return venous blood to right
atria
● Superior vena cava drains upper limbs, cephalic region, and thoracic
region of deoxygenated blood, while inferior drains lower limbs,
abdominal and pelvic regions of venous blood
2. Pulmonary Trunk
● Large artery that exits right ventricle and carries venous blood away from
heart
● Splits after leaving heart into left pulmonary artery (goes to left lung) and
right pulmonary artery (goes to right lung)
● Only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood
3. Pulmonary Veins
● Four veins (two right, two left) that return arterial or oxygenated blood
from lungs to left atria
● Only veins that carry oxygenated blood
4. Aorta
● Exits from superior / posterior of left ventricle
● Serves as the main trunk of systemic circuit - it gives rise to the entire
systemic arterial system
● Portion of aorta that exit the left ventricle and goes up is the ascending
aorta and 2 coronary arteries emerge at base
● Aorta bends 180° forming aortic arch
● Three major arteries emerge from aortic arch - brachiocephalic trunk, left
common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery
● Then it turns downward and becomes thoracic aorta, then abdominal
aorta - collectively make up descending aorta
● Many arteries emerge from these sections
a) Coronary Arteries
● Two right and left coronary arteries branch off of aorta delivering
oxygenated blood to heart tissues
● Branch into other arteries, arterioles, and capillaries
b) Coronary Veins
● After blood travels through coronary arteries and capillaries,
deoxygenated blood enters coronary veins which empty into
coronary sinus and into right atria
III. Electrophysiology
● Heart is composed of cardiac muscle cells - involuntary, some create their own action
potentials - autorhythmic
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● Autorhythmic cells of heart are responsible for the action potentials that cause heart to
beat
● Rate of contraction is influenced by nervous system and catecholamines
A. Autorhythmic Cells
● Cardiac muscle cells that generate their own action potentials which stimulate
contractions
1. Sinoatrial Node (SA Node)
● Also called pacemaker
● Superior right atrium where superior vena cava enters
● Bundle of autorhythmic cells that generate action potentials at regular
intervals
● Action potentials spread through both atria and travel towards
atrioventricular node
● As action potentials spread through a cell, it contracts, causing both atria
to contract which pumps blood from atria to ventricles
2. Atrioventricular Node (AV Node)
● Bundle of autorhythmic cells found where interatrial and interventricular
septums meet
● Action potential has weakened due to resistance between SA / AV nodes
● Weakened action potential stimulates cardiac muscle cells in ventricles
causing contraction and blood goes into pulmonary systemic circuit
● Takes 0.1 seconds to generate action potential in atrioventricular node, so
there is time for blood to fill ventricles before contraction
IV. Pathologies
A. Coronary Artery Disease
● Blockage of arteries caused by plaque, fat, and cholesterol
● Less oxygen means heart cannot work to its potential, impedes blood circulation
● Healthy diet and exercise can prevent
● Treated by angioplasty or bypass, untreated can lead to myocardial infarction
B. Myocardial Infarction (MI/Heart Attack)
● Heart muscle death
● Death of muscle tissue due to complete blockage of coronary artery
● Can be result of plaque / cholesterol or due to arterial clot
● Blocking of arteries prevents blood from carrying oxygen to tissues which leads
to tissue death
● Cardiac muscle cannot grow back after dying, if enough tissue dies, the heart
can't function properly and cardiac arrest occurs
● Severity depends on location
C. Arrhythmia
● Irregularity in heart rhythm, defect in conduction system or nodes
● Can be triggered by caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, electrolyte imbalance,
dehydration, or occurs spontaneously
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1. Ventricular Tachycardia
● Ventricles contract out of sync with the atria
● Caused when atrioventricular node spontaneously generates its own
action potentials without sinoatrial node stimulation, causing ventricles to
not fill up completely before contracting which decreases efficiency
2. Atrial Fibrillation
● When cardiac muscle cells of atria do not contract in a coordinated /
synchronized manner
● Some muscle cells contract while others relax
● Atria are not as efficient and do not completely fill ventricles
D. Cardiac Arrest
● When the heart stops beating
● Can be the result of lack of blood flow to the heart (bleeding or shock), trauma
(electrocution), or oxygen starvation / suffocation
V. Treatments
A. Angioplasty
● Treats coronary artery disease and sometimes blockages associated with
myocardial infarctions
● Catheter is inserted into patient’s femoral artery, then snaked through femoral
artery into aorta then into blocked coronary artery
● Then a small balloon at the end of the catheter is inflated, reducing blockage
● Stent is inserted in site of former blockage with another catheter
● Does not cure coronary artery disease, but treats known blockages
B. Coronary Bypass
● Used when blockages are too severe for an angioplasty
● Small Vein from thoracic or crural region - usually small saphenous vein - is
removed and attached to coronary artery before blockage and again to same
artery after blockage
● Blockage is bypassed and normal blood flow is reestablished
● Single, double, and triple bypass
C. Defibrillation/Cardioversion
● Treats certain arrhythmias
● Electric current is delivered through defibrillator to the heart
● Shock depolarizes heart (resets autorhythmic cells), terminating arrhythmia -
atrioventricular node reestablishes normal cardiac rhythm
D. Ablation
● Removal of material by vaporization
● Treats arrhythmias by vaporizing autorhythmic cells that create the arrhythmia
● Catheter is inserted into femoral veins, sometimes artery
● Electrodes are placed in heart using catheter and electrodes initiate arrhythmia -
once location of defective cells is found, another catheter is inserted to ablate /
vaporize these cells, essentially curing the arrhythmia
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BLOOD
I. Histology
● Blood is responsible for transport of nutrients to all cells and delivery of waste from all
cells
● Major role in maintaining internal bodily homeostasis (temperature, H2O, balance, etc.)
tissue repair, and is a large component of immune system
● Technically a connective tissue, composed of leukocytes, erythrocytes, and
thrombocytes, plasma (extracellular fluid / fluid components of blood), and many proteins
● Considered by most to be an organ - 8% of total body weight
II. Composition
● Primarily composed of two components - plasma and formed elements (they have a
solid structure)
● Plasma is liquid portion and contains water / proteins
● Formed elements refers to cellular components - erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets)
A. Types of Cells
1. Erythrocytes
● Red blood cells
● ~98 - 99% of blood cells, very small (7.5 micrometers)
● Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other
organelles associated with eukaryotic cells
● Hemoglobin takes up too much space
● Resemble a donut, center is filled with hemoglobin
● Very flexible and have large surface area which helps transportation of
oxygen, plasma carries carbon dioxide away from cells
● Hemoglobin is 33% of red blood cell volume (90-95% of cell mass)
a) Hemoglobin
● Protein found in center of erythrocyte, each erythrocyte has
200-300 million hemoglobin molecules
● Responsible for transporting majority of oxygen in blood and body
● Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to 4 oxygen molecules
2. Leukocytes
● White blood cells
● 0.5 - 1% of all blood cells
● Small and nucleated (7-17 micrometers), spherical, lack hemoglobin, can
leave circulatory system and enter tissues
● Major component of immune system - protect body from microorganisms
and remove dead cells / debris via phagocytosis
● 5 types
a) Neutrophils
● Destroy small pathogenic microorganisms via phagocytosis
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b) Basophils
● Cause inflammation by releasing histamine / heparin
(anticoagulant), tissue injury
c) Eosinophils
● Destroy large pathogens (unicellular protists) and some parasitic
worms
● Release anti-inflammatory agents in allergic reactions
● Phagocytosis in antigen antibody reactions
d) Lymphocytes
● T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells
● Major component of immune system, secrete antibodies and
attack viruses, cancer cells, and transplanted tissues
e) Monocytes
● Major performer of phagocytosis
● Largest leukocytes - engulf infected / cancer cells, cellular debris
and bacteria (prokaryotes)
● Often leave circulatory system to digest infected, dead, and
damaged cells
3. Thrombocytes
● Platelets - not technically cells, but coming from cells
● 2 micrometers, plasma membrane “bags” that contain protein (clotting
factors), filled vesicles, and lack a nucleus
● Form from megakaryoblasts in bone marrow - in bone marrow these cells
break into 2000-4000 membrane bound fragments (platelets)
● Initiate clotting process and form initial plug
a) Coagulation
● Clotting - process that plugs ruptured vessels which stops
bleeding and begins healing process
● Many chemical reactions that depend on 12 clotting factors and
four platelet factors
● Stage 1: formation of platelet plug - platelets adhere to exposed
connective tissue of ruptured vessels filling and rupture and
releasing chemicals, initiating coagulation
● Stage 2: coagulation - utilizes clotting factors to make complex of
phospholipids and proteins (mostly fibrinogen) that creates
framework that allows tissue to heal / regrow
(i) Coagulation / Plasma Factors
● 12 factors (once 13 but 5/6 were found to be same- one
active, one inactive)
● 11 proteins, 1 ion (calcium), necessary for coagulation
Antigen Blood Antibody Accepted Whole Accepted
(Erythrocyte) Type (Plasma) Blood Erythrocytes
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A A Anti B A A&O
B B Anti A B B&O
● Middle & outer layers of veins are thinner, walls of veins are thinner than
those of arteries
C. Capillaries
● Microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
● Embedded within tissues & allow for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse out of them
into cells, & waste products and CO2 to diffuse out of cells into them
● Come into contact with nearly every cell in the body
● Blood never leaves these vessels
1. Anatomy
● Composed of a single layer of epithelial cells (endothelium)
● Lack a tunica media and tunica adventia
● Single layer allows for diffusion of O2 and nutrients from blood to cells,
and diffusion of CO2 and waste products out of cells into blood
II. Systemic Circulation
● Route that blood travels through body excluding pulmonary circuit
A. Arterial Circuit
● Route that oxygenated (97% O2 saturation) blood follows out of left ventricle
● Composed of all arteries and arterioles in the body
● All arteries/arterioles originate from aorta which branches into three regions:
ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta
1. Ascending Aorta
● Coronary arteries branch off from this region- supply heart with
oxygenated blood
2. Aortic Arch
● As aorta exits heart it travels superiorly before turning inferiorly- this is
aortic arch
● Three arteries branch from here: brachiocephalic artery, left common
carotid artery, and left subclavian artery
a) Brachiocephalic Trunk/Artery
● First artery to exit aortic arch
● Supplies right cephalic region and arm (upper extremity)
● Splits into right common carotid artery (head) and right subclavian
artery (right arm)
● Right subclavian becomes axillary artery as it enters arm and then
becomes brachial artery as it travels to brachial region
● As it enters antebrachial regions it splits into ulnar artery and
radial artery
● On left side of body, left subclavian and left common carotid
arteries perform function of brachiocephalic artery
b) Left Common Carotid Artery
● Second artery to emerge from aortic arch
● Supplies left cephalic region with oxygenated blood
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● Right & left brachiocephalic veins form superior vena cava which returns
deoxygenated blood to the right atria of the heart
● Additionally, veins of thorax (bronchial and esophageal) join directly to
superior vena cava
2. Inferior Veins
● Anterior and posterior tibial veins (drain crural region) form popliteal vein
● Popliteal vein joins with one of the veins from pedal region (small
saphenous vein) creating femoral vein
● When femoral vein joins other vein that collects blood from pedal region
(great saphenous vein), they form external iliac vein
● Internal iliac vein drains blood from pelvic region when it connects to
external iliac vein & common iliac veins (left and right)
● Inferior vena cava forms when right and left common iliac veins join
together
● Abdominal veins (splenic vein and inferior/superior veins form hepatic
portal which flows into liver mixing with arterial blood and enter the inferior
vena cava via the hepatic vein, additionally renal veins from kidney attach
to inferior vena cava)
● Inferior vena cava travels to right atria
III. Functions
● Circulatory system transports blood and promotes thermal regulation
A. Transport
● Primary function of circulatory system is transport of blood through the body
● Blood transports nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to all cells in body & picks up
wastes, toxins, and CO2 from cells
● Contraction of heart produces force (blood pressure) that allows blood to travel
through body
1. Blood Pressure
● Force exerted by heart onto blood which creates pressure within vessels
of body
● Two pressures are created:
a) Systolic
● Pressure exerted by heart during systole (contraction) and is
greater of two pressures
● Top number in recorded blood pressure
b) Diastolic
● Pressure exerted by heart during diastole (relaxation) and is lesser
of two pressures
● Bottom number in recorded blood pressure
● Volume of blood ejected by left ventricle is Stroke Volume
***Since blood pressure is product of volume of blood traveling through circulatory system and
resistance of circulatory system (friction contributed by vessels), many components contribute to
blood pressure including cardiac output, heart rate, stroke volume, and peripheral resistance***
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C. Thermoregulation
● Chemical reactions that are necessary to sustain life are dependent on enzymes
which function optimally at specific temperatures (37 C or 98.6 F)- it is critical to
maintain a stable temperature
● Since plasma component of blood (55%) is composed mainly of water (91%) and
water has high heat capacity (ability to absorb heat with slight increases in
temperature), blood is v important in maintaining body temperature
(thermoregulation)
● When core body temp begins to rise, mass vasodilation (opening of vessels)
occurs which allows heated blood to travel through skin capillaries
● In skin, heat is transferred from blood to sweat glands (sudoriferous glands),
which releases sweat dissipating heat from body
● When core temp of body drops, vasoconstriction (closing of vessels) to the
extremities occurs which concentrates heat to vital organs of body slowing onset
of hypothermia but increasing risk of frostbite to extremities
EXAM 12/20
● 100 points
● KNOW pathways from heart to superior appendages (hands) and from heart to inferior
appendages (feet)
● KNOW which two vessels come together and what new vessel they make
● IDs in packet, ~30-35
● Structure of arteries and veins
● Cardiac output and blood pressure components- simple equation
● Capillary beds & gas exchange
● NOT RESPONSIBLE for last page of ID packet
● NO thermoregulation
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone Tissue Structure- bone is a connective tissue that hardens due to deposits of minerals
and metals. It makes up the 206 bones of skeletal system. Components of individual bones are
cartilage, osteocytes, and periosteum
I. Functions
A. Support
● Bone provides support for muscles and cradles other soft tissue and anchors
muscle
B. Protection
● Due to their density and flexibility, bones (skull & ribs) protect organs from impact
injuries
● Bends before it breaks
C. Movement
● Bones act as levers which can move when muscles attached to them contract
● Actual structure and construction of joint determines type of movement that is
possible
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D. Mineral Homeostasis
● Bone is a reservoir of minerals (calcium & phosphorus)
● It’s important to have large stores of minerals which can be released into blood
since they are needed for all neural transmissions and muscle contractions
E. Hematopoiesis
● Blood cell production
● Bone marrow is found in long bones- two types: red and yellow marrow
1. Red Marrow
● Responsible for erythrocyte and leukocyte production
2. Yellow Marrow
● Contains mainly fat cells
● In extreme situations (sustained blood loss) it can change into red marrow
II. Structure of Long Bones
A. Epiphysis
● The ends of the bone
B. Diaphysis
● The shaft or main portion of the bone
● Connected to epiphyses by a narrow region called metaphysis
C. Articular Cartilage
● Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers epiphyses and forms a joint with
another bone(s)
● Prevents bone from rubbing against bone causing damage
D. Periosteum
● Double layer membrane that covers bone wherever articulating cartilage is
absent
● Separates bones from other body tissues, provides attachment for ligaments and
tendons, gives access to blood vessels and nerves, and is crucial in bone growth
and repair
E. Spongy/Cancellous Bone
● Has a spongy appearance and has spaces where red marrow is stored in adults
● Found in epiphyses of the bone
F. Compact Bone
● More dense than spongy bone
● Lacks spaces and is resistant to directional stresses
● Provides strength and support which resists stress that weight places upon long
bones
● Found in diaphysis of long bones
G. Medullary Cavity
● Cavity within diaphysis of bone and contains yellow marrow
● Lined by membrane known as the endosteum which is made of osteoprogenitor
(bone first generator) cells and generally lacks fibers
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● The four major sutures of the cranium are found where parietal
bones articulate with other bones
d) Temporals
● Form inferior sides and small portion of base of cranium
● The bar like process, zygomatic process, forms part of the cheek
● Just inferior to base of the zygomatic process is auditory meatus
(ear canal)
● Large process inferior to auditory meatus is mastoid process
which is a point of attachment for many neck muscles
e) Sutures
● Immovable joints between bones
● Four major sutures found on the cranium that all join with parietal
bones
(i) Coronal Suture
● Where parietal bones join frontal bone
(ii) Sagittal Suture
● Where the two parietal bones join
(iii) Lambdoid Suture
● Where parietal bones join occipital bone
(iv) Squamous Suture
● Where parietal bones meet temporal bones
f) Sphenoid
● Lies at base of cranium posterior to frontal bone and in between
two temporal bones
● Supports other cranial bones and strengthens cranium (keystone
bone)
● In center of superior surface is a depression called sella turcica
that cradles pituitary gland
● Just anterior to each end of the sella turcica are optical foramen
that serve as passage for optic nerve
g) Ethmoid
● Found anterior of sphenoid between orbits
● Forms superior portion of nasal cavity, a portion of nasal septum
and as part of medial walls for the orbits
● Tiny holes on superior surface are the olfactory foramina which
house olfactory nerves
2. Facial Bones
● Fourteen facial bones: mandible, vomer, maxilla (2), nasals (2), lacrimals
(2), palatines (2). Inferior nasal concha (2) and zygomatics (2)
a) Mandible
● Inferior portion of jaw
● Largest and strongest of the facial bones
● Horizontal portion (constitutes chin) is called body
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● In infants there are 33 bones, as child develops nine of these fuse together to
create sacrum and coccyx
● Other 24 bones (vertebrae) are separated by dense fibrocartilage discs called
intervertebral discs
1. Gross Anatomy of Vertebral Column
● Technically vertebral column is composed of 33 bones, nine of which fuse
together into two groups (sacrum and coccyx) during infancy
● 24 independent vertebra and two sets of fused vertebrae are placed into
five divisions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx
a) Cervical
● Top seven vertebrae located in cervical (neck) region
b) Thoracic
● Twelve vertebrae that are inferior to cervical vertebrae
● Found posterior to thoracic cavity
c) Lumbar
● Most inferior independent (not fused) vertebrae that are
immediately superior to pelvis
d) Sacrum
● Also called sacral vertebrae
● Five fused vertebrae that form posterior medial section of pelvis
● Give support and strength to pelvis
e) Coccyx
● Also called coccygeal vertebrae
● Four fused vertebrae that are inferior to sacrum and serve as point
of attachment for structures found in pelvic cavity
2. Organization of Vertebral Column
● Individual vertebrae are placed into divisions/groups based on location
and structural similarities
● Within these divisions the vertebrae are numbered from most superior to
most inferior
● Numbering starts over when next division begins
● To specify a vertebra the first letter of the division is used followed by a
subset number that corresponds with the vertebral position in its division
● Third cervical vertebra is called C3
a) Curves
● Normal vertebral column is curved at very specific locations
● Curves increase strength, absorb shock (curve resembles spring)
and aid in keeping body in balance
3. Gross Anatomy of Vertebra
a) Centrum (Body)
● Thick and disc shaped
● Located at the anterior of the vertebra
● Weight bearing structure of the vertebra
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● Lab practical- identify the numbers, 75-90 seconds for each station
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
I. Appendicular Skeleton
● Bones of the limbs and of the girdles that attach these appendages to axial skeleton
A. Pectoral Girdle
● Attaches upper limbs to axial skeleton
● Composed of two bones: clavicle and scapula
● Scapula is posterior and is attached to the vertebral column by muscles which
hold it in place
● Clavicle is anterior component and articulates with the sternum and scapula
1. Clavicle
● An S shaped bone
● The medial end that articulates with the sternum is the central extremity
and forms the sternoclavicular joint
● Lateral end is the acromial extremity and articulates with the scapula
forming the acromioclavicular joint
● The clavicle holds the scapula and arm upright and lateral & transmits
forces from the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
2. Scapula
● Large, flat, triangular bone located laterally and posterior of the thorax,
roughly at the level of T2 through T7
● On posterior surface (near superior margin) is a large ridge (spine) that
runs from the medial border to just superior of the lateral angle and
extends into the acromium process
● Acromium process articulates with clavicle
● Spine serves as a point of attachment for several muscles
● Inferior to acromium process is the glenoid fossa, where the humerus
(upper arm) articulates with scapula and forms shoulder joint
● Coracoid process is anterior to the acromium process and is a point of
attachment for the biceps
● Large flat triangular portion of the scapula is referred to as the body and
has many fossas used for muscle attachment
B. Upper Extremities
● Each upper extremity consists of 30 bones: humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges
1. Humerus
● Largest bone of the arm
● At proximal end is the head (rounded) which articulates with the scapula
to form the shoulder joint
● Inferior to the head is the anatomical neck, and just inferior is the surgical
neck
● Lateral to the head is the greater tubercle which serves as a point of
attachment for muscles
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● Halfway down the shaft on the lateral side is the deltoid tuberosity to
which the deltoid muscle attaches
● At distal end of humerus are the lateral and medial epicondyles which
articulate with the radius and ulna
● In between the epicondyles is the trochlea which articulates with the ulna
forming a part of the elbow
2. Forearm
● Formed by radius and ulna, two are connected by interosseous
membrane
● In anatomical position, radius is lateral and ulna is medial
● Proximal ends of the radius and ulna articulate with the humerus forming
the elbow
● At distal end they articulate with the carpals forming the wrist
a) Ulna
● Appears to be medial when in the anatomical position
● Longer of the two bones
● At proximal end is a pointed process (olecranon process) which
makes up part of the elbow and prevents hyperextension of the
forearm
● Just inferior to the olecranon is the trochlear notch that the
trochlea of the humerus articulates with
● Inferior to trochlear notch is coronoid process which makes up the
other portion of the hinge joint of the elbow
● At distal end of ulna is the head (not part of wrist joint)
● Medial to head is styloid process to which ligaments attach
● Ulna is major forearm component of the elbow
b) Radius
● Lateral to ulna (in anatomical position)
● At proximal end is a disk shaped head which articulates with the
humerus
● On medial side of radius inferior to neck is the radial tuberosity
which is another point of attachment for the biceps brachii
● At distal end is the ulnar notch which is where the ulna articulates
with the radius
● On lateral side is the styloid process which attaches to ligaments
from the wrist
● Radius is major forearm component of the wrist
3. Hand
● Distal of ulna and radius
● Three sets of bones: carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
a) Carpals
● Two rows of four bones connected by ligaments
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● Divided into two regions: body (superior and thicker) and ramus
(inferior)
(i) Body
● On posterior margin of body is ischial spine which attaches
to a ligament that is used to anchor the sacrum
● Inferior to the ischial spine is the lesser sciatic notch
through which nerves and blood vessels pass to enter
pelvic cavity
(ii) Ramus
● Inferior to lesser sciatic notch is a thick and rough surface
called ischial tuberosity to which another supporting
ligament of the sacrum attaches
c) Pubis
● Inferior anterior portion of the os coxa
● Consists of superior rami which is separated from the inferior rami
by the body
● Large opening that is bordered by the rami of the pubis and
ischium is the obturator foramen
● Pubis of each os coxa are separated by a fibrocartilage disc that
forms the pubic symphysis joint
d) Acetabulum
● Fossa formed by iliac, ischium, and pubis
● Socket for the femur forming hip joint
D. Lower Extremities
● Supports the entire mass and any additional force applied to and erect individual
● Each extremity is composed of a femur, patella, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, and
phalanges
1. Femur
● Longest (¼ of height), heaviest, and strongest bone in the body
● Proximal end is the head which articulates with the os coxa at the
acetabulum
● There is a small depression (notch) in the head called fovea capitis which
is attached to acetabulum by a ligament
● Where neck joins acetabulum are two projections
● Lateral projection is the greater trochanter, medial projection is the lesser
trochanter, and they provide attachment for thigh and gluteal muscles
● As shaft continues downward, it is angled slightly to the medial side so
the knees are more in line with the body’s center of gravity (helps
balance)
● On posterior is a ridge called linea aspera which is a point of attachment
for hamstrings
● At distal end where it flares out are two epicondyles (medial and lateral
epicondyle)
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● Inferior (distally) to the epicondyles are the lateral and medial condyles
that articulate with the tibia
● In between two condyles is the intercondylar fossa which articulates with
the patella and helps it to stay aligned
2. Tibia
● Larger of two inferior leg bones
● At proximal end are the lateral condyle and medial condyle which
articulate with the femur
● On anterior face inferior to condyles is the tibial tuberosity which attaches
to the patellar ligament (anchors the patella)
● Inferior to lateral condyle is proximal tibiofibular joint which articulates with
fibula but allows no movement
● At distal end of the tibia on the medial side is the medial malleolus which
articulates with the talus of the ankle/tarsus
● On lateral side is distal tibiofibular joint which articulates with distal end of
fibula
3. Fibula
● Runs along lateral side of tibia
● Supports very little weight and serves primarily as a point of attachment
for many muscles, tendons, and ligaments
● Most superior/proximal portion is the head which articulates with the tibia
● Distal end on lateral side is the lateral malleolus which articulates with the
talus
● Major importance of the fibula is that the muscles and tendons that attach
to it are the muscles and tendons that hold the ankle together
E. Foot
● Segmented appendage composed of three regions: tarsus (seven bones),
metatarsus (five bones), and phalanges (fourteen bones)
1. Tarsus
● Commonly referred to as the ankle which is composed of seven tarsal
bones
● Most superior and is only tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia
● No muscles or tendons attach to the talus- just ligaments
● Inferior to the talus is the calcaneus, more commonly called the heel
● Calcaneus is major weight bearing bone in the tarsus and also is the point
of attachment for the calcaneal/achilles tendon
2. Metatarsus
● Five bones that distribute weight of the body throughout the foot
● Numbered 1-5 starting with 1 at the medial side (hallux)
3. Phalanges
● Fourteen bones that constitute the toes
● Like the fingers each toe is composed of three phalanx, except for the
hallux/big toe which is composed of two phalanx
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4. Arches
● Foot is able to support weight and absorb force due to three arches found
in foot
● These arches are formed and their structure maintained by the bones,
ligaments, and tendons
● Function in a similar manner as the curves in the vertebral column to
absorb and dissipate force
CATABOLISM
I. Cellular Respiration
● Sometimes referred to as internal respiration
● Process by which energy stored within chemical bonds of foodstuffs is transferred to a
form (ATP) that the cell can use
● Occurs within cell (cytoplasm and mitochondria)
A. Adenosine Triphosphate
● Nucleotide (among others) used by all living organisms to transfer energy from
food to cells
● Created from ADP + P as it is needed
● Energy is transferred through process of cellular respiration
● Energy used by cells is stored in bond between second and third phosphate
● When ATP is used, the bond between second and third phosphate is broken
resulting in ADP + P
● Because of its structure ATP is considered to be a nucleotide
● At any given instant each cell in the human body contains one billion molecules
of ATP
● Aver5age ATP molecule exists for 20 seconds before it is used/turned into ADP
● So on average each molecule of ATP is recycled 3 times per minute
● Since total amount of ATP is 50 grams at any given time and it is recycled every
20 seconds, that means that a person who consumes 2500 KCal a day
generates 180 Kg (400 pounds) of ATP per day
B. Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
● Means without oxygen
● Process by which energy within chemical bonds of foodstuffs are transferred to a
form (ATP) that the cell can use without using oxygen
● Occurs in the cytoplasm and results in the very rapid generation of ATP
1. Anaerobic Pathways
a) CP (Creatine Phosphate) ATP Pathway
● Generation of Adenosine Triphosphate/ATP from combination of
Creatine Phosphate/CP and Adenosine Diphosphate/ADP
● CP + ADP → ATP + C
● This process is limited by the amount of CP in the cell and can
provide energy for events less than 10 seconds in duration
b) Fermentation
● Generation of ATP utilizing only reactions of glycolysis
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30 minutes 5% 95%
Products of Glycolysis
-2 ATP (used)
+2 NADH
+4 ATP
NET TOTAL: 2 NADH and 2 ATP
B. The Citric Acid Cycle (TCA) aka Krebs Cycle
● Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
● Mitochondria have their own DNA (resembles prokaryotic DNA) & can reproduce
independently of the cell
● Mitochondria are probably prokaryotic in origin (endosymbiosis) and may be
linked within the cell as a network or as a reticulum
● O2 is utilized by mitochondria (cristae) though TCA itself is anaerobic
● However, ETC is aerobic but cannot occur without products of TCA
1. Formation of Acetyl CoA
● Two pyruvate produced by glycolysis diffuse to the mitochondria where
they enter two different cycles of TCA
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Products of TCA
Each Pyruvate molecule going through TCA:
4 NADH
1 FADH
1 ATP
or
For each glucose:
8 NADH
2 FADH
2 ATP
C. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
● Series of several proteins embedded in cristae (internal membrane of the
mitochondria)
● Several thousand ETCs in each cristae
● FADH transfers high energy electrons to the electron transport chain creating 2
ATP from 2 ADP + Pi and NADH transfers high energy electrons to ETC creating
3 ATP from 3 ADP + Pi
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Glycolysis 2 0 4
TCA 8 2 2
GROSS 10 2 40
TOTAL Net Total: 36
III. Fermentation
● Anaerobic cellular respiration occurs under the following situations:
○ If ATP is needed rapidly
○ For activities lasting less than two minutes in duration
○ If no O2 is available
○ If the mitochondria is overwhelmed/saturated with NADH or FADH
● Anaerobic cellular respiration starts with glycolysis and produces 2 net ATP, 2 NADH
and 2 pyruvate
● Since the 2 NADH do not enter mitochondria, the 2 ATP aren’t used for active transport
of the NADH and instead the 2 ATP can be used for cellular functions
● Since the 2 NADH do not enter mitochondria, they must be oxidized (turned back to
NAD) in the cytosol
● 2 NADH are oxidized by the 2 pyruvate creating 2 molecules of lactic acid (NADH +
Pyruvate = H+ Lac + NAD)
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● The NAD is available for additional oxidation and the cell removes and neutralizes the
lactic acid (H+ Lac)
● Anaerobic cellular respiration is much quicker than aerobic cellular respiration but
produces far less ATP and additionally produces lactic acid
A. Lactic Acid Neutralization
● During any activity, ATP is generated by both aerobic and anaerobic sources
● Depending on the duration and intensity of the activity, lactic acid may be
produced in excess (production is greater than the cell’s ability to remove it)
● This excess lactic acid (H+ Lac) is neutralized by bicarbonate (HCO3-)
● H+ Lac + HCO3- → H2O + CO2 + Lactate
● This excess CO2 must be released from the body through increased ventilation
● Increased ventilation means that more O2 is being breathes in with each
inspiration though it is not necessarily being utilized
● In mainly anaerobic activities (less than one minute in duration) this excess O2 is
not utilized at the cellular level and is exhaled along with excess CO2
MUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
I. Functions of Muscle
A. Skeletal Movement
● By converting energy in the chemical bonds of ATP to mechanical energy,
muscles can contract
● Contraction exerts force on bones causing movement (internal or external)
B. Posture
● Muscle contraction doesn’t always produce movement but can also maintain
tension within muscles and on bones that acts to neutralizes forces (gravity) and
maintain position
C. Stabilization and Support
● Strength and density of muscle allows it to stabilize, strengthen, and support
more fragile structures
● Seen in joints and with organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavities
D. Thermogenesis
● As in any mechanical situation where chemical energy is converted to
mechanical energy, heat is generated
● Much of the heat created through contractions is used to maintain a stable body
temperature
II. Types of Muscle and Muscle Tissue
● Composed of proteins that allow for contraction, these tissues are responsible for
generating motion and heat, and maintaining posture
● Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
● Muscle cells are always referred to as fibers, cytoplasm is the sarcoplasm, and the cell
membrane is the sarcolemma
A. Skeletal Muscle
● Long, thin cells that attach to bones and are multinucleated
● Voluntary (contraction and relaxation can be consciously controlled)
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● The protein myosin (part of actin and myosin complex allowing contraction) lines
up in the cells creating striations
B. Cardiac Muscle
● Only found in walls of the heart
● Smaller than skeletal muscle cells
● Usually only have one nucleus but they can be multinucleated
● Have striations
● Branch & join one another using a special type of desmosome called
intercalcated disks
● Involuntary (contractions and relaxations are unconsciously controlled)
● Provides force that moves blood through the body
C. Smooth Muscle
● Involuntary muscles that lack striations and have one nucleus
● Found within walls of hollow organs (bladder), structures (digestive tract), and in
walls of blood vessels
III. Anatomy of a Muscle
● Skeletal muscles are individual organs that attach to the skeleton
● Individual cells are called muscle cells, muscle fibers, or myofibers
● Individual muscle fibers are wrapped in a sheath of connective tissue called endomysium
● Several muscle fibers are bound together by connective tissue called perimysium which
forms a fascicle
● Fascicles are then bound into a muscle by connective tissue called epimysium
● At the origin and insertion, the epimysium becomes a tendon that attaches to a bone
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A. Muscle Fiber
● Individual muscle cells
● Can extend to 30 cm in length
● Membrane of muscle cells is called sarcolemma
● Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated and the nuclei are located on the
periphery of the cell
● Within the cell is filled with mitochondria found in between rows of myofils
(protein threads that constitute the muscle)
B. Myofibril
● Small, threadlike structures made of protein that are contractile components of
each cell
● Each muscle fiber contains hundreds to thousands of myofibrils
● They are short and do not extend the full length of the muscle fiber
● As a result, myofibrils must overlap, creating striations
● These are the result of two types of protein (actin and myosin) overlapping
● Actin and myosin are proteins that make up myofibrils
C. Myosin
● Thick protein fibers that line up to form the A bands
● Each filament of myosin contains a moveable structure (myosin head) which will
attach to specific binding sites on the actin
D. Actin
● Thinner protein filaments that make up the I bands
● On each actin molecule are sites that the myosin head can bind to when the
muscle contracts
IV. Sarcomeres
● Actin and myosin are myofilaments
● Since myofilaments don’t extend the full length of a muscle, they are arranged in
repeating units called sarcomeres
● Each myofibril is composed of ~10,000 sarcomeres arranged end to end
● Sarcomeres are the contractile unit of the muscle
● Each individual one can only contract/shorten a small amount, but when all sarcomeres
in all myofibrils of a muscle are considered, this contraction becomes significant
● Arranged into zones and bands
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A. A Band
● Found in the center of the sarcomere
● Made up of rows of myosin/thick filaments
● Portion of actin/thin filaments overlap edges of myosin at the edges of the A band
● Is the dark section of the sarcomere
1. M Line
● Protein filaments extending off the center of each thick filament
● Connect the center of each thick filament in the A band which stabilizes
the A band
● Central portion of the A band
2. H Zone
● Portion of the A band that doesn’t overlap with thin filaments
● Contains only myosin and is only seen when the sarcomere is
relaxed/resting
3. Zone of Overlap
● Found at the edges of the A band where actin and myosin portions
overlap
B. I Bands
● Extends from A band of one sarcomere to an A band of another sarcomere
● Contains only actin/thin filaments
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1. Z Lines
● Composed of protein that connects one sarcomere to the next
● Marks the boundaries of each sarcomere
V. Movement
● Contraction/movement occurs when the actin and myosin filaments slide past one
another using energy stored in ATP
A. Conditions & Components of Movement
1. Motor Unit
● For a voluntary muscle to move, it must be stimulated by the nervous
system
● A number of muscle fibers (usually ~150) are stimulated by a motor
neuron (nerve attached to muscle fibers)
● The neuron and the fibers that it stimulates are the motor unit
2. Action Potential
● An electric impulse that initiates the sequence of events that results in
muscle contraction
● Caused by the movement of ions across a cell membrane
● Creates an electrical current that can travel from cell to cell and stimulate
contraction
B. Steps of Muscle Contraction
1. An action potential (electrical impulse) travels from the brain down a
motor neuron to the axon terminal (end of nerve) at the neuromuscular
junction (where neuron meets muscle)
2. When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, a neurotransmitter
(acetylcholine) is released and travels across the space between the axon
and the muscle
3. Acetylcholine triggers sodium channels to open, and the Na+ ions cross
the sarcolemma (cell membrane) of muscle fibers, generating an action
potential that can travel from muscle cell to muscle cell
4. As the action potential travels along the sarcolemma, it also causes
Calcium++ to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca++ binds to
troponin (attached to tropomyosin) on actin filaments, changing the shape
of the tropomyosin and causing the myosin binding sites on the actin to
become exposed
5. Myosin heads aren't attached to thin filaments, but possess energy from
an ATP molecule that was previously attached to the myosin head. ATP is
broken down to ADP + Pi + energy and is used to attach myosin heads to
binding sites on thin filaments
6. Energy released from the ATP that was previously attached to the myosin
head causes the myosin head to move, which moves the thin filament
bound to it
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7. As thin filaments begin to move towards one another, the Z-discs also
move toward one another, which causes the sarcomere to shorten and
the muscle begins to contract
8. A molecule of ATP attaches to each head of myosin. The binding of ATP
to the myosin head releases the myosin head from the thin filament
(actin). Energy within ATP will be utilized by the myosin head to attach to
thin filaments and move them the next time an action potential stimulates
the muscle fiber
9. As the action potential from the motor neuron continues, the process will
continue and muscle fibers continue to contract
C. Relaxation
● Contraction continues until the action potential ends
● When the action potential stops, the actin and myosin disengage from one
another
● For the sarcomere to return to its relaxed length, another force, usually generated
by contraction of an antagonist muscle, is needed to act on the sarcomere
VI. Muscle Metabolism
A. Types of Muscle
● Two major types of muscle found in the body classified by type of metabolism
(aerobic or anaerobic) that muscles utilize
● Everyone possesses both types (fast twitch and slow twitch) but amounts of each
found in every individual differ
1. Fast Twitch (Low Oxidative/Type II)
● A fast contracting type of muscle fiber with a high capacity of generating
ATP anaerobically
● Predominately used during stop and go/change of pace activities as well
as all out rapid activities lasting less than 45-60 seconds
● In elite sprinters, these fibers constitute 55-65% of the athlete’s muscle
fibers
● They have a lower concentration of mitochondria and can also generate
ATP aerobically but at a slower rate than slow twitch muscle fibers
2. Slow Twitch (High Oxidative/Type I)
● A slow contracting muscle fiber with a high capacity to produce ATP
aerobically using glucose and fatty acids
● Contain high concentration of large mitochondria
● Predominately used in endurance activities lasting more than 5 minutes
● In elite endurance athletes (nordic skiing, cycling, running, etc.) the fibers
constitute 65-80% of the athlete’s muscle fibers
● They have the ability to produce ATP anaerobically but not to the extent
of fast twitch muscle fibers
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b) Supination
● Opposite of pronation
● Results in palm facing anteriorly or superiorly
2. Movements of Foot
a) Inversion
● The sole of the foot turns medially or turns in
b) Eversion
● The sole of the foot turns laterally or turns out
3. General Movements
a) Elevation
● Movement parallel to the frontal plane where structure or portion
of the body moves superiorly
b) Depression
● Movement parallel to the frontal plane where structure or portion
of the body moves inferiorly or downwards
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
● Muscle locations– Many ways to group and classify muscles
○ Direction of fibers, location, shape, size, number of origins, and action
○ For most purposes, they are classified by location
I. Facial Muscles
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION
Pectoralis Major Ribs (costal cartilage Greater tubercle of Adducts, flexes, and
of ribs 2-6), sternum, humerus extends arm
clavicle
External Obliques Ribcage Iliac crest and fascia Flexion and rotation
of rectus abdominis of vertebral column
Internal Obliques Iliac crest and various Inferior ribs (9 or Flexion and rotation
locations of both os 10-12) and fascia or of vertebral column
coxa rectus abdominis
IV. Arms
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION
V. Leg Muscles
● Sartorius and adductors are superior muscles
● Rectus femoris through vastus medialis are quadriceps
● Gluteus maximus and medius are gluteals
● Semitendinosus through biceps femoris are hamstrings
● Tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus are anterior muscles
● Soleus through calcaneal tendon are posterior muscles
NAME ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S) ACTION
Rectus Femoris Anterior inferior iliac Femoral tendon to Extension of tibia and
spine the patella to the fibula and flexion of
tibial tuberosity via femur
the patellar ligament
Gluteus Maximus Iliac crest, sacrum, Iliotibial tract and Extension and lateral
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Gluteus medius Iliac crest and gluteal Greater trochanter Abduction and medial
surface rotation of femur
Biceps Femoris Long head- ischial Head of fibula and Flexion of tibia and
tuberosity lateral condyle of tibia fibula and extension
Short head- linea of femur
aspera
ARTICULATIONS
● Points of contact between two bones, cartilage and bones, or teeth and bones
● May both facilitate movement or stabilize a structure, prohibiting movement
● Classified in two manners– structure and function
I. Structural Classification
● Based upon construction
A. Fibrous
● Not encapsulated by joint cavity
● Held together by fibrous connective tissue (usually ligaments)
● Generally immobile and stabilize structures
1. Sutures
● Found only between cranial bones
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● Movement occurs only in one plane and is similar to movements associated with
a hinge
C. Pivot
● Raised or rounded process of one bone that fits into a ring of bone(s) or
ligaments of another
● Another monaxial joint
● Only allows for rotation
D. Ellipsoidal
● A.k.a. condyloid joints
● Oval condyle of one bone fits into oval depression or cavity of another which
allows for movement in two directions (back and forth and side to side) and is
biaxial
● May have either one or two condyles
1. Bicondylar
● Ellipsoidal joint that utilizes two condyles of one bone that fit into two oval
cavities/depressions of one another
● Because there are two points of contact between articulating bones,
movement only occurs in one plane
● Sometimes called modified hinge joints
E. Saddle
● Convex (rider-like) face of one bone fits into concave (saddle-like) face of another
● Allows for movement through more than one plane
● Angular and circumduction but not rotation
F. Ball and Socket
● Ball shaped process of one bone (head) fits into socket or depression of another
● Performs angular, circumduction, rotation, and triaxial movements
III. Structure of Specific Joints
A. Knee (Tibiofemoral)
● Largest joint in the body & most complicated
● Structurally, it is a bicondylar joint, though functionally, it resembles a hinge
● Three articulations– one between patella & femur, and two between femur & tibia
(medial condyle of femur to medial condyle of tibia, lateral condyle to lateral
condyle)
● Not a typical synovial joint because it isn’t encapsulated by a single membrane
nor a common synovial cavity
● Instead it is surrounded by a network of ligaments and tendons that support and
hold the joint together
1. Bones
● Comprised of three bones– patella, femur, and tibia
● Lateral and medial condyles of both the femur and tibia articulate with one
another with two fibrocartilage pads (lateral and medial menisci) between
the femur and tibia
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4. Bursae
● Fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid
● Located between bones and tendons
● Reduce friction and absorb force between bones
● Twelve bursae, named for location and structure they separate
IV. Common Injuries
A. Sprains
● Result of sudden pulling/wrenching on joint
● Ligaments are pulled or stretched which causes a loosening of the joint
● Three grades:
○ Grade I– ligaments are stretched but still intact
○ Grade II– ligaments are stretched and partially torn
○ Grade III– ligaments are completely ruptured (torn)
● Grade I sprains usually heal after a few days, but more severe sprains take
longer than broken bones to heal (lower blood supply)
B. Bursitis
● Inflammation of bursae caused by trauma or infection
● Pressure caused by inflammation causes pain and restricts movement
C. Dislocation
● Displacement of articulating bones of a joint that results in a loss of contact
(separation) between them
● Can’t have dislocation without a sprain
D. Arthritis
● Inflammation of joint resulting in damage to articular cartilage (abnormal
ossification) of articulating bones
● Causes pain and restricts movement
● Causes vary
1. Osteoarthritis
● Damage resulting from daily wear & tear that accumulates over many
years, usually decades
2. Rheumatoid
● Immune system disorder where immune system attacks joint tissue
(among others), resulting in arthritis
● Thought to be genetic or perhaps caused by an immune response to a
virus
QUIZ 4/26
● 40 points
● Knee IDs
● Anatomical question
● No different types of joints, just the knee & movements that cruciates prevent
● Injuries & their relationships
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. Nervous System
● All neural tissue (neurons, neuroglia, & axillary components) in the body
● Allows sensation and response to environment, movement, information integration, and
body function regulation
● Two main components: central and peripheral
A. Components of the Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
● Brain and spinal cord
○ Doesn’t include nerves that branch off spinal cord (spinal nerves)
nor nerves that originate from brain (cranial nerves)
● Processes and integrates sensory information and plans/coordinates
response to stimuli
2. Peripheral Nervous System
● Spinal nerves (31 pairs) that extend off spinal cord and cranial nerves that
originate from brain
● Links CNS with sense organs and other systems using sensory neurons
(afferent neurons that bring information sensed by the organism to CNS)
and motor neurons (efferent neurons that carry impulses to muscles and
glands)
● Composed of two subdivisions– somatic and autonomic
a) Somatic Nervous System
● Motor/efferent neurons
● Responsible for voluntary (occasionally involuntary)
reflexes/neural impulses that innervate skeletal muscle
● Mostly voluntary
b) Autonomic Nervous System
● Involuntary part of PNS
● Composed of neurons that regulate body systems and innervate
involuntary (smooth/cardiac) muscle
● Composed of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
(i) Sympathetic/Thoracolumbar Nervous System
● Regulates fight or flight response
● Stimulates cellular metabolism
● Recruits energy reserves
● Increases heart and ventilation rates and alertness
● Prepares organism for danger
(ii) Parasympathetic/Craniosacral Nervous System
● Reduces heart and ventilation rates
● Decreases cellular metabolism
● Increases storage of energy reserves
● Prepares organism for rest
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2. Unipolar
● Soma lies off of the side of a continuous structure that contains dendrites
on one end and the axon terminal on the other
● Axon is myelinated
● Sensory neurons and are found in PNS
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3. Bipolar
● Similar in structure to unipolar neurons with two exceptions
● Soma lies between dendrites and axon (not off to side)
● Axon is not myelinated
● Rare and found in eye & ear
4. Multipolar
● Most common neurons in CNS
● All motor neurons
● Consists of many dendrites extending off soma and a single myelinated
axon that may or may not branch
D. Functions
● Neurons can also be classified by their functions
● Three major functional classifications: sensory, motor, and interneurons
1. Sensory Neurons
● Belong to PNS
● Afferent (bring impulses toward CNS) neurons
● Unipolar neurons that link sensory receptor to CNS (brain or spinal cord)
● Collect information regarding the external environment (somatic neurons)
and the internal environment of our bodies (visceral sensory neurons)
● Typically unipolar
● Associated with sensory neurons are sensory receptors
a) Sensory Receptors
● Specialized cells/dendritic processes of a sensory neuron that
monitor internal and external environment
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● Even though there is no impulse traveling through the neuron, it is charged (there
are not equal numbers of positive ions and negative ions on each side of the
membrane)
● Because proteins have a slight negative charge and the greater presence of Cl-
ions than K+ within the neuron, there is a slight negative charge intracellularly
(-90 mv)
● Because there is a greater concentration of K+ and Na+ ions outside of the cell,
there is an extracellular positive charge
● Since there is a positive charge on one side of the plasma membrane and a
negative charge on the other side, the resting neuron is said to be polarized
C. Action Potential
● When a dendrite receives neurotransmitters from another neuron, a few Na+
channels open on a small segment of the axon
● This causes positive ions to diffuse through the channels, increasing the
concentration of positive ions in that segment of the axon and creating a slight
intracellular positive charge (+20 mv)
● This intracellular change in charge to a less negative state is called
depolarization
● Change in charge in one segment causes Na+ channels in an adjacent segment
to open, and charge moves along the axon
● Movement of an electrical charge is called current, and the current is a neural
impulse (action potential)
D. Repolarization
● As soon as the intracellular charge along a segment of the axon reaches +20 mv,
the Na channels close (Na stops diffusing in) and K channels open
● Since there is a greater concentration inside the neuron than out, the K+ ions
diffuse out
● With no additional Na+ ions entering the cell and K+ ions leaving the cell,
intracellular charge returns to -90 mv and intracellular concentrations of Na+ and
K+ are returned to resting potential levels by Na+/K+ pumps (active transport)
E. Refractory Period
● Period of time when a neuron cannot generate another action potential & exists
from the time Na channels close until the segment of axon returns to the ion
concentrations present during resting membrane potential
● Typically lasts .0004 sec to .004 sec
○ When one considers the time that is needed to generate an action
potential and the time of the refractory period, between 10 and 100
impulses can be conducted per second per neuron
● One segment at a time
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● Since it has such a great concentration of neurons (tens of billions) which are
able to interconnect to a greater extent, it is able to perform its major purposes
● Responsible for processing, analyzing, & integrating info while also monitoring &
regulating all body functions
1. Brain Structure
● Organized into six major regions– cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon,
mesencephalon, pons, & medulla oblongata
a) Cranial Meninges
● Continuous w/ spinal meninges
● Three layers that surround the brain
● Most superficial layer is dura mater, intermediate layer is
arachnoid, and pia mater is deepest & actually adheres to surface
of the brain
● Meninges protect the brain from injury
● Separate the brain from bones of cranium and contain
cerebrospinal fluid in its layer
● Meninges aren’t apart of the blood brain barrier, which is found
surrounding cranial capillaries
b) Cerebrum
● Forms majority of brain
● Divided into left and right hemispheres
● Each hemisphere is further subdivided into lobes determined by
fissures which are named roughly in correspondence to cranial
bone that covers them (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)
● Within cerebrum are three ventricles (chambers) that are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
● Responsible for intellect, conscious thought, complex movement,
sensation, memory, & speech
c) Cerebellum
● Second largest portion of the brain
● Lies inferior to occipital lobe of the cerebrum and attaches to
dorsal part of brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons, and
mesencephalon)
● Has two hemispheres which are further divided into lobes
● Controls skeletal muscle contraction including equilibrium,
posture, and coordination
d) Diencephalon
● Sits on superior end of brain stem, though it isn’t part of the brain
stem
● Links the cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) to the brain stem
● Consists of thalamus (more superior portion) and the
hypothalamus (inferior portion)
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○ Side chain (R group) which is different for each of the 20 amino acids
● Polypeptide is 10-2000 amino acids bound together
● A protein can be a single polypeptide or several different polypeptides attached
by peptide bonds
● Proteins composed of more than one polypeptide have specific regions, each
region is a polypeptide and may have a specific function
B. Peptide Bonds
● Covalent bonds between amino acids that make up polypeptides and proteins
● Form between C of carboxyl and N of amino group
● Formed by dehydration reaction
● Carboxyl gives up hydroxide (OH-) and amino group gives up hydrogen ion (H+)
● Resulting covalent bond (peptide bond) links amino acids together
C. Protein Structure
● Proteins have levels of structure that determine their function
● Four levels
1. Primary Structure
● Specific order that amino acids line up in a protein
● Order that amino acids occur in is unique for each protein
2. Secondary Structure
● Helixes (twists) and pleats (bends) that occur in a protein
3. Tertiary Structure
● Helixes and pleats are bent and folded into the three dimensional shape
of a polypeptide
4. Quaternary Structure
● Found only in proteins containing two or more polypeptides
● Determined by how polypeptides are arranged
II. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
● Large molecule (1.4 meters long in humans) that cannot leave nucleus
● Made of nucleotides that occur in a sequence that forms a code
● This code holds instructions for construction of proteins made by ribosomes
● Since actual proteins and therefore genes are unique for each species, different species
have different DNA
A. Triplets/Codons
● Genetic code is broken into sequences of three consecutive nitrogen bases
called a triplet (DNA) or codon (mRNA)
● Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid
● Since proteins are made of amino acids, order of triplets/codons corresponds to
order that amino acids occur in a protein
● 64 codons/triplets (4x4x4) so each amino acid has more than one codon
● Additionally there is a “start” codon/triplet that signals beginning of instructions &
three “stop” codons/triplets that signal end of instructions
B. Genes (Transcriptional Units)
● Instructions for construction of one protein is called a gene
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A. Transcription
● Occurs in nucleus
● Consists of three steps:
○ Binding of polymerase
○ Synthesis of mRNA (elongation)
○ Modification of pre mRNA
1. Binding of Polymerase
● Genes on DNA (sense strand) have a promoter region that is a sequence
of repeating N2 bases that precedes the gene
● Groups of proteins called transcription factors help an enzyme called RNA
polymerase II bind to the promoter region
3. Modification of Pre-mRNA
● mRNA must be modified after transcription and before it leaves the
nucleus through nuclear pores
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B. Translation
● Using info on mRNA to synthesize a protein
● Four part process
1. Initiation
● 5’ end of mRNA binds to small subunit of the ribosome
● Just past guanine cap is the codon that serves as start sequence (AUG)
● An initiator tRNA (anticodon is UAC, amino acid is methionine) binds to
mRNA start sequence (utilizing H-bonds) with its anticodon and the major
portion of tRNA attaches briefly to larger subunit
● tRNA is then moved over slightly by ribosome
2. Elongation
● Translocation also occurring
● mRNA next codon is exposed
● Codon is recognized by a tRNA molecule with appropriate anticodon
● An enzyme briefly attaches this next tRNA to the large subunit
● Then another enzyme (ribozyme RNA) allows for formation of a peptide
bond between first amino acid (methionine) and second amino acid
● Ribosome slides both tRNAs over, & first tRNA separates from amino
acids (growing polypeptide chain) leaving amino acids attached to second
tRNA
3. Translocation
● mRNA molecule is moved by ribosome one codon over
○ Exposes next codon
○ Also causes first tRNA to separate from mRNA
● tRNA returns to cytosol where it will attach to another amino acid (same
type of amino acid that was given to the polypeptide)
● Both processes will occur until stop codon is reached
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4. Termination
● When stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is exposed on ribosome, a protein
that acts as a release factor binds to mRNA causing polypeptide/protein
to be released
● Two subunits
***usually after a ribosome moves past “START” codon, another ribosome
attaches to mRNA (forming a string of ribosomes called polyribosomes), building
another polypeptide/protein. This continues until mRNA begins to degrade (3
mins). It takes less than a minute to construct an average sized protein***