Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

44
Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

45
 Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (Conductors):
-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.
-- thermal energy Partially filled band Overlapping bands
excites electrons Energy Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states. band
-- two types of band GAP empty
structures for metals band
- partially filled band partly
- empty band that filled filled
overlaps filled band band band

filled states
filled states
filled filled
band band

48
 Energy Band Structures: Insulators &
• Insulators:
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors:
-- wide band gap (> 2 eV) -- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)
-- few electrons excited -- more electrons excited
across band gap across band gap
Energy empty Energy empty
conduction conduction
band band
GAP ?
GAP

filled filled
valence valence
band band

filled states
filled states

filled filled
band band
49
Metals: Influence of Temperature and Impurities on Resistivity

• Presence of imperfections increases resistivity

-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations These act to scatter
-- impurity atoms electrons so that they
-- vacancies take a less direct path.

6
• Resistivity
ρ

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
m)

5 increases with:
4
Resistivity,

-- temperature
3 ρd -- wt% impurity
-- %CW
2 ρi
1
ρt
ρ = ρthermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (ºC) + ρimpurity
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8 + ρdeformation
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.) 50
 Charge Carriers in Insulators and
Semiconductors
Adapted from Fig. 18.6(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Two types of electronic charge
carriers:
Free Electron
– negative charge
– in conduction band

Hole
– positive charge
– vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

51
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon & germanium
– Group IVA materials

• Compound semiconductors
– III-V compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– II-VI compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

57
 Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of Electron
and Hole Migration
• Concept of electrons and holes:
valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
# holes/m3
σ = n e µe + p e µh
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
58
 Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• Data for Pure Silicon:
Conductivity vs T
-- σ increases with T
-- opposite to metals
σ = ni e (µe + µh )

−E gap / kT
ni ∝ e

material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 18.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig. 18.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 • Intrinsic:
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)
• Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n ≠ p
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)

Phosphorus atom Boron atom

hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
σ ≈ n e µe electron σ ≈ p e µh
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 18.14(a), Callister & electric field electric field
Rethwisch 8e. 60
 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity vs.
• Data for Doped Silicon: Temperature
-- σ increases doping doped
-- reason: imperfection sites undoped
lower the activation energy to 3

concentration (1021/m3)
produce mobile electrons.

Conduction electron

freeze-out
2

extrinsic

intrinsic
• Comparison: intrinsic vs

freeze
extrinsic conduction... 1
-- extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P). 0
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons. Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 18.17 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

61
 Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity

62
Dielectric Materials
Electroceramics
 Common Applications for Electroceramics
• Insulator
• Resistor
• High dielectric constant capacitors
• Piezoelectric sonar transducers
• Ultrasonic transducers
• Radio & communication filters
• Medical diagnostic transducers
• Ultrasonic motors
• Electro-optic light valves
• Thin-film capacitors
• Ferroelectric thin-film memories
Ceramic insulators
Bulk Ceramic Varistors
(VDR-voltage dependent
resistors)
Bulk Ceramic Thermistors
Bulk ceramic resistors
 Cellular Telephone

• Portable communication devices such

as cordless, portable, and car
telephone have become popular
worlwide.

• Do you know what kind of

dielectric and ferroelectric
components are used in a cellular
phone?
 Cellular Telephone

• Chip Monolithic ceramic • High Frequency Surface

capacitors Acoustic Wave (SAW)
• Microwave Oscillators Filter
• Microwave Filters • Ceramic Filters
• Ceramic Resonators • Piezoelectric Receivers
• Piezoelectric Speakers
Johanson Dielectrics
Capacitor Products:
Ceramic SMT and
Leaded High Voltage
and High
Temperature, Dual
and Multi Capacitor
Arrays, Low
Inductance, X2Y,
Switchmode.
Capacitors
Capacitors
 Capacitors

C = "capacitance"
= q /∆V

Units: Coulomb/Volt
= Farad (F)
-----------------------------
The capacitance of a
Michael Faraday
capacitor is constant; (1791-1867)
if q increases, ∆V
increases proportionately.
 A AV
C = ε rε o Q = ε rε o
d d

Most common properties of dielectric
materials are:
(i) dielectric constant
(ii) dielectric strength
(iii) insulation resistance
(iv) surface resistivity
(v) loss factor
(vi) tangent of loss factor in terms of a
capacitor or phase difference
(vii) polar and non-polar materials.
Q = CV
Q: charge (Coulomb)
C: capacitance (Farad)
V: potential difference (Volt)
d: separation/thickness (meter)
εo: permitivity of vacuum =
8.854x10-12 C2/m2 or F/m
εr: dielectric constant
Dielectric Materials and Devices
Dielectric material
Electric dipole structure Do = εoE
Charge separation

Q A
C= C = εo
V l
εo= permittivity of vacuum
= 8.85x10-12 F/m
dielectric displacement D as the
surface charge on the metal plates,

Do = εoE + P
A
C =ε
l ε
εr =
εo
Dielectric Behavior
Field vectors and polarization

p = qd

Surface charge density or

dielectric displacement (C/m2)
Do = εoE

For the dielectric case

D= ε E
Do = εoE + P where P is the polarization (C/m2)
or total dipole moment per unit of volume of the dielectric

P= εo(εr – 1)E
Electronic Polarization

c12f32
Ionic polarization

Orientation polarization
 Relation between P,εε0 , ε r and E
The polarization ‘P’ is related to the electric flux density D as,
D = ε0 E + P
Since D = ε0εr E, the above relation becomes,
ε0 εr E = ε0 E + P
(or) P = ε0εr E− ε0E
i.e. P = ε0 (ε r − 1 )E

Electric susceptibility
The polarization P is proportional to the applied electric field
intensity E and it is in the same direction of ‘E’ It can be written as,

P ∝ E (or) P = ε0 χe E
Various Polarization mechanisms in Dielectrics
Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under
the action of the external electric field. Several microscopic mechanisms are
responsible for dielectric polarization.

Four types of microscopic polarization mechanisms.

Electronic polarization

Ionic polarization

Orientation polarization and

Space-charge polarization.

i. Electronic Polarization

Electronic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons in opposite directions, when an
external electric field is applied, and thereby a dipole moment is created in the
dielectric.

∴The induced dipole moment µ = αeE

where αe = electronic polarizability.

Monoatomic gases exhibit this kind of polarization, Electronic
polarizability is proportional to the volume of the atoms and is independent of
temperature.

The electronic polarizability = αe = 4πe0R3 ( Farad.m2) where R is the
radius of the atom.
 Nucleus Displaced
Nucleus
Equilibrium
position

x
Sphere of electronic +Ze −Ze Field direction
charge Original Position

Fig. (a) Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom without field (b)
Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom with field
 ii. Ionic Polarization
Ionic polarization arises due to the displacement of -ve ions and +
ve ions in opposite directions and it occurs in ionic solids, in the
presence of electric field. The displacement is independent of
temperature. Example : NaCl crystal

- + -
+

Cl Na x2 x1

Fig. (a) Without field (b) With field

iii. Orientation Polarization
The orientation polarization arises due to the presence of polar
molecule in the dielectric medium.

Fig. (a) Without field (b) With field


Explanation:

In the case of a CH3Cl molecule, the positive and negative charges do
not coincide. The Cl- has more electro negativity than hydrogen. Therefore, the
chlorine atoms pull the bonded electrons towards them more strongly than
hydrogen atoms. Therefore, even in the absence of field, there exists a net
dipole moment.

Now, when the field is applied, positive portion align along the
direction of field and negative portion align in the opposite direction of the
field. This kind of polarization is called as orientation polarization.

This depends on temperature; when temperature is increased, the
thermal energy tends to randomize the alignment
 Space-Charge Polarization
The space-charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions,
along the field direction, thereby giving rise to redistribution of charges in
the dielectrics

Fig. (a) Without field (b) With field


Explanation

Without the application of external field, the ions are orderly
arranged as shown in the Fig.

Now, when the field is applied, the ions diffuse with respect to the
direction of applied field. Thus the polarization occurs, known as space charge
polarization.

Normally, this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and
semiconductors and will be very small.
Table 7.1 Typical examples of polarization mechanisms.
Example Polarization Static εr Comment

Ar gas Electronic 1.0005 Small N in gases: εr ≈1

Ar liquid (T < 87.3K) Electronic 1.53 van der Waals bonding

Si crystal Electronic polarization 11.9 Covalent solid;

due to valence electrons Electronic bond polarization
NaCl crystal Ionic 5.90 Ionic crystalline solid

CsCl crystal Ionic 7.20 Ionic crystalline solid

Water Orientational 80 Dipolar liquid

Nitromethane (27°C) Orientational 34 Dipolar liquid

PVC Orientational 7 Dipole orientations partly

(Polyvinyl chloride) hindered in the solid
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 Dielectric Strength

Substance Dielectric Strength (MV/m)

Air 3
Quartz 8
Strontium titanate 8
Neoprene rubber 12
Nylon 14
Pyrex glass 14
Silicone oil 15
Paper 16
Bakelite 24
Polystyrene 24
Teflon 60