What's so magical about words?

Words, of course, are the coinage of communication, and they have far reaching effects
(Pauk, 1974).

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Vocabulary Guide

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Etymology: The Origin of Words
Using a Dictionary
Interpreting a Dictionary Entry
Structural Analysis
Common Word Roots
Word Relationships
Using Word Relationships
Analogies
Context Clues
The Importance of Reading

Introduction
The Value of Vocabulary Building
Words are unique and interesting. A limited vocabulary keeps you from expressing your
real thoughts and feelings. A strong vocabulary gives you the right words to use at the right
time.

Vocabulary building takes patience and continued effort. Your vocabulary can and should
be a reflection of you. Your vocabulary is you. And like you, your vocabulary should be
alive. It should change and grow to meet your needs.

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The Purpose of Vocabulary
Words are great subjects to investigate. When you become a student of language, and
delight in discovering word relationships, and become aware of how you can make words
work for you, you are more likely to stop when you encounter an unfamiliar word and
consider its meaning. If you do this, you will become a master of words and your
vocabulary will grow. You must develop strategies to conquer unfamiliar words when you
find them in your college textbooks and in your learning to make words work for you.
(Hennings, p. xvii)

Why Vocabulary Development Counts

 Vocabulary is a basic part of reading comprehension. If you don't know enough
words, you are going to have trouble understanding what you read. An occasional
word may not stop you, but if there are too many words you don't know,
comprehension will suffer. The content of textbooks is often challenging enough;
you don't want to work as well on understanding the words that express that content.
 Vocabulary is a major part of almost every standardized test, including reading
achievement tests, college entrance exams, and armed forces and vocational
placement tests. Vocabulary is a key measure of both one's learning and one's ability
to learn. The more words you know, then, the better you are likely to do on such
important tests.
 Studies have indicated that students with strong vocabularies are more successful in
school and that a good vocabulary is an influential factor for people who enjoy
successful careers in life. Words are the tools not just of better reading, but of better
writing, speaking, listening, and thinking as well. The more words you have at your
command, the more effective your communication can be, and the more influence
you can have on the people around you.
 In today's world, a good vocabulary counts more than ever. Many jobs provide
services or process information, and the skills of reading, writing, listening, and
speaking are essential. The keys to survival and success in the workplace are the
abilities to communicate skillfully and learn quickly. a solid vocabulary is essential
for both of these skills. (Nist & Mohr, p. 1)

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Improving your Vocabulary
Throughout your college years, new words will be flooding into your consciousness. Many
of them are the keys to ideas and information that will be new to you. When students have
trouble in a course, the trouble can often be traced back to their imperfect comprehension of
terms that are essential to an understanding of subject matter. A first-year science or social
science course may introduce you to almost as many new words as a first course in a
foreign language. Then there are also words which may not literally be new to you, but
which have specific meanings within the context of a specific course and therefore must be
learned as if they were new words.

For a college student, a large, wide-ranging vocabulary is a necessary tool for grasping
fundamental ideas and facts. Words are the tools of communication, learning, and thinking,
and a student with an inadequate vocabulary cannot function effectively and efficiently.
(Pauk, p. 308)

Etymology: The Origin of Words

Becoming Interested in the Origin of Words

Words, like facts, are difficult to remember out of context. Remembering is greatly
facilitated when you have a body of information with which to associate either a word or a
fact. For words, interesting origins or histories will help provide a context. For example, a
hippopotamus is a "river horse," from the Greek hippos, meaning "horse," and potamos,
meaning "river."

Indiana is called the Hoosier state, and its people Hoosiers. Why? In the early days, the
pioneers were gruff in manner; when someone knocked at the front door, a pioneer's voice
would often boom, "Who's yere?"

If you were offered a Hobson's choice, would you know what was meant? Thomas Hobson
owned a livery stable in seventeenth-century England. He loved his horses, and to prevent
any one horse from being overworked, he hired them out in turn, beginning with stall
number one. Customers had to take the horses they were given. Thus Hobson's choice
means no choice at all. (Pauk, p. 314)

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Etymology is the study of the origins of words. The English language is living and growing.
Although many of our words have been part of our language for many years, new words are
added all the time. Following are various ways our language is influenced.

 Derived from Foreign Words - English, in many cases, has been commonly
expanded by incorporating foreign words into it. Most of our language has ancient
Anglo-Saxon or Latin origins. Other languages have also added to our vocabularies.
 Additions through Technology & Products - Our words often reflect current
interests, trends, and innovations. One of the most recent contributors to our
language has been computer technology, which has created words such as bytes,
monitor, and disk.
 Another way new words come into our language is through the development of
products. Some examples include: Kleenex, Walkman, Scotch tape, Xerox, and
Linoleum.
 People's Names - sometimes when a person invents or introduces something, that
thing becomes associated with the person's name. The person, through time, is
forgotten while the name lives on in our language. Examples include:
o mesmerize - F.A. Mesmer, an Austrian doctor and hypnotist.
o sideburns - an American English alteration of burnsides, Ambrose E.
Burnside, a Union general.
 Words from Letters - The initials for the names of things may actually come to
replace the names. The initials become the words that represent the thing, concept,
or group. The following are examples of words that have
developed from initials.
o TV - TeleVision
o DWI - Driving While Intoxicated
o COD - Cash On Delivery
o ZIP - Zone Improvement Plan
 Word Histories - Some words also have interesting histories. Learning the stories
behind the meanings is a good way to learn those words. The following examples
will give you an idea of how history can affect language.
o footman - It was once thought to bring bad luck if a person stepped on the
door threshold when entering a house. Rich people hired a servant to stand at
their doors. His job was to guard against a guest's stepping on the threshold.
The guard became known as a footman.
o hooker - A synonym for prostitute. The term became popular during the
Civil War. The women involved were camp followers. General "Fighting
Joe" Hooker approved their presence in order to boost the morale of his
men.

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Using a Dictionary
One of the best ways to learn new words is to keep a good dictionary close to your elbow
and use it. Sometimes, you can get some idea of the meaning of a new word from its
context - how it is used in your reading material. Use context when you can, but be aware
that it has its limitations. According to Lee Deighton of Columbia University, using context
has the following three limitations:

1. Context provides only the meaning that fits that particular situation.
2. You often end up with a synonym, which is not quite the same as a definition.
3. When you have to infer the meaning of a word, you can be slightly (or greatly) in
error.

Your safest bet is to avoid all the guesswork and go straight to your dictionary. As you
study, consult your dictionary whenever you come to a word that you don't know precisely.
Find the exact meaning you need; then go back to your textbook and reread the paragraph,
with the meaning substituted for the word. If you become interested in a particular word,
write it on a 3 x 5 card. Later, go back to the dictionary and investigate it. Write its
meanings on the card, and keep the card and other like cards to look through and study
occasionally. But don't break into your studying for a long session with the dictionary; save
that for later.

Follow the example of thousands of successful people. Get yourself a pocket dictionary,
and always carry it with you. Its definitions will be terse, consisting mainly of synonyms,
but its value lies in its ability to spark a lifelong interest in words as well as increase your
vocabulary. Of course, a pocket dictionary is no substitute for a larger, desk-size dictionary;
but as a portable learning tool, the pocket dictionary is worth at least its weight in gold.

For your study periods, buy and use the best abridged dictionary that you can afford, but be
aware that no word is ever fully defined even by a good abridged dictionary. The dictionary
meaning is only an operational meaning that will solve your immediate problem. Words
have multiple shades of meaning that add richness to our language. The various shades will
become apparent to you as you keep reading, listening, and trying to use words in a variety
of contexts.

For intensive word study, however, there is no substitute for an unabridged dictionary.
Locate the unabridged dictionaries in your library or resource center and use them to
supplement your own abridged desk dictionary. An unabridged dictionary gives more
definitions, more about the derivations of words, and more on usage. (Pauk, pp. 308 - 309)

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Interpreting a Dictionary Entry
A typical dictionary entry includes these parts:
1. the word or phrase broken into syllables.
2. the word or phrase with the pronunciation indicated through the use of diacritical
marks - marks that indicate the vowel sounds such as a long vowel or a vowel
affected by other sounds; accent marks, a mark called the schwa that tells you that
the vowel is in an unaccented syllable of the word.
3. the part or parts of speech the word functions as -for example as a noun (n.), verb
(v.), adjective (adj.), or adverb (adv.).
4. related forms of the word, such as the plural form of nouns and the past tense of
verbs.
5. the definition or definitions of the word or phrase. Generally dictionaries group the
definitions according to a word's use as a noun, verb, adjective, and/or adverb.
6. the origin, or etymology, of the word or words, such as from the Latin, Old French,
Middle English, Hebrew, the name of a person. Some dictionaries use the symbol <
to mean "came from." For example, the origin of the word flank is given as "<Old
French flanc<Germanic."This tells us that flank came from the Old French word
fanc. The French word in turn came from the German language. Some dictionaries
use abbreviations to tell you where the item came from: OE for Old English, L for
Latin, and so forth.

Interpret a dictionary entry using the following steps:

 Pronounce the word in syllables using the diacritical marks as a guide.
 Note the part or parts of speech of the word and any related words.
 Read the definitions.
 Check the etymological reference to see if you can find remnants of the meaning of
the originating word in the meaning of the entry.
 Use the word in a sentence that has a clue in it as to the meaning of the word.
(Hennings, p. 5)

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Structural Analysis
The Greeks and Romans came up with a system for creating words by putting together
smaller word parts. They used three types of word parts: prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Pre
means "before," and so it makes sense that a prefix comes before the main part of a word.
Suf means "after," and so a suffix comes at the end of a word. A root word is the main part
of a word, and usually comes in the middle. Many English words are composed of at least
one root, and many have one or more prefixes and suffixes.

Word parts contribute to the total meaning of a word. Each part has its own meaning. The
meaning of an unknown word often is a combination of its parts. Splitting words into parts
to discover the meaning of unknown words is called structural analysis.

Parts of words provide the essential meanings. Studying the parts of words can tell you
many things. The base of a word gives you an overall meaning for the unknown word.
Affixes affect the base's meaning. Some affixes provide general meanings. Others identify
the subject area of the unknown word. Affixes also help determine the part of speech of the
unknown word.

Recognizing Word Roots and Prefixes

While using the dictionary is an excellent way to increase your vocabulary one word at a
time, if you would like to learn whole clusters of words in one stroke, you should get to
know the most common roots and prefixes in English.

It has been estimated that 60 percent of the English words in common use are made up
partly or entirely of prefixes or roots derived from Latin and Greek. The value of learning
prefixes and roots is that they illustrate the way much of our language is constructed. Once
learned, they can help you recognize and understand many words without resorting to a
dictionary. With one well-understood root word as the center, an entire "constellation" of
words can be built up.

Although knowing the meanings of prefixes and roots can unlock the meanings of
unfamiliar words, this knowledge should supplement, not replace, your dictionary use.
Over the centuries, many prefixes have changed in both meaning and spelling. While some
prefixes have a single and fairly invariant meaning, most prefixes have more than one
meaning each.

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For example, the prefix de- means "of' or "from"; yet the dictionary lists four different
meanings for it. So learn as many of the common prefixes and roots as you can, but learn
them for better and more precise understanding of words you already know and words that
you have yet to look up in the dictionary. When you go to the dictionary, make sure that
you spend some time on the prefixes and roots that make up each word. You will soon
become convinced that a word is not an assemblage of letters put together like an anagram,
but the true and natural outcome of. evolution. (Pauk, p. 310)

Common Word Roots

Root Meaning Example Definition
agri field agronomy field-crop production and soil management
anthropo man anthropology the study of man
astro star astronaut one who travels in interplanetary space
bio life biology the study of life
cardio heart cardiac pertaining to the heart
cede go precede to go before
chromo color chromatology the science of colors
demos people democracy government by the people
derma skin epidermis the outer layer of skin
dyna power dynamic characterized by power and energy
geo earth geology the study of the earth
helio sun heliotrope any plant that turns toward the sun
hydro water hydroponics growing of plants in water reinforced with nutrients
hypno sleep hypnosis a state of sleep induced by suggestion
ject throw eject to throw out
magni great, big magnify to enlarge, to make bigger
man(u) hand manuscript written by hand
mono one monoplane airplane with one wing
ortho straight orthodox right, true, straight opinion
pod foot pseudopod false foot

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psycho mind psychology study of the mind in any of its aspects
pyro fire pyrometer an instrument for measuring temperatures
script write manuscript hand written
terra earth terrace a raised platform of earth
thermo heat thermometer instrument for measuring heat
zoo animal zoology the study of animals

Common Prefixes
ante- before antebellum before the war
anti- against antifreeze liquid used to guard against freezing
auto- self automatic self-acting or self-regulating
bene- good benefit an act of kindness; a gift
circum- around circumscribe to draw a line around; to encircle
contra- against contradict to speak against
de- reverse, remove defoliate remove the leaves from a tree
dis- apart dislocate to unlodge
dys- bad dysfunctional not functioning
ecto- outside ectoparasite parasite living on the exterior of animals
endo- within endogamy marriage within the tribe
ex- out excavate to dig out
equi- equal equidistant equal distance
extra- beyond extraterrestrial beyond the earth
hyper- over hypertension high blood pressure
hypo- under hypotension low blood pressure
in- in interim in between
inter- between intervene come between
intra- within intramural within bounds of a school
intro- in, into introspect to look within, as one's own mind
macro- large macroscopic large enough to be observed by the naked eye

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mal- bad maladjusted badly adjusted
micro- small microscopic so small that one needs a microscope to observe
multi- many multimillionaire one having two or more million dollars
neo- new neolithic new stone age
non- not nonconformist one who does not conform
pan- all pantheon a temple dedicated to all gods
poly- many polygonal having many sides
post- after postgraduate after graduating
pre- before precede to go before
pro- for proponent a supporter
proto- first prototype first or original model
pseudo- false pseudonym false name; esp., an author's pen-name
re-, red- back again rejuvenate to make young
re-, red- together reconnect to put together again
retro- backward retrospect a looking back on things
semi- half semicircle half a circle
sub- under submerge to put under water
super- above superfine extra fine
tele- far telescope seeing or viewing afar
trans- across transalpine across the Alps

Number prefixes
uni- one tetra- four oct- eight
mono- one quint- five nov- nine
bi- two pent- five dec- ten
duo- two sex- six lat- side
di- two hex- six ped- foot
tri- three sept- seven pod- foot
quad- four hept- seven

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Math & Science Affixes and Roots
Root or Affix Example
aqua (water) aquarium
hydro (water) hydroplane
hemi (half) hemisphere
semi (half) semicircle
equi (equal) equivalent
tele (far off) telescope
micro (small) microfilm
onomy (science of) astronomy
ology (study of) geology
uni (one) universe
bi (two) bicycle
tri (three) triangle
octa (eight) octagon
dec (ten) decade
centi (hundred) centimeter
milli (thousand) millimeter
bio (life) biology
astro (star) astronaut
thermo (heat) thermodynamic
meter (measure) diameter
ped (foot) pedestrian
pod (foot) tripod

Prefixes that mean "no": a- de- dis-, in- non- un-, contra
Examples: disqualify, nondescript, unscrupulous, contradict, inadvertent

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Prefix Meaning Examples
a-, an- without, not asexual, atypical, amoral, anarchy
de- reverse action, away defrost, demystify, desensitize, deduct
dis-, dif-, di- not, apart dissatisfied, disorganized, different, divert
in-, il-, it-, im- not inappropriate, invisible, illegal, impossible
non- not nonproductive, nonessential, nonsense
un- not unlikely, unnoticeable, unreliable
contra-, counter- against contrary, contradict, counterproductive

Prefixes that indicate "when," "where," or "more": pre-,

post-, ante-, inter-, infra-, traps-, sub-, circum-, ultra
Examples: premature, postscript, anteroom, intervene, transformation

Prefix Meaning Examples

pre-, pro- before pre-dinner, preliminary, previous, prologue
post- after postwar, postoperative, postpone
ante- before antecedent, antechamber
inter- between, among interstate, intercept, interfere
intra- within intramural, intrastate, intravenous
trans- across transcontinental, transparent, transaction
sub- under submarine, submerge, subjugate
circum- around circumnavigate, circumference
beyond, on the far side of,
ultra- ultrasonic, ultraviolet, ultraconservative
excessive

Word Relationships
Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonyms, Analogies

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In some ways words are like families. Just as there are different relationships among
members of the same family, there are different relationships among words. Picture your
own family. You probably have relatives who like to do the same things you do. But they
may look nothing like you. You may have relatives who are from another city. They might
have unusual accents and all "sound alike." There are probably still others who are rebels.
They always want the opposite of what everyone else in the family wants.

There are similar relationships between words. Words that mean the same thing but look
different are called synonyms. Their meanings are very similar (e.g., pretty/cute). An
antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of another word (e.g., pretty/ugly). A
homonym is a word that sounds like another word but has a different meaning (e.g.,
there/their).

Because these terms are often confused, here is an easy way to keep them straight.

Heard alike Same meaning An opposite

O Y N
M N T
O O O
N N N
Y Y Y
M M M

Words are related in many other ways as well. When thinking about the relationship
between two words, you must examine those words for ways in which they are different,
alike, or related to each other.

Understanding how words fit together helps you expand and network frameworks. As an
active reader, this skill enables you to analyze and synthesize information. Such knowledge
is useful in building your vocabulary. This, in turn, gives you more skill in using the
context (see figure below).

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Using Word Relationships
Many kinds of word relationships are possible. When looking at relationships the order of
the words is important. Changing the order changes the relationship. In word relationships,
the colon (:) is an abbreviation of the phrase "is to." For example, instead of "white is to
black," "white: black" is written. Like all abbreviations, this one saves space and time.
Again, remember that there are countless kinds of relationships that can be constructed.

Common Word Relationships

Relationship Definition Examples
Synonym Two words have the same or nearly the dirty : nasty
same meaning worn: used
calm: peaceful
Antonym One word means the opposite of another hot: cold

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 late: early
new : old
Homonym Two words sound alike blue: blew
lie: lye
here: hear
Part to whole A piece or portion of something is related toe: foot
to the total object sole: shoe
leaf : plant
wall: room
Whole to part The whole is related to one of its parts tree : trunk
house: room
coat: sleeve
Age or size An animate (living) or inanimate fawn: deer
(nonliving) object is related to a younger freshman: senior
or older object of the same type calf: cow
mother: child
Rhyme Although items do not begin with the same goat: boat
sound/letter, the ending sounds are the trouble: bubble
same slow : toe
light: kite
Person to location A person is related to the place with which sailor : ship
he is associated criminal : jail
President: White
House
Object to use Something is related to its function oven: bake
soap: clean
broom: sweep
Source to object The place from which an item is taken and pound: stray dog
the item are compared bakery : cookies
mind: thought

Analogies
An analogy is an implied (unstated) relationship between two pairs of objects. Because the
relationship is implied, the first thing you must decide is what kind of relationship exists

16
between each pair (i.e., synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, part-to-whole, time, place, age,
etc.). This relationship can be any of the associations you have already studied.

An analogy deals with the relationship between two pairs of words. The two pairs are
usually dissimilar (not the same), although the relationships between each pair are similar.
Because analogies require you to identify similar relationships between dissimilar objects,
understanding analogies is one of the highest levels of thinking.

Analogies are usually written in one of two forms:

Up is to down as fast is to slow

or

Up : Down :: Fast : Slow

The colon (:) in the second example means "is to." The pair of colons (::) means "as."

Context Clues
Types of Context Clues
Definition Explanation

Synonym Experience

Antonym Knowledge of Subject

Examples

Learning new words when reading

The first way to figure out the meaning of a word is from its context. The context is the
other words and sentences that are around the new word. When you figure out the meaning
of a word from context, you are making a guess about what the word means. To do this, you
use the hints and clues of the other words and sentences. You won't always be right, but
many times you will be. You might not be able to guess the exact meaning of a word, but

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you may be close enough to get the meaning of the sentence it is in. A basic strategy for
unlocking the meaning of an unfamiliar word is to search the context of the sentence in
which a new word appears for clues. Sometimes this can be easy to do because the author
may have provided a definition or a synonym right there next to or near a term that you can
use to unlock its meaning. A definition is a statement giving the meaning of a word. A
synonym is a word that means almost the same as another.

For example, read the following sentence: "Don't think of words as separate, discrete items,
or entities." What is the meaning of the word entities? The definition is right there -
separate, discrete items. But what is the meaning of discrete? The meaning of that word is
right there too--separate.

When in doubt about the meaning of an unfamiliar word, look around in the sentence;
check to see if there is a definition or synonym clue to help you unlock meaning.

Another kind of context clue (in addition to definitions and synonyms embedded in
sentences) is a word or words of opposite meaning (antonym) set somewhere near a word
that is unfamiliar. If you find a word or words of opposite meaning and you recognize it or
them, you are "home free." You can unlock the meaning of the unfamiliar word.

For example, read the following sentence: "I was not exactly enamored of the travel plans
my agent made for me; my lack of enthusiasm was triggered by the eight-hour layover
required between flights." What is the meaning of the word enamored? You can use the
context of the sentence to reason in this way: Enamored of means just the opposite of
lacking in enthusiasm for.

Strategy

Step 1: Check for synonyms or definitions embedded right there. If you find a synonym or
definition, reread the sentence with the new term keeping that synonym or definition in
mind.

Step 2: Check for an antonym clue. If you find one, think about its meaning, actually
telling yourself the opposite meaning. Then reread the sentence and rephrase it in your own
mind.

Context Clues: Substitution

At times, rereading a sentence that contains an unfamiliar term and substituting a word or
phrase for it that makes sense can help you to unlock the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
To understand the substitution strategy, read the following sentence:

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 "When we stayed at the military base, each Saturday we went to the
commissary to buy the food and supplies we would need for the next week."

Although you may never have visited a commissary, given the use of the word in this
sentence, you immediately can substitute the word store for the word commissary. You
probably can wrestle an even more complete meaning for commissary from the overall
context of the sentence: a store for food and supplies that is located on a military base.

Steps in the substitution strategy are as follows:

Step 1: When you read a sentence that you have trouble understanding because of an
unfamiliar word in it, reread the sentence and substitute a word that seems to make sense in
the context.

Step 2: Read on. If the word you substituted does not make sense in the context of the rest
of the paragraph, try again.

Step 3: If the sentence still does not make sense to you and you do not understand the main
point the author is making in the paragraph, look for synonym, definition, and antonym
clues. If you are still uncertain, check a dictionary.

Context Clues: Multiple Meanings

As you have learned, a basic strategy for unlocking the meaning of an unfamiliar word is to
search the context of the sentence in which a new word appears for clues. This is especially
important when a word has multiple meanings that you already know and you must decide
the particular one that applies. Try using the following strategy:

Step 1: Check the context for clues: definitions and synonyms given "right there" as well as
words of opposite meaning - antonyms.

Step 2: Substitute each meaning you know in the context of the sentence until you find one
that makes good sense there. (Hennings, p. 48)

In Conclusion ...
The Importance of Reading
There is probably no surer or sounder way to improve your reading permanently than by
building a strong, precise vocabulary, and the only way to build your vocabulary is by
reading a lot. In a precise vocabulary, every word is learned as a concept. You know its

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ancestry, its principal definition as well as several secondary definitions, its synonyms and
the subtle differences among them, and its antonyms. Then, when you encounter it in your
reading, this vast store of knowledge flashes before you, illuminating the sentence, the
paragraph, and the idea the author is trying to convey (Pauk, p. 346).

References:
Pauk, Walter. How to Study in College. Fourth Edition. 1989.

Mohr, C., & Nist, S. Improving Vocabulary Skills. 1997.

Hennings, Dorothy. Vocabulary Growth. Strategies for College Word Study. 2001.

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