1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The maintenance, rehabilitation and upgrading of structural members, is perhaps oneof

the most crucial problems in civil engineering applications. Moreover, a large number
ofstructures constructed in the past using the older design codes in different parts of the
worldare structurally unsafe according to the new design codes. Since replacement of
suchdeficient elements of structures incurs a huge amount of public money and
time,strengthening has become the acceptable way of improving their load carrying capacity
and extending their service lives. Infrastructure decay caused by premature deterioration
ofbuildings and structures has lead to the investigation of several processes for repairing
orstrengthening purposes. One of the challenges in strengthening of concrete structures
isselection of a strengthening method that will enhance the strength and serviceability of
thestructure while addressing limitations such as constructability, building operations,
andbudget. Structural strengthening may be required due to many different situations.

 Additional strength may be needed to allow for higher loads to be placed on

thestructure. This is often required when the use of the structure changes and a higher
load-carrying capacity is needed. This can also occur if additional mechanical
equipment,filing systems, planters, or other items are being added to a structure.
 Strengthening may be needed to allow the structure to resist loads that were not
anticipated in the original design. This may be encountered when
structuralstrengthening is required for loads resulting from wind and seismic forces or
to improveresistance to blast loading.

 Additional strength may be needed due to a deficiency in the structure's ability to

carrythe original design loads. Deficiencies may be the result of deterioration (e.g.,
corrosionof steel reinforcement and loss of concrete section), structural damage (e.g.,
 2

vehicularimpact, excessive wear, excessive loading, and fire), or errors in the original
design orconstruction (e.g., misplaced or missing reinforcing steel and inadequate
concretestrength).
When dealing with such circumstances, each project has its own set of restrictions and
demands. Whether addressing space restrictions, constructability restrictions, durability
demands, or any number of other issues, each project requires a great deal of creativity in
arriving at a strengthening solution.

The majority of structural strengthening involves improving the ability of the structural
element to safely resist one or more of the following internal forces caused by loading:
flexure, shear, axial, and torsion. Strengthening is accomplished by either reducing the
magnitude of these forces or by enhancing the member's resistance to them. Typical
strengthening techniques such as section enlargement, externally bonded reinforcement, post-
tensioning, and supplemental supports may be used to achieve improved strength and
serviceability.

Strengthening systems can improve the resistance of the existing structure to

internalforces in either a passive or active manner. Passive strengthening systems are
typicallyengaged only when additional loads, beyond those existing at the time of installation,
areapplied to the structure. Bonding steel plates or Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
compositeson the structural members are examples of passive strengthening systems.
Activestrengthening systems typically engage the structure instantaneously and may
beaccomplished by introducing external forces to the member that counteract the effects
ofinternal forces. Examples of this include the use of external post-tensioning systems or
byjacking the member to relieve or transfer existing load. Whether passive or active, the
mainchallenge is to achieve composite behaviour between the existing structure and the
newstrengthening elements.

The selection of the most suitable method for strengthening requires

carefulconsideration of many factors including the following engineering issues:

 Magnitude of strength increase;

 Effect of changes in relative member stiffness;
 3

 Size of project (methods involving special materials and methods may be less cost-
effective on small projects);
 Environmental conditions (methods using adhesives might be unsuitable for
applications in high-temperature environments, external steel methods may not be
suitable in corrosive environments);
 In-place concrete strength and substrate integrity (the effectiveness of methodsrelying
on bond to the existing concrete can be significantly limited by low concretestrength);
 Dimensional/clearance constraints (section enlargement might be limited by thedegree
to which the enlargement can encroach on surrounding clear space);
 Accessibility;
 Operational constraints (methods requiring longer construction time might be
lessdesirable for applications in which building operations must be shut down
duringconstruction):
 Availability of materials, equipment, and qualified contractors;
 Construction cost, maintenance costs, and life-cycle costs; and Load testing to verify
existing capacity or evaluate new techniques and materials.

In order to avoid the problems created by the corrosion of steel reinforcement

inconcrete structures, research has demonstrated that one could replace the steel
reinforcementby Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) reinforcement. Corrosion of the steel
reinforcement in Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures affects the strength of both the steel and
the concrete.The strength of a corroding steel reinforcing bar is reduced because of a reduction
in thecross-sectional area of the steel bar. While the steel reinforcing bars are corroding,
theconcrete integrity is impaired because of cracking of the concrete cover caused by
theexpansion of the corrosion products.

The rehabilitation of infrastructures is not new, and various projects have beencarried
out around the world over the past two decades. One of the techniques used tostrengthen
existing reinforced concrete members involves external bonding of steel plates bymeans of
two-component epoxy adhesives. By this way, it is possible to improve themechanical
performance of a member. The wide use of this method for various structures,including
 4

buildings and bridges, has demonstrated its efficiency and its convenience. In spiteof this fact,
the plate bonding technique presents some disadvantages due to the use of steelas
strengthening material. The principal drawbacks of steel are its high weight which
causesdifficulties in handling the plates on site and its vulnerability against corrosive
environments. Moreover, steel plates have limited delivery lengths and, therefore, theyrequire
joints.

1.2 STRENGTHENING USING FRP COMPOSITES

Only a few years ago, the construction market started to use FRP for
structuralreinforcement, generally in combination with other construction materials such as
wood,steel, and concrete. FRPs exhibit several improved properties, such as high strength-
weightratio, high stiffness-weight ratio, flexibility in design, non-corrosiveness, high
fatiguestrength, and ease of application. The use of FRP sheets or plates bonded to concrete
beamshas been studied by several researchers. Strengthening with adhesive bonded
fiberreinforced polymers has been established as an effective method applicable to many types
ofconcrete structures such as columns, beams, slabs, and walls. Because the FRP materials
arenon-corrosive, non-magnetic, and resistant to various types of chemicals, they
areincreasingly being used for external reinforcement of existing concrete structures. From
thepast studies conducted it has been shown that externally bonded glass fiber-
reinforcedpolymers (GFRP) can be used to enhance the flexural, shear and torsional capacity
of RCbeams. Due to the flexible nature and ease of handling and application, combined with
hightensile strength-weight ratio and stiffness, the flexible glass fiber sheets are found to
behighly effective for strengthening of RC beams. The use of fiber reinforced polymers
(FRPs)for the rehabilitation of existing concrete structures has grown very rapidly over the last
fewyears. Research has shown that FRP can be used very efficiently in strengthening
theconcrete beams weak in flexure, shear and torsion. Unfortunately, the current
Indianconcrete design standards (IS Codes) do not include any provisions for the flexural,
shearand torsional strengthening of structural members with FRP materials. This lack of
designstandards led to the formation of partnerships between the research community and
industryto investigate and to promote the use of FRP in the flexural, shear and
torsionalrehabilitation of existing structures. FRP is a composite material generally consisting
 5

of highstrength carbon, aramid, or glass fibers in a polymeric matrix (e.g., thermosetting

resin)where the fibers are the main load carrying element.

Among many options, this reinforcement may be in the form of preformed laminates or
flexible sheets. The laminates are stiff plates or shells that come pre-cured and are installed by
bonding them to the concrete surface with a thermosetting resin. The sheets are either dry or
pre-impregnated with resin (known as pre-preg) and cured after installation onto the concrete
surface. This installation technique is known as wet lay-up. FRP materials offer the engineer
an outstanding combination of physical and mechanical properties, such as high tensile
strength, lightweight, high stiffness, high fatigue strength, and excellent durability. The
lightweight and formability of FRP reinforcement make FRP systems easy to install. Since
these systems are non-corrosive, non-magnetic, and generally resistant to chemicals, they are
an excellent option for external reinforcement. The properties of FRP composites and their
versatility have resulted in significant saving in construction costs and reduction in shut down
time of facilities as compared to the conventional strengthening methods (e.g., section
enlargement, external post-tensioning, and bonded steel plates).

Strengthening with externally bonded FRP sheets has been shown to be applicable to
many types of RC structural elements. FRP sheets may be adhered to the tension side of
structural members (e.g., slabs or beams) to provide additional flexural strength. They may be
adhered to web sides of joists and beams or wrapped around columns to provide additional
shear strength. They may be wrapped around columns to increase concrete confinement and
thus strength and ductility of columns. Among many other applications, FRP sheets may be
used to strengthen concrete and masonry walls to better resist lateral loads as well as circular
structures (e.g., tanks and pipelines) to resist internal pressure and reduce corrosion. As of
today, several millions of square meters of surface bonded FRP sheets have been used in many
strengthening projects worldwide.

1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FIBER COMPOSITE

STRENGTHENING

1.3.1 Advantages
 6

Fiber composite strengthening materials have higher ultimate strength and lower
density than steel. When taken together these two properties lead to fiber composites having a
strength and weight ratio higher than steel plate in some cases, even though it is often not
possible to use this fully. The lower weight makes handling and installation significantly
easier than steel. This is particularly important when installing material in cramped locations.
Work on soffits of bridges and building floor slabs can often be carried out from man-access
platforms rather than full scaffolding. Steel plate requires heavy lifting gear and must be held
in place while the

 Laps and joints are not required

 The material can take up irregularities in the shape of the concrete surface
 The material can follow a curved profile; steel plate would have to be pre-bent to the
required radius
 The material can be readily installed behind existing services
 Overlapping, required when strengthening in two directions, is not a problem because
the material is thin.

The materials fibres and resins are durable if correctly specified, and require little
maintenance. If they are damaged in service, it is relatively simple to repair them, by adding
an additional layer. The use of fiber composites does not significantly increase the weight of
the structure or the dimensions of the member. The latter may be particularly important for
bridges and other structures with limited headroom and for tunnels. In terms of environmental
impact and sustainability, studies have shown that the energy required to produce FRP
materials is less than that for conventional materials. Because of their lightweight, the
transport of FRP materials has minimal environmental impact.

These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker

strengthening process than when using steel plate. This is particularly important for bridges
because of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on major highways and
railway lines. It has been estimated that about 90% of the market for plate strengthening in
Switzerland has been taken by carbon plate systems as a result of these factors.
 7

1.3.2 Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of externally strengthening structures with fiber composite

materials is the risk of fire, vandalism or accidental damage, unless the strengthening is
protected. A particular concern for bridges over roads is the risk of soffit reinforcement being
hit by over-height vehicles. However, strengthening using plates is generally provided to carry
additional live load and the ability of the unstrengthen structure to carry its own self-weight is
unimpaired. Damage to the plate strengthening material only reduces the overall factor of
safety and is unlikely to lead to collapse.

1.4 PRESENT INVESTIGATION

 To study the flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams.

 To study the effect of GFRP strengthening on ultimate load carrying capacity and
failure pattern of reinforced concrete beams.
 To study the effect of CFRP strengthening on ultimate load carrying capacity and
failure pattern of reinforced concrete beams.
 The effect of CFRP and GFRP layers and its orientation on the strength and ductility of
beams are investigated.
 To study the crack pattern of reinforced concrete beams.
 8

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Bjorn et al(2001), “Behaviour of Concrete Beams Strengthened With CFRP And

Loaded In Fatigue During The Strengthening Process” The need for structural
rehabilitation of concrete structures all over the world is well known and a great amount of
research is going on in this field. In recent years the use of CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer) plate bonding has been shown to be a competitive method both regarding structural
performance and economical aspects. This method implies that a thin carbon fiber laminate or
sheet is bonded to the surface of the structure and acts as an outer reinforcement layer.
However, most of the laboratory tests have been undertaken on beams without live load during
the strengthening work. Owners of structures want in many cases to continue with their
activity or service when the strengthening system is applied. Full-scale applications have
shown that this is possible, but there is lack of understanding as to how cyclic loads during
strengthening, for example traffic loads, affect the final strengthening effect. This paper
presents laboratory tests on concrete beams strengthened with CFRP.The beams are subjected
to a cyclic load during setting of the adhesive. The beams are then loaded by deformation
control up to failure. Tests have been performed on large-scale beams strengthened by
traditional laminate plate bonding and the more recent NSMR (Near Surface Mounted
Reinforcement) technique. For bonding, normal cold cured epoxy adhesives have been used as
well as cementations mixtures. The results show that strengthening with CFRP systems is
possible even if loads are acting on the structure during strengthening.

L.C. Holloway (2005),“Advances In Adhesive Joining Of Dissimilar Materials

With Special Reference To Steels And FRP Composites”Generally, it is relatively easy to
obtain a high joint strength with most modern bonding systems if these are cured under ideal
conditions. However, civil engineering construction joints generally are cured on site and are
required for the lifetime of the structural member. This implies that the joint might not be as
well constructed and cured as in a factory and, in addition, will be under harsh site
 9

environmental exposure. Consequently, the joint should be post cured on site and the free
surfaces protected from the environmental influences.The paper discusses the advantages and
limitations of a proposed partially cured carbon fibre composite prepared and a compatible
film adhesive both developed specifically for the construction industry. The system has been
developed from one used in the aircraft industry. Two types of carbon fibre will be considered:
an ultra-high stiffness and a high stiffness carbon fibre. The technique is compared to that of a
more conventional bonding two part system used in civil engineering. Two test techniques will
be used to characterise the proposed structural material namely, the double shear butt test and
a flexural test using the composite material as rehabilitation for an artificially degraded
structural member. In the latter test, two geometric shapes have been used to investigate any
advantage that may be gained in shaping the upgrading composite. The paper has shown that a
partially cured prepreg manufactured in the factory, shaped geometrically on site,
incorporating a film adhesive and applying a low elevated temperature cure under pressure to
the prepared and film adhesive has an advantage over other adhesives particularly when using
ultra high carbon fibre composites but the strain to failure of these fibres is relatively low and
must be carefully considered. Moreover, the thinness of the film adhesive will reduce to a
minimum the ingress of any harsh environments onto its free surface; this will improve the
durability of the adhesive over that of the two part adhesive.

ZhishenWu(2007), “FRP-Steel-Concrete Hybrid Member Using Wet-Bonding

Technique”A novel type of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)-steel-concrete hybrid structure is
proposed as a type of new construction. The hybrid structure is composed of an externally
bonded hybrid FRP shell and a concrete core reinforced with internal steel reinforcements.
The FRP shell includes high modulus type and high strength type of carbon FRP (MC and SC)
sheets and glass FRP (EG) sheets with high ductility. Hybrid FRP sheets were axially and
wetly bonded to the bottom surface of the concrete core to carry tensile load; while additional
EG sheets were hoop-directionally wrapped to bear the shear load. The external FRP shell also
provided the concrete core and steel rebar’s with an effective potential protection against
corrosion. A series of 4-point bending experiments were carried out to confirm the structural
performances of the proposed structures. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the wet-bonding
method was also verified.
 10

M. Mustafa Onal(2009),“Reinforcement Of Beams By Using Carbon Fibre

Reinforced Polimer In Concrete Buildings” Concrete beams, which have insufficient
bending and shear strengths, were strengthened wrapping them with Carbon fibre Reinforced
Polymer (CFRP) in this study. The work was implemented on the rectangular section beams
that were observed to requiring reinforcement after the examination and statistical analysis
conducted. The aim was to strengthen beams that have insufficient shear strength values.
Three among the nine used for the examination, was reinforced by using CFRP and epoxy in
the tension surface whereas another three of them was reinforced by wrapping CRFP with 45°
angle in the shear. The remaining three beams, on the other hand, were used as the reference
beams. Therein forced beams were tested under the loading on the four points. The values
were then compared with the reference beams’ values. As a result of the test; the strength was
observed to increase with a 40% whereas a small increase was determined when rigidity and
energy consumption values were determined.

Feras Al zoubi et al (2009),“Effect of Epoxy Repairing on RC Beam Shear

Strengthened with Side Bonded CFRP Sheet Strips”Externally bonded CFRP is an
effective to upgraded and strengthen existing structures whereas epoxy resins usually used as a
treatment in a cracked structure. The focus of this study is on the behaviour and effectiveness
of externally-sides-bonded CFRP sheet strips for shear strengthening of RC cracked beams
with epoxy repairing. This study included test four rectangular simply supported RC beams
deficient in shear capacity and identical in dimensions, the four beams are 1700 mm in length
with supports of 150 mm apart, one control beam without strengthened and pre-cracked,
second beam left without pre-cracked and the two others beams were pre-cracked until a
diagonal shear crack became visually clear, in one beam from the two was used the epoxy to
repair the main shear crack then three beams strengthened with using externally bonded
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer to upgrade their shear capacity. All the beams were
strengthened with side-bonded CFRPs strips and horizontal anchored strips were used. Results
show the feasibility of using CFRPs with epoxy repairing to restore or increase the load-
carrying capacity in the shear of cracked RC beams. The failure mode of all the CFRP
strengthened beams is debonding of CFRP vertical strips. Two prediction models available in
ACI-440 and European Code were compared with the experimental results.
 11

K. C. Panda, et al(2011),“Optimization Study of Reinforced Concrete T-Beams

Strengthened in Shear with Side Bonded GFRP Sheet”This paper presents an optimization
result of 2500 mm long Reinforced Concrete (RC) T-beams strengthened in shear using epoxy
bonded glass fiber fabric. The experimental program consisted of testing of eighteen(18) full
scale simply supported RC T-beams. Nine beams are used as control beam with three different
stirrups spacing without Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) wrap and rest nine beams
are strengthened in shear with one, two, and three layers of GFRP sheet on side of the web of
the T-beams for each type of stirrup spacing. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the
optimization ratio and ductility of RC T-beams strengthened in shear with GFRP sheet.

Murali G. and PannirselvamN(2011),“Flexural Strengthening of Reinforced

Concrete Beams Using Fibre Reinforced Polymer Laminate” Several researches have been
carried out on reinforced concrete beams strengthened with fibre reinforced polymer
composites. A few works has been focused on strengthening of rectangular beams with
different type and different thicknesses of fibre reinforced polymer. This paper reviews 12
articles on fibre reinforced polymer strengthened reinforced concrete beams. Finally, this
paper attempts to address an important practical issue that is encountered in strengthening of
beams with different type and different thicknesses of fibre reinforced polymer laminate. This
paper also proposes a simple method of applying fibre reinforced polymer for strengthening
the beam with different fibre reinforced polymer types with different thicknesses.

Habibur Rahman Sobuz(2011),“Useof Carbon Fibre Laminates for Strengthening

Reinforced Concrete Beams in Bending” The use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is
becoming a widely accepted solution for repairing and strengthening ageing in the field of
civil engineering around the world. In the present paper, experimental study designed to
investigate the flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with CFRP
laminates attached to the bottom of the beams by epoxy adhesive subjected to transverse
loading. A total of five beams having different CFRP laminates configurations were tested to
failure in four-point bending over a clear span 1900mm. Four beams were strengthened by
changing the levels of CFRP laminates whereas the last one was not strengthened with FRP
and considered as a control beam. Test results showed that the addition of CFRP sheets to the
 12

tension surface of the beams demonstrated significantly improvement in stiffness and ultimate
capacity of beams. The response of control and strengthened beams were compared and
efficiency and effectiveness of different CFRP configurations were evaluated. It was observed
that tension side bonding of CFRP sheets with U-shaped end anchorages is very efficient in
flexural strengthening. The paper also highlighted the beams failure modes due to the different
level of strengthening scheme.

S. Deepa Raj*a and R.S. Surumi(2012),“Shear Strengthening Of Reinforced

Concrete Beams Using Near Surface Mounted Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer”Near
Surface Mounted Reinforcement (NSMR) method is a recent strengthening techniquebased on
bonding Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) into grooves on the concrete cover of theelements to
be strengthened. In this paper, an experimental program was carried out toassess the
effectiveness of the NSMR technique in the shear strengthening of reinforcedconcrete beams.
A number of beams were strengthened in shear using NSM Glass FibreReinforced Polymer
(GFRP) and tested to analyse the influence of selected test parameterssuch as the type,
spacing, and inclination of the NSM reinforcement on the structuralbehaviour and failure
mode. One beam specimen was strengthened in shear using GFRPsheet as U wrap over the
entire shear span by the conventional Externally BondedReinforcement (EBR) technique and
tested for direct comparison with NSMR technique.

ZerguaAbdesselam(2012),“Numerical Modelling Of Strengthened Concrete

Beams”There are many cases where concrete structures need to be strengthened. Fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, due to their high strength and corrosion resistance
properties are widely applied in these cases. This paper presents a non-linear finite element
analysis of reinforced concrete beam strengthened with externally bonded FRP sheets under
increasing flexural loads. The different materials models, for concrete, steel reinforcement and
fibre reinforced polymers are taken into account. Elastic-plastic model with Drucker-Parger
failure criterion and Rankine failure criterion are used to determine the yield surface and the
fracture limit of respectively compressive and tensile concrete. Smeared model is used to
represent the cracked concrete. Three-dimensional elements for concrete are used. The steel
and FRP reinforcement carries only axial forces and considered as unidirectional materials.
 13

From the analysis, it is found that FEM can predict the load-displacement relation and good
agreements were obtained when compared to the experimental data.

Moustapha Ibrahim Aryand Thomas H.K. Kang (2012), “Shear-Strengthening Of

Reinforced &Prestressed Concrete Beams Using FRP”Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
are used to enhance the behavior of structural components in either shear or flexure. The
research conducted in this paper was mainly focused on the shear-strengthening of reinforced
and prestressed concrete beams using FRP. The main objective of the research was to identify
the parameters affecting the shear capacity provided by FRP and evaluate the accuracy of
analytical models. A review of prior experimental data showed that the available analytical
models used to estimate the added shear capacity of FRP struggle to provide a unified design
equation that can predict accurately the shear contribution of externally applied FRP. In this
study, the ACI 440.2R-08model and the model developed by Triantafillou and
Antonopouloswere compared with the prior experimental data. Both analytical models failed
to provide a satisfactory prediction ofthe FRP shear capacity. This study provides insights into
potential reasons for the unsatisfactory prediction.
 14

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0 METHODOLOGY

CASTING OF BEAMS

LOADING UP TO THE
INITIAL CRACK FORM

REHABLITATION (or)
STRENTHINING PROCESS

STRENGTHENING WITH STRENGTHENING WITH

CARKIKKKKBON FIBER GLASS FIBER REINFORCED
REINFORCED POLYMER POLYMER

TESTING FOR FAILURE

LOAD

COMPARING THE RESULTS FROM

ACTUAL AND STRENGTHENED
BEAMS

ARRIVING A SUITABLE STRENTHENING METHOD

BASED ON THE DURABILITY AND STRENGTH
 15

3.1.A PRELIMINARY TESTS

3.1 TESTS FOR CEMENT

3.1.1 Fineness Test
100g of cement taken and sieved in a standard IS no 90μ. The air which get lump is
broken down and the material was sieved continuously for 15 minutes using sieve shaker. The
weight of residue left on the sieve is noted.
Percentage of residue left on sieve = (weight retained/ weight taken) ×100
Table 3.1 Fineness test of cement

Sl.No Description Weight (g)

1 Weight of sample 100
2 Weight of material retained 5
3 % of residue left on the sieve 90 µ 4

Fineness of cement =4%

3.1.2 Normal Consistency

400g of cement is taken and a paste is prepared with weighed qty of water (say 26%) is
prepared. The paste is filled in the given mould and shaking well to exit air. A standard
plunger of 10mm diameter and 50mm long is attached to the vicat’s apparatus and bought
down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and is quickly released to sink in to the
paste by its own weight . The depth of penetration of the plunger is noted.

The second trial is conducted by adding 28% of water and the depth of penetration is
noted. Similarly, number of trials was conducted, till the plunger penetrate to a depth of 33mm
to 35mm.
 16

Table 3.2 Consistency test of cement

Weight of Amount of Reading of pointer

Trail no % of water
cement(g) water(ml) from bottom
1 400 28 112 31
2 400 30 120 21
3 400 32 128 13
4 400 33 132 6

Consistency of cement = 33%

3.1.3 Initial Setting Time Test

A cement paste is prepared with 0.85 times of water to standard consistency; the time
at which the water is added is noted. The vicat’s mould is filled with the cement paste and the
surface is smoothened. The needle is gently lowered of the surface of the paste and is quickly
released allowing it to sink into the paste by its own weight. The procedure is repeated until
the 1mm square needle is failed to pierce the block for about 5-7mm measured from bottom
and the time is noted using stop watch. The difference between the timing will give the initial
setting time.
Table 3.3 Initial setting time test of cement

S No Time In Minutes Pointer Reading

1 40 0
2 60 2
3 80 4
4 90 5

Initial setting time of cement = 90 minutes

 17

3.1.4 Final Setting Time Test

The procedure is similar to initial setting time. In this procedure needle with annular
collar is inserted in the vicat’s apparatus. Time for penetration is noted every 30minites. It
procedure is repeated until the attachment fails to make an impression on the test block.

Table 3.4 Final Setting Time Test of Cement

S No Time In Minutes Pointer Reading

1 60 33
2 120 35
3 180 36
4 240 38
5 300 40

Final setting time of cement = 300 minutes.

3.1.5 Specific Gravity

The empty weight of specific gravity bottle is noted as W1 g. The bottle filled with
distilled water and weight taken as W2 g. The specific gravity bottle is filled with kerosene and
weight noted as W3 g. Some of the kerosene is taken out and the weight is measured as W4 g.
100g weight of cement is taken as W5g.

Observations:

Weight of empty dry bottle W1 = 41g

Weight of bottle+ water W2 = 140.5g

Weight of bottle+keroseneW3 = 119.5g

Weight of cement+kerosene+waterW4 = 192g

Weight of cement W5 =100g

Specific Gravity of cement = {W5 (W3-W1)/ (W5+W3-W4) (W2-W1)}

 18

Specific gravity for cement = 2.87

Specific gravity of kerosene = W3-W1/W2-W1

Specific gravity for kerosene = 0.78

3.2 TESTS FOR FINE AGGREGATE

3.2.1 Sieve Analysis

The sample is brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving this may be
achieved either by drying at room temperature or heating at a temperature of 10000c to 11000c.
The air-dry sample 2 kg taken and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves starting with
the largest size sieve as stated in the table. Sieving is carried out on a machine not less than 10
minutes required for each test.

Table 3.5 Sieve analysis test of F.A

%of
Weight Cumulative % of Cumulative
SL.No IS Sieves Weight
retained(g) Weight retained %of passing
retained
1 4.75mm 1.5 0.15 .15 99.85
2 2.36mm 29 2.9 3.05 96.95
3 1.18mm 64.5 6.45 9.5 90.5
4 600µ 297 29.7 39.2 60.8
5 300µ 499.5 49.95 89.15 10.85
6 150µ 79.5 7.95 97.1 2.9
7 pan 29 2.9 100 0

Fineness Modulus of sand = 3.38

Sand conforming to zone III

 19

3.2.2 Specific Gravity Test

The pycnometer is dried thoroughly and taken its weight as W 1 gram. Take two third
part of sand in the pycnometer, weighed it as W2. The pycnometer is filled with water up to
the top. Then it is shaking well and stirred thoroughly with the glass rod to remove the
entrapped air. After the air has been removed, the pycnometer is completely filled with water
up to the mark. Then outside of the pycnometer is dried with a clean cloth and it is weighed as
W3 grams. The pycnometer is cleaned thoroughly. The pycnometer is completely filled with
water up to top. Then outside of the pycnometer is dried with a clean cloth and it is weighed as
W4 grams.

Specific Gravity of F.A = (W2-W1)/ (W2-W1) (W3-W4)

Table 3.6 Specific Gravity test of F.A

S No. Observation Weight (g)

1 Weight of empty container (W1g) 460

2 Weight of container + sample (W2 g) 1289

3 Weight of container + sample + water (W3 g) 1778

4 Weight of container + water (W4g) 1261
5 Specific Gravity 2.66

Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate =2.66

3.2.3 Moisture Content Test
Take some quantity of sand in china clay dish, weight taken as W1 and place it in oven
for 24 hours. After 24 hours take the sample and taken weight as W2.

Observations:

Weight of sample taken (W1) = 1000g

Weight of sample after dried process (W2) = 997g

% of free moisture content = (W1-W2/W1) x 100

 20

% of free moisture content of Fine Aggregate =0.3%

3.2.4 Water Absorption Test

Take 1000 g of F.A (W1g). The sample is filled with water and kept for 24 hours. After
24 hours immersion, the sample is taken out and dried in air for getting the Saturated Surface
Dry condition (SSD).Then; it is weighed (W2).

Observations:

Weight of sample taken (W1) = 1000g

Weight of sample in SSD state (W2) = 1017g

Water absorption = {(W1-W2)/W1)} x 100

Water absorption =1.7%

3.3 TESTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATE

3.3.1 Sieve Analysis

The sample is brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving this may be
achieved either by drying at room temperature or heating at a temperature of 10000c to 11000c.
The air-dry sample 4 kg taken and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves starting with
the largest size sieve as stated in the table. Sieving is carried out on a machine not less than 10
minutes required for each test.
 21

Table 3.7 Sieve Analysis Test of C.A

IS Sieve Weight % of Weight Cumulative % of Cumulative %

S.No
No. retained(g) retained Weight retained of passing

1 40mm 0 0 0 100
2 20mm 2056 51.40 51.40 48.60
3 12.5mm 1790 44.75 96.15 3.85
4 10mm 109 2.725 98.87 1.13
5 4.75mm 45 1.125 100 0

Fineness Modulus of coarse aggregate = 3.46

3.3.2 Specific Gravity Test

The container is dried thoroughly and taken its weight as W1 gram. Take two third part
of C.A in the container, weighed it as W2. The container is filled with water up to the top.
Then it is shaking well and stirred thoroughly with the glass rod to remove the entrapped air.
After the air has been removed, the container is completely filled with water up to the mark.
Then outside of the container is dried with a clean cloth and it is weighed as W 3 grams. The
container is cleaned thoroughly. The container is completely filled with water up to top. Then
outside of the container is dried with a clean cloth and it is weighed as W4 grams.

Specific Gravity of C.A= (W2-W1)/ (W2-W1) (W3-W4)

Table 3.8 Specific gravity test of C.A

S.No Observations Weight (g)

1 Weight of empty container (W1g) 1265

2 Weight of container +sample (W2 g) 2868

3 Weight of container+sample+water (W3 g) 3932.5

4 Weight of container +water (W4g) 2928.5
5 Specific Gravity 2.68
 22

Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate =2.68

3.3.3 Moisture Content Test

Take some quantity of coarse aggregate in china clay dish, weight taken as W 1 and
place it in oven for 24 hours. After 24 hours taken the sample and weighed as W2.

Observations:

Weight of sample taken (W1) = 1000g

Weight of sample after dried process (W2) = 999g

% of free moisture content = {(W1-W2)/W1)} x 100

% of free moisture content of Coarse Aggregate =0.1%

3.3.4 Water Absorption Test

Take 1000 g of C.A (W1g). The sample is filled with water and kept for 24 hours. After
24 hours immersion, the sample is taken out and dried in air for getting the Saturated Surface
Dry condition (SSD). Then, it is weighed (W2).

Observations:

Weight of sample taken (W1) = 1000g

Weight of sample in SSD state (W2) = 1005g

Water absorption = {(W2-W1/W1)} x100

Water absorption =0.5%

 23

3.4. MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

3.4.1 INDIAN STANDARD (CONTROL MIX)

The mix design for M 25 grade concrete is as follows:

Stipulations for proportioning:

1. Grade designation : M 25

2. Type of cement : OPC 43 grade (IS 8112)

3. Maximum nominal size of aggregate : 20mm

4. Minimum Cement content : 320Kg/m3

5. Maximum w/c ratio : 0.45

6. Workability : 100 mm (slump)

7. Exposure condition : Mild

8. Method of concrete placing : Normal pouring

9. Degree of Supervision : Good

10. Type of aggregate : Crushed angular aggregate

11. Maximum cement content : 450 Kg/m3

Test data for materials

1. Specific gravity of cement : 2.87

2 Specific gravity of F.A : 2.66

3. Specific gravity of C.A : 2.68

4. Water absorption of F : 1.7%

 24

5. Water absorption of C.A : 0.5%

6. Free surface moisture for F.A : 0.3%

7. Free surface moisture for C.A :0.1%

8. Fine Aggregate : Conforming to zone III of IS 383:1970

Design:

Step1. Target Strength

Fck =Fck +1.65 s

Fck =Target average compressive strength at 28 days

Fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days and

S = Standard deviation=5.3 N/mm2

Target strength =33.75 N/mm2

Step2. Selection of Water -Cement Ratio

From IS 10262-1982 fig 1

Water Cement ratio is 0.43

0.43 < 0.45 Hence O.k.

Step3. Selection of Water Content

From table 2 of IS 10262:2009, Max water content for 20 mm aggregate is,

186 litres (for 20 mm to 50mm slump range)

Sand = 35%

Table 4 is to be used for concrete grade up to M35 is based on following condition

 25

i. Sand zone III

ii. Water Cement ratio 0.6
iii. Compaction factor 0.8

Correction [Table 6]

Change in condition Water content Sand

Sand zone III 0 -1.5

Increase in compaction +3 0

Factor 0.9-0.8 i.e. 0.1

Decrease in W/C ratio 0 -3.4

Total +3% -4.9%

Required sand content as a % of total aggregate by obsolete volume = 35-4.9

= 30.1

Required water content= 186 + 3/100x 186

W=191.58 Kg/m3

Step4. Determination of Cement Content

W/ c ratio = 0.43

Cement content =191.58/.43 Kg/m3

445.53 < 450 Kg/m3

Hence ok

Step5. Volume of C.A and F.A

 26

5.1Fine aggregate

𝐶 1 𝐹𝑎 1
𝑉 = [𝑊 + + 𝑋 ]𝑋
𝑆𝑐 𝑃 𝑆𝑓𝑎 1000

980 = 191.58 + 155.24 1.25 Fa

Fa = 506.54 Kg/m3

5.1Coarse aggregate

𝐶 1 𝐶𝑎 1
𝑉 = [𝑊 + + 𝑋 ]𝑋
𝑆𝑐 𝑃 𝑆𝑐𝑎 1000

980 = 191.58 + 155.24 +.53 Ca

Ca = 1194.68 Kg/m3

The Mix Proportion Becomes:

Water Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

191.59 445.53 506.54 1194.68
.43 1 1.14 2.68
 27

3.5.PROPERTIES OF HARDEN CONCRETE

3.5.1 GENERAL

The principle properties of concrete, which are of practical importance, are those
concerning its strength, stress-strain characteristic, shrinkage and creep deformations response
to temperature variation, permeability and durability. Of these,the strength of concrete
assumes a greater significance because the strength is related to the structure of hardened
cement paste and gives at a given age under given curing conditions is assumed to depend
mainly on water-cement ratio and degree of compaction. The voids present in concrete mass
have been found to influence greatly the strength of concrete.

3.5.2 COMPRESSION TEST

The 3 cubes of 150x150x150 mm as control specimens has been cast and cured for 28
days to attain the strength and tested to find out the compressive strength of the concrete. The
cube testing and the table 6.1show the cube results.

Table 3.9 Cube Results for Compressive Strength

Specimen designation Load in KN (7th day) Load in KN (28th day)
C1 455 650
C2 424 630
C3 495 620

The Compressive strength of the concrete tested after 28 days of curing was found to be 30
N/mm2.
 28

Fig 3.1 Compression Test

3.5.3 TENSILE TEST

Tensile strength is an important property of concrete because concrete structures are

highly vulnerable to tensile cracking due to various kinds of effects and applied loading itself.
However, tensile strength of concrete is very low in compared to its compressive strength.

Due to difficulty in applying uniaxial tension to a concrete specimen, the tensile

strength of the concrete is determined by indirect test methods: (1) Split Cylinder Test (2)
Flexure Test. It should be noted that both of these methods give the higher value of tensile
strength than the uniaxial tensile strength.

3.5.4 SPLIT-CYLINDER TEST

It is the standard test, to determine the tensile strength of concrete in an indirect way.
This test could be performed in accordance with IS : 5816-1970. A standard test cylinder of
concrete specimen (300 mm X 150mm diameter) is placed horizontally between the loading
surfaces of Compression Testing Machine. The compression load is applied diametrically and
uniformly along the length of cylinder until the failure of the cylinder along the vertical
diameter. To allow the uniform distribution of this applied load and to reduce the magnitude of
the high compressive stresses near the points of application of this load, strips of plywood are
 29

placed between the specimen and loading platens of the testing machine. Concrete cylinders
split into two halves along this vertical plane due to indirect tensile stress generated by
poison’s effect.

Fig 3.2 Splitting Tensile Strength

Due to this compressive loading, an element lying along the vertical diameter of the
cylinder is subjected to a vertical compressive stress and a horizontal stress . The loading
condition produces a high compressive stress immediately below the loading points. But the
larger portion of cylinder, corresponding to its depth is subjected to uniform tensile stress
acting horizontally. It is estimated that the compressive stress is acting for about 1/6 depth and
the remaining 5/6 depth is subjected to tension due to poison’s effect.

Assuming concrete specimen behaves as an elastic body, a uniform lateral tensile

stress of ft acting along the vertical plane causes the failure of the specimen, which can be
calculated from the formula as,

The above test result represents the "Splitting Tensile Strength" of concrete that varies
between 1/8 to 1/12 of the cube compressive strength.
 30

The 3 cylinders of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height as control specimens has been
cast and cured for 28 days to attain the strength and tested to split tensile strength of the
concrete. The figure 7 shows the cylinder testing and the table 6.4 shows the cylinder results.

Table 3.10 Cylinder Results for Split Tensile Strength

Specimen designation Load in KN
C4 200
C5 210
C6 220

The split tensile strength of the concrete tested after 28 days of curing was found to be
2.97 N/mm2.
3.5.5 FLEXURE TEST

After the Splitting tensile test another common test performed for determination of
tensile strength is the Flexure test.

The test could be performed in accordance with as per BS 1881: Part 118: 1983. A
simple plain concrete beam is loaded at one-third span points. Normal standard size of
specimen is 150x150x750 mm. If the largest nominal size of the aggregate does not exceeds
25mm, size of 150x150x500 mm may also be used. Span of the beam is three times its depth.

Fig 3.3 Flexure Tensile Strength

 31

The typical arrangement for the test is shown in Fig 6.3 above. Equal Loads are
applied at the distance of one-third from both of the beam supports. It induces equal reaction
same as the loading at both of the supports. Loading on beam is increased in such a manner
that rate of increase in stress in the bottom fibre lies within the range of 0.02 MPa & 0.10
MPa. The lower rate being for low strength concrete and the higher rate for high strength
concrete.

As loading increases, if fracture occurs within the middle one-third of the beam, the
maximum tensile stress reached called "modulus of rupture"fbt is computed from the standard
flexure formula,

If fracture takes place outside the middle one third, then, according to BS 1881: Part
118 : 1983, the test result should be discarded.

Table 3.11 Flexural Strength of Beam

Specimen designation Modulus of Rupture
fbtin N/mm2
C 4.4
GF 5
CF 6.7

The flexural strength of the concrete tested after 28 days of curing was found to be 4.4
N/mm2 for control beam, comparing to the Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer strengthen beam
show 5 N/mm2. The flexural strength of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer strengthen beam
gives a high modulus of rupture as 6.7 N/mm2than the control beam.
 32

3.6. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.6.1 GENERAL
The experimental work consists of casting of 9nos of reinforced concrete (RC) beams
having grade M25, cross-sectional dimensions of 150mm x 250mm and 1000mm length. We
provided 2-10mm Ø bottom reinforcement and 2-8mm Ø top with 8mm Ø vertical stirrups @
150mm c/c. The experimental study consists of casting of 9nos of reinforced concrete (RC)
beams of grade M25, Total 9 no. of RC beam are cast and curing for 28 days. First set of (3
no.) RC beams designated as control RC beams (SET I). Second set of (3 no.) RC beams (SET
II); all are strengthened using single GFRP mat wrap, (at tension face), Third set of (3 no.) RC
beams (SET III); all are strengthened using single CFRP mat wrap, (at tension face).
Table3.12 Specimen specifications

Beam designation No of specimens Type of strengthening

C 3 -
GF 3 GFRP
CF 3 CFRP

3.6.2 CASTING OF BEAMS

Three sets of beams as mentioned in section 4.1 are identical. Reinforcement detail of
beam and section is shown in Fig 6.1& 6.2 respectively.

Fig 3.4 Longitudinal Section of Beam

 33

Fig 3.5 Cross Section of Beam

3.6.3 REINFORCING STEEL

We provided 2-10mm Ø bottom reinforcement and 2-8mm Ø with 8mm Ø vertical

stirrups @ 150mm c/c.

Fig 3.6 Steel Reinforcement

3.6.4 FORM WORK

Steel is used to prepare formwork for beam of size 150mm x 250mm and 1000mm
long. The form work is thoroughly cleaned and all the corners and junctions were properly
sealed to avoid leakage of concrete through small openings. Shuttering oil was then applied to
the inner face of the form work. The reinforcement is then placed in position inside the form
work carefully keeping in view a clear cover of 25 mm for the top and bottom bars.
 34

Fig 3.7 Form Work

3.6.5 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

All the specimens are tested in Universal testing machine (UTM) and the deflection
will be check by using dial gauge. The testing procedures for the all specimens are same. After
the curing period of 28 days is over, control beams (SET I) are washed and its surface is
cleaned for clear visibility of cracks. Where other sets of beams (SET II, SET III), are
strengthened by GFRP & CFRP. The load arrangements for testing of all sets of beam is
consist of two-point loadingas shown in Fig7.5

Fig. 3.8 Experimental setup for testing of beams

 35

3.7 TESTING PROCEDURE

Before testing the member was checked dimensionally and detail visual inspection
made with all information carefully recorded. After setting all, the load was increased up to
the failure of beam and deflection was recorded at each stage, and a load/deflection plot was
prepared.The preliminary test on beams is distressing the beams by applying the load to them
and the strengthening can be done using Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer and Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymer. Initially the control specimens are loaded to its ultimate and about 75%
of the ultimate load of the control specimens can be loaded to other beams to distress them.

3.8 MIXING OF CONCRETE AND COMPACTION

Mixing of concrete should be done thoroughly to ensure that concrete of uniform
quantity is obtained. A clean surface is needed for the purpose, such as a clean, even and
paved surface. Moisten the surface and level the platform, spread cement over the sand and
then spread the coarse aggregate over the cement. Turn the dry materials at least three times
until the colour of the mixture is uniform. Add water slowly while you turn the mixture again
at least three times, or until you attain the proper consistency. Usually 10% extra cement is
added in case of hand mixing to account for in adequacy in mixing.
All specimens were compacted by using needle vibrator for good compaction of
concrete. Sufficient care was taken to avoid displacement of the reinforcement cage inside the
formwork. Finally the surface of the concrete was levelled and finished and smoothened by
metal trowel. The figure 6.6 shows the beam casting.
 36

Fig 3.9 Mixing of concrete and compaction

3.9 CURING OF CONCRETE

The concrete is cured to prevent or replenish the loss of water which is essential for the
process of hydration and hence for hardening. Also curing prevents the exposure of concrete
to a hot atmosphere and to drying winds which may lead to quick drying out of moisture in the
concrete and thereby subject it to contraction stresses at a stage when the concrete would not
be strong enough to resists them. Curing is done by spraying water or by spending wet
heissian cloth over the surface. Curing makes the concrete more durable, more impermeable
and more resistant to abrasion and to frost. Usually, curing starts as soon as the concrete is
sufficiently hard. Normally 14 or more days of curing for ordinary concrete is the requirement.
However, the rate of hardening of concrete is very much reduced with the reduction of
ambient temperature. The beams were cured for 28 days to attain the maximum strength.
 37

3.10.PRELIMINARY TEST ON BEAMS

3.10.1 GENERAL
This chapter includes all preliminary tests on beams to ensure the actual quality of work,
such as properties of materials, strength and characteristic of materials, which involved in this
experiment are tested in laboratory and explained in detail.

3.11 TESTING OF CONTROL BEAMS

After the curing period of 28 days was over, the control beams were tested initially. The most
commonly used load arrangement for testing of beams will consist of two-point loading. This
has the advantage of a substantial region of nearly uniform moment coupled with very small
shears, enabling the bending capacity of the central portion to be assessed; the load will
normally be concentrated at a suitable shorter distance from a support. Figure 7.2 shows the
experimental setup.

Fig 3.10 Testing of Control Beams

The loading frame must be capable of carrying the expected test loads without
significant distortion. Ease of access to the middle third for crack observations, deflection
 38

readings, and possibly strain measurements is an important consideration, as is safety when

failure occurs.
The specimen was placed over the 2 steel rollers leaving 50 mm from the ends of the
beam. The remaining 900 was divided into 3 equal parts of 300 mm. Loading was done by
hydraulic jack of 100 KN. One dial gauge was placed at the centre to measure the maximum
deflection at mid span.

3.12 MATERIALS USED FOR STRENGTHENING

3.12.1 CFRP

Unidirectional CFRP laminates (each of 1.2mm thickness) used for the strengthening
purposes of the beams and they were cut from the SikaCarbodur rolled laminate. The CFRP
composite laminate was tested in the laboratory to get the tensile strength, yield strength,
modulus of elasticity and the percentage of ultimate elongation until at failure. The other
properties of the carbon fiber and epoxy adhesive, as supplied by the manufacture are
presented in Table 8.1.

3.12.2 GFRP

Fiber fabric materials for pultrusion are generally of two types. One type is a woven
roving fabric; the other type is a stitched roving fabric. Woven roving is used routinely in
hand-layup applications such as boat building and is supplied in weights between 200 to 1600
g/m2and has fiber orientations of 0° and 90°. The percentage of 0° and 90° fibers [known as
the warp and the weft (or fill) directions in the textile industry] depends on the weave pattern.
Most woven fabrics made for use in pultrusion are of the plain or square pattern, with almost
equal percentages of fibers in the two directions. To use a woven roving in a pultrusion
process, it needs to be attached to a mat (usually, a chopped strand mat) to prevent it from
distorting when pulled. Powder bonding, stitching with a polyester or glass yarn, or needling
are used to attach the woven fabric to the mat, which is then known as a combination fabric.
Many different combinations of woven roving weights and mat weights are available.
Commonly used types are (600-g/m2 woven roving with a 300-g/m2 mat)
 39

Table 3.13 Properties of Fiber

Fiber Glass Carbon

Diameter (µm) 9-15 9
Density (103kg/m3) 2.60 1.90
Young’s modulus (KN/mm2) 70-80 230
Tensile strength (KN/mm2) 2-4 2.60
Elongation of break (%) 2-3.5 1
3.12.3 Epoxy

Epoxy is a 100% solids epoxy flooring system utilizing the most current epoxy resin
technology. The resin rich, odour free characteristics of Epoxy provides safe application and
high performance.

Table 3.14 Specifications of the epoxy

Properties Araldite LY 556 Hardener HY 951

Colour Clear Colourless
Odour Slight Ammonia
Physical State Liquid Liquid
Solubility in water Insoluble Miscible
Vapour Pressure < 0.01 Pa at 20⁰C <0.01 mmHg at 20⁰C
Specific Gravity 1.15 – 1.2 at 25⁰C 1 at 20⁰C
Boiling Point >200⁰C >200⁰C
Decomposition Temperature >200⁰C >200⁰C
 40

Fig 3.11 Material Used For Strengthening

The following are major pros and cons of using Composites

Advantages
1. Corrosion proof
2. Easy in transportation, can be easily rolled
3. Higher UTS and young’s modulus
4. High fatigue resistance
5. Light weight. Hence, very high strength to weight ratio
6. Joints can be easily avoided as they are available in desired length.
Disadvantages
1. Low ductility value and fickly plastic behavior
2. Susceptible to local unevenness.
3. High cost.

3.13 STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS

Before bonding the composite material onto the concrete surface, the required region
of concrete surface was made rough using chisel and hammer and cleaned well to remove all
 41

dirt and debris. Figure 8.3 shows the roughened surface at the bottom of the beam which is to
be rehabilitated to find out the flexural behaviour. Once the surface was prepared to the
required standard, the epoxy resin (Araldite GY257 and Hardener HY840) was mixed in a
plastic container and continued until the mixture was in uniform colour. Figure 8.4 shows the
mixing of resin in a pan. When this was completed and the fabrics had been cut to size, the
epoxy resin was applied to the concrete surface. The composite fabric was then placed on top
of the epoxy resin coating. Concrete beams strengthened with fabrics were cured for 24 hours
before testing.

Fig 3.12 Roughened surface

Fig 3.13 Mixing Of Resin

 42

3.14 STRENGTHENED BEAMS

The beams were then strengthened with the Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer and Glass
Fiber Reinforced Polymer at the tension face of the beams to find out the flexural behaviour of
beams. The figure 8.5, 8.6 shows the strengthened beams withCarbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer and Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer.
GF- Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
CF - Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Fig 3.14 Strengthening Of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Fig 3.15 Strengthening Of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer

 43

3.15 TESTING OF STRENGTHENED BEAMS

After the curing period of 28 days was over, the strengthened beams were tested again
till ultimate. The most commonly used load arrangement for testing of beams will consist of
two-point loading. This has the advantage of a substantial region of nearly uniform moment
coupled with very small shears, enabling the bending capacity of the central portion to be
assessed; the load will normally be concentrated at a suitable shorter distance from a support.
Figure 8.7 and 8.8 shows the experimental setup of the strengthened beam.

Fig 3.16 Testing Of Strengthening Beam Using CFRP

Fig 3.17 Testing Of Strengthening Beam Using GFRP

 44

The loading frame must be capable of carrying the expected test loads without
significant distortion. Ease of access to the middle third for crack observations, deflection
readings, and possibly strain measurements is an important consideration, as is safety when
failure occurs.
The specimen was placed over the 2 steel rollers leaving 50 mm from the ends of the
beam. The remaining 900 was divided into 3 equal parts of 300 mm. The dial gauge was
placed below the centre of the beam to note the deflection.

3.16 PROCEDURE
After setting and reading all deflection dial gauges, the load was increased incrementally
up to calculated working load, with loads and deflections calculated at each stage. Loads will
then normally be increased again in similar increments up to failure, with dial gauges replaced
by a suitably mounted scale as failure approaches. This is necessary to avoid damages to
deflection dial gauge.there
 45

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL

This chapter describes the experimental results of GF beams (strengthened with Glass
Fiber Reinforced Polymer) CF beams (strengthened with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer).
Their behaviour throughout the static test to failure is described using recorded data on
deflection behaviour and the ultimate load carrying capacity.

In this experimental investigation the flexural behaviour of Reinforced concrete beams

strengthened using Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer are
studied.The beam CF show high ultimate load carrying capacity when compared to control
beamand also the strengthening beam using glass fiber reinforced beam. The beam GF shows
that ultimate load carrying capacity than the control beam but not at all effective when
compared to carbon fiber reinforced beam. This shows that the member is brittle. The mode of
failure is flexural and shears debonding of FRP.

4.2 FAILURE MODES

The flexural and shear strength of a section depends on the controlling failure mode. The
following flexural and shear failure modes should be investigated for an FRP-strengthened
section:
Crushing of the concrete in compression before yielding of the reinforcing steel;
Yielding of the steel in tension followed by rupture of the FRP laminate;
Yielding of the steel in tension followed by concrete crushing;
Shear/tension delamination of the concrete cover (cover delamination); and
Debonding of the FRP from the concrete substrate (FRP debonding).
A number of failure modes have been observed in the experiments of RC beams
Strengthened in flexure by GFRP and also CFRP. These include flexure failure, flexural
failure due to GFRP rupture and crushing of concrete at the top. Concrete crushing is assumed
 46

to occur if the compressive strain in the concrete reaches its maximum usable strain. Rupture
of the FRP laminate is assumed to occur if the strain in the FRP reaches its design rupture
strain before the concrete reaches its maximum usable strain. Cover delamination or FRP
debonding can occur if the force in the FRP cannot be sustained by the substrate. In order to
prevent debonding of the FRP laminate, a limitation should be placed on the strain level
developed in the laminate.
The GFRP and CFRP strengthened beam and the control beams were tested to find out
their ultimate load carrying capacity. It was found that the control beams C and GF failed in
flexure and shear showing that the beams were deficient in flexure respectively. Beam CF
failed due to delamination of the CFRP sheet after that fracture of CFRP sheet took place and
then flexural failure of the beam. In SET I beams, fail in crushing of concrete at the top of the
beam. In SET II beams strengthening using GFRP failed due to flexural failure and crushing
of concreteon the top of the beamand delamination of FRP at the bottom of the beam. The
SET III beams strengthening using CFRP developed major flexural cracks at the ultimate
loads, the failure occur due to tear of CFRP laminate.

Table 4.1 Ultimate Load and Nature of Failure

Type of Beam Load atinitial Ultimateload
S.No. Natureof failure
Beam designation Crack(KN) (KN)
Beams weak C1 26.92 41.20 Flexural failure +
1 in flexure C2 27.39 42.18 Crushing of
(SET I) C3 27.46 40.5 concrete
Beams weak GF1 40.05 47.08 GFRP rupture
2 in flexure GF2 39.24 46.10 +Flexure-
(SET II) GF3 39.65 46.85 shearfailure
Beams weak CF1 51 60 Flexural failure +
3 in flexure CF2 49.09 61.80 Tear of CFRP
(SET III) CF3 52 62.79 laminate
 47

4.3. LOADS AT INITIAL CRACK

Two point static loading was done on both SET I and SET II beams and at the
eachIncrement of the load, deflection and crack development were observed. The load at
initialcrack of all the beams was observed, recorded and is shown in figure 9.1.

45

40

35

30
LOAD IN KN

25

20

15

10

0
C GF CF

BEAMS C,GF,CF

Fig. 4.1 Initial Crack Load on Beams

Under two point static loading of beams, at each I ncrement of load,
deflectionand crack development were observed. In beam SET I initiation of the crack
takes place at aload of 27.25 KN which is lower than beam SET II in which crack
initiation started due to the application of GFRP at 39.6 KN. Thecrack initiation of
beam SET III was not visible due to application of CFRP sheet up to theneutral axis of
the beam. The cracks were only visible after a load of 40.69 KN.

4.4. ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

The load carrying capacity of the control beams and the strengthen beams
werefound out.The control beams were loaded up to theirultimate loads.It was noted
that of all the beams, the strengthen beams SET II, SET III had the higher load carrying
 48

capacity compared to the controlled beams SET I.Animportant character to be noticed

about the usage of CFRP sheets is the high ductilebehaviour of the beams.The shear
failure being sudden can lead to huge damage to thestructure. But the ductile behaviour
obtained by the use of CFRP can give us enoughwarning before the ultimate failure.
The use of FRP can delay the initial cracks and furtherdevelopment of the cracks in the
beam.

ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

70

60

50
LOAD IN KN

40

30

20

10

0
C GF CF
BEAMS C,GF,CF

Fig. 4.2. Ultimate Load of beams

SET I beams were loaded under two point static loading. As the load was increased
incrementally development of cracks takes place and ultimately the beam failed. The ultimate
load of SET I beam was 41.3 KN which is lower than SET II beam strengthening with GFRP
which carried an ultimate load of 46.76 KN and further lower than SET III beamstrengthening
using CFRP which carried an ultimate load of 61.53 KN.

4.5. CRACK PATTERN

The crack patterns has resulted in shiftingof failure mode from flexural failure
(steel yielding) in case of controlled beam SET I to peelingof GFRP sheet in case of
strengthened beams SET II and SET III. The debonding of CFRP sheet hastaken place
 49

due to flexural-shear cracks by giving cracking sound. A crack normally initiatesin the
vertical direction and as the load increases it moves in inclined direction due to
thecombined effect of shear and flexure. If the load is increased further, cracks
propagate to topand the beam splits. This type of failure is called flexure-shear failure.
In SET II beam S1 the shear cracks started at the centre of short shear span. As
theload increased, the crack started to widen and propagated towards the location of
loading.The cracking patterns show that the angle of critical inclined crack with the
horizontal axisis about 45°. For strengthened reinforced concrete beams SET II and
SET III, the numbers of verticalcracks were increased compared to controlled beam
SET I.

Fig 4.3 Crack Pattern on Control Beam

 50

Fig 4.4. Crack Pattern on Strengthening GFRP Beam

Fig 4.5. Crack Pattern on Strengthening CFRP Beam

 51

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Based on the experimental test results, following conclusion can be made:

 The result of this experimental study indicates that externally bonding of fiber
reinforced polymer lamination can be used effectively to strengthen the reinforced
concrete beams. Regarding the effect of number of layers, an increase in stiffness and
flexural strength is achieved with the increase of FRP layers. All the strengthened
beam didn’t show any inter-layer de-lamination in any case of loading are before
failure of element.
 The specimens reinforced with CFRP carried an average of 40 - 45% more load than
the control elements.
 The crack pattern at the final failure load was observed from the experimental
reinforced concrete beams are Furthermore compared with FRP strengthened
reinforced beams, and concluded that more distribution and smaller crack amplitude
were detected for strengthened beams with respected to the experimental reinforced
concrete beams.
 The FRP strengthened beams have reached failure in the form of Brittle fractures as a
result of the increasing forces. Although the strengths of the reinforced sample
elements increased a considerable amount with no significant increase compared to the
reference beams as was observed according to ductility and energy consumption.
 The failure in all beams occurred at the middle section of the beams, since the tensile
stress is maximum and due to flexure of beam during loading.
 The overall performances of all the strengthened beams were superior to that of
experimental reinforced concrete beams.
 All the strengthened beam specimens showed better load deflection characteristics than
the control beam specimens. For any load increment the deflection of all the
strengthened beam specimens was lesser than that of the experimental reinforced
concrete beams specimens.
 52

 The GFRP strips showed no signs of debonding in any of the strengthened beam
specimens. At failure the GFRP sheet appeared well bonded to the concrete side covers
that had separated from the beam core.
 When the beam is strengthen in shear, then only flexural failure takes place which
gives sufficient warning compared to the brittle shear failure which is catastrophic
failure of beams
 Regarding the effect of transverse edge strip, significant improvement in flexural
strength was noted and the de-bonding of laminates occurred just before the final
failure. Neverthe less, the possible brittle failure of the strengthened beams still needs
to be considered.
 53

Suggestions for future research work

1. Strengthening behavior of Fiber Reinforced Polymer in axially loaded structural elements.

2. Strengthened Reinforced Cement Concrete elements in using Fiber Reinforced Polymer.

3. Study on strengthening of plate and shell using Fiber Reinforced Polymer.

 54

REFERENCE

1. AhmedKhalifaAnd Antonio Nanni (2002), “Rehabilitation Of Rectangular Simply

Supported RC Beams With Shear Deficiencies Using CFRP Composites” Construction and
Building Materials, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 135-146.

2. Dr. Prof. Skanska teknikab, solna(2001), “Behaviour Of Concrete Beams Strengthened

With CFRP And Loaded In Fatigue During The Strengthening Process” Tech Lic. M.Sc.
Anders Carolin, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, SWEDEN.

3. Feras Al Zoubi, Professor Li Zhengliang(2009), “Effect Of Epoxy Repairing On Rc

Beam Shear Strengthened With Side Bonded CFRP Sheet Strips” Department of Civil
Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, P.R.China

4. HabiburRahman Sobuz (2011), “Use Of Carbon Fiber Laminates For Strengthening

Reinforced Concrete Beams In Bending”International Journal Of Civil And Structural
Engineering Volume 2, No 1.

5. J JZheng, Zhejiang University Of Technology, China(2005), “An Analytical Model For

Rectangular Rc Beams Reinforced With PrestressedCFRP Plates” 30th Conference On Our
World In Concrete & Structures: 23 - 24 August 2005, Singapore.

6. J. Michael stallings, “Rehabilitation Of A Reinforced Concrete Bridge Using Frp

Laminates” European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.45 No.1 (2010),
pp.089-102.

7. K. C. Panda (2011), “Optimization Study Of Reinforced Concrete T-Beams

Strengthened In Shear With Side Bonded GFRP Sheet” International Journal of Earth Sciences
and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 04, No 06 SPL, pp. 801-804.

8. L.C. Hollaway(2005), “Advances In Adhesive Joining Of Dissimilar Materials With

Special Reference To Steels And FRP Composites”Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Bond Behaviour of FRP in Structures (BBFS 2005).
 55

9. Murali g. And pannirselvamn (2011), “Flexural Strengthening Of Reinforced Concrete

Beams Using Fibre Reinforced Polymer Laminate” ARPN Journal of Engineering and
Applied Sciences VOL. 6, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2011 ISSN 1819-6608.

10. MoustaphaIbrahimAry (2012), “Shear-Strengthening Of Reinforced &Prestressed

ConcreteBeams Using FRP” IABSE-JSCE Joint Conference on Advances in Bridge
Engineering-II, August 8-10, 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh. ISBN: 978-984-33-1893-0.

11. S.Deepa Raj (2011), “Shear Strengthening Of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Near
Surface Mounted Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer” Asian Journal of Civil
engineering(Building Andhousing) Vol. 13, No. 5 (2012).

12. Subhajit Mondale (2011), “Strengthening And Rehabilitation Of Reinforced Concrete

Beams With Opening” International Journal Of Civil And Structural Engineering Volume 2,
No 1, 2011issn 0976 – 4399.

13. Zergua Abdesselam(2012), “Numerical Modeling Of Strengthened Concrete

Beams”International Journal Of Civil And Structural Engineering Volume 2, No 4.

14. Zhishenwu(2007), “FRP-Steel-Concrete Hybrid Member Using Wet-Bonding

Technique” 16th International Conference On Composite Materials.
56