This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2018.2864106, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
Grounding the AC Microgrid
J. Mohammadi, Student Member, IEEE, F. Badrkhani Ajaei, Member, IEEE, and G. Stevens
Abstract— Grounding strategy of an AC microgrid affects its
line-to-ground fault response, personnel/equipment safety, service
continuity, insulation requirements, and protection criteria.
Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of the available grounding
strategies and their effects is essential for design and operation of
the microgrid components and especially its protection. In this
paper, characteristics of different AC distribution system
grounding devices and grounding configurations are investigated.
Subsequently, AC microgrid grounding requirements and issues
are identified based on the unique characteristics and constraints
of microgrids. The results of the aforementioned investigations are
used to identify the best grounding strategies, i.e., grounding
configurations, transformer connection types, and grounding
devices, for the AC microgrid. The study results indicate that the
four-wire multi-grounded configuration is the most suitable choice
for the majority of microgrids, especially in North America. The
Yg/Δ and Yg/Yg transformers are identified as the most
appropriate choices for DER interface to the four-wire multi-
grounded microgrid. Besides, low-reactance and low-resistance
grounding devices are recommended for the DER interface
transformers.
Index Terms— AC Microgrid, grounding strategies, ground
faults, AC system protection, overvoltages.
I. INTRODUCTION
A LTERNATING Current (AC) microgrids offer significant
advantages such as improving power quality, reliability,
and efficiency, while facilitating grid integration of Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) including Distributed Generation
(DG) units and Energy Storage Systems (ESS) [1], [2]. Similar
to the traditional AC distribution systems, the grounding
strategy of an AC microgrid drastically affects (i) its fault-
induced overcurrent and overvoltage stress and thereby its
protection system design and coordination, (ii) safety of
personnel and equipment, (iii) reliability of energy supply, (iv)
harmonics, and (v) maintenance costs [3]-[6]. In this context,
the term grounding strategy refers to the choice of system
configuration and the grounding devices. The former
determines whether the system has multi-grounded, uni-
grounded, or ungrounded configuration. The latter determines
the type of the grounding device impedance that leads to an
ungrounded, resonant grounded, resistive grounded, reactance
grounded, or solidly grounded system [3]-[6].
This work was supported in part by Mitacs Inc. and the Green Municipal
Fund granted to S2e Technologies Inc. and London Hydro partnership.
J. Mohammadi and F. Badrkhani Ajaei are with the Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, Western University, London, Canada, N6A 3K7
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1
The grounding strategies of AC microgrids and those of the
traditional AC distribution systems are affected by similar
constraints and concerns, and thus have significant
commonalities. However, there are differences due to the
unique characteristics of the microgrid, such as the possibility
of islanded operation and the higher reliability expectations.
The existing literature does not provide a comprehensive
comparison between different AC microgrid grounding
strategies, i.e., grounding configurations and grounding
devices. There are a few useful references in this area, each
focusing on a specific aspect of grounding strategies while
ignoring other relevant technical and non-technical concerns.
Advantages and disadvantages of multi-grounded microgrid
configuration are briefly mentioned in [7] where the rest of
possible grounding configurations are not discussed. Transient
response of a uni-grounded Low-Voltage (LV) AC microgrid
using different grounding impedances is studied in [8], [9]. In
[10], [11], transient response of the ungrounded microgrid
configuration under Line-to-Ground (LG) fault is investigated.
The studies reported in [12], [13] highlight the effects of AC
microgrid grounding strategies only on fault current magnitude
and touch potential. The impacts of different AC microgrid
grounding strategies on stray currents and personnel/equipment
safety are investigated in [14]. None of these studies provides
comprehensive information to enable appropriate grounding
system design for the AC microgrid. Considering the
shortcomings of the existing literature, this paper:
● introduces different AC distribution system grounding
strategies, i.e., grounding configurations and grounding
devices, that can be utilized in AC microgrids;
● investigates and reports technical characteristics and effects
of each grounding strategy, including their impacts on LG
fault current magnitude, transient over-voltages, required
surge arrester type, maintenance cost, possibility of
continuous operation under LG faults, personnel safety, and
required protective relay types;
● discusses the grounding issues and requirements of the AC
microgrid, which affect the choice of the appropriate
grounding strategies;
● investigates the impacts of different DER transformer
connection types, grounding configurations, and grounding
impedances in the AC microgrid;
● provides a comprehensive review of the advantages and
disadvantages of the aforementioned grounding strategies,
and makes application recommendations.
(e-mail: jmohamm7@uwo.ca; fajaei@uwo.ca), and G. Stevens is with S2E
Technologies Inc., St. Jacobs, Ontario, Canada, N0B 2N0 (e-mail:
gstevens@s2etech.com).
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Transactions on Industry Applications
2

II. GROUNDING AC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

In this section, different grounding devices and grounding
configurations used in AC distribution systems are introduced
and compared with each other. The information provided in this
section constitute the base for AC microgrid grounding
recommendations made in Section III.
A. Grounding Devices
Grounded AC distribution systems generally involves
connecting the neutral to the ground through a grounding
device. Source transformers and generators with Y-connected
windings provide a readily available neutral connection in
three-phase AC systems. In absence of Y-connected windings,
a neutral point can be obtained using a grounding transformer,
e.g., zigzag and Y-Δ type transformers [3]-[6].
Different types of impedances can be used as the grounding
device that connects the system neutral to the ground. The
choice of the grounding device, Figs. 1(a)-(e) [3]-[6], results in
the five main categories of ungrounded (infinite impedance),
solidly grounded (zero impedance), resistance grounded,
reactance grounded, and resonant grounded systems. For all of
these cases, the effectiveness of grounding is determined by the
LG fault current ratio, that is, the ratio of the LG fault current
magnitude to the three-phase fault current magnitude ILG/I3ϕ. A
larger ratio indicates a more effective grounding [3], [4].
Different AC system grounding devices are introduced in this
part and their advantages, disadvantages, system impacts, and
applications are briefly described and compared with each
other. A more detailed treatment of this subject including a
comprehensive review of the advantages and disadvantages of
each grounding device is provided in [15].
1) Ungrounded system
Conductors of an ungrounded system are not intentionally
connected to the ground. However, any ungrounded system is
in fact capacitance grounded due to the presence of stray
capacitances. LG fault current magnitude in such a system is
equal to the total stray capacitance charging current [3]-[6],
[16]-[18]. Hence, the LG fault current ratio is usually below one
percent.
LG faults in ungrounded systems cause overvoltages on the
un-faulted phases, which can reach the Line-to-Line (LL)
voltage level. Under transient conditions, the overvoltages can
exceed 3 p.u. [3], [4]. Ungrounded neutral type surge arresters
are used in ungrounded systems to limit the overvoltages [3],
[19], [20]. The National Electrical Code (NEC) [21] and the
Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) [22] require the LG faults in
ungrounded systems to be detected by a neutral overvoltage
relay (59N) or LG detection lights connected to a broken ΔY
voltage transformer [16].
Ungrounded systems provide the possibility of operation
under LG faults without need for immediate service
interruption for fault clearance [23]. Ungrounded systems also
result in the least investment in absence of single-phase loads
[5], [6], [24]-[27]. However, application of ungrounded systems
is not recommended due to the excessive transient overvoltages
[3], [17], [18].
Fig. 1. Grounding devices used in (a) ungrounded, (b) solidly grounded, (c)
resistance grounded, (d) reactance grounded, and (e) resonant grounded, and (f)
zigzag transformer-grounded systems.
2) Solidly grounded system
In a solidly grounded system, the neutral is grounded without
an intentionally inserted impedance [3]-[6], [16]-[18], [28].
Therefore, the ILG/I3ϕ ratio is at least 60 percent, and the
transient overvoltage caused by LG faults is less than 1.5 p.u.
[3], [4]. In this system, the neutrals of surge arresters are
grounded [3], [19], [20]. Instantaneous or time-delay ground
overcurrent (OC) relays are used to quickly detect LG faults [3],
[6], [16].
The applications of the solidly grounded system are as
follows [3], [6], [17], [18], [23], [29]:
● LV distribution systems (600 V and below) where single-
phase loads must be supplied, outages due to LG faults are
acceptable, or solid grounding is needed to detect LG faults.
● Medium-Voltage (MV) or High-Voltage (HV) systems with
Basic Insulation Level (BIL) below LL voltage level.
● MV or HV applications where the need for selective LG
fault detection justifies increased risk of arc flash.
● Utility systems supplying service to commercial and
industrial customers.
3) Resistance grounded system
The neutral of a resistance grounded system is grounded by
a resistor. This system can be high- or low-resistance grounded,
which are distinguished by the LG fault current ratio [3]-[6],
[16]-[18], [30]-[35]. The large neutral resistor used in a high-
resistance grounded system is selected to achieve a LG fault
current ratio below one percent, typically 10 A [3], [4], [16]-
[18], [31]-[35]. In this system, the un-faulted phase voltages can
reach the LL voltage level and the transient LG overvoltage
magnitude can reach 2.73 p.u. [3], [4], [16]-[18], [31]-[35].
Ungrounded neutral type surge arresters are used in the high-
resistance grounded system [3], [19], [20]. Due to the limited
fault current levels in high-resistance grounded systems, where
service continuity is a priority, LG fault protection usually
initiates an alarm instead of immediately tripping circuit
breakers [3], [23], [31]-[35]. The alarm can be initiated by a
neutral overvoltage relay (59N) [3], [16], [31]-[35]. The
applications of high-resistance grounding are as follows [3],
[31]-[35]:
● LV systems without single phase loads.
● Systems below 600 V where service continuity is a priority.
● MV systems up to 5 kV where service continuity is a priority
and capacitive charging current is less than 5.5A.
● Retrofits of ungrounded systems in order to reduce transient
LG overvoltages.

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Transactions on Industry Applications
A low-resistance grounded system limits the LG fault current
ratio to less than 25 percent, typically with a magnitude in the
range of 100 A to 1000 A [3], [4], [17], [18]. Transient LG
overvoltage in a low-resistance grounded system is below 2.5
p.u. [4], and ungrounded neutral type surge arresters are used to
limit overvoltages [3], [19], [20]. A time-delay ground OC relay
is used to promptly detect and clear LG faults [3], [6], [16]. The
applications of low-resistance grounding are [3], [17], [18]:
● 2.4 kV to 15 kV MV systems feeding only three-wire loads,
where occasional outages due to LG faults are acceptable,
and the grounding resistor prevents equipment damage by
limiting LG fault current.
● Providing sufficient fault current to enable selective
protection in industrial distribution systems above 5kV.
● Mining systems supplying portable equipment.
4) Reactance grounded system
In a reactance grounded system, a reactor is used as the
grounding device to limit the LG fault current magnitude. This
system can be high- or low-reactance grounded [3]-[6], [16]-
[18], [30]. In the low-reactance grounded system, the LG fault
current ratio is between 25 percent and 100 percent, to prevent
excessive transient overvoltages [3], [4], [17], [18]. Hence, the
transient overvoltage under LG faults is below 2.3 p.u. [3], [4].
Application of low-reactance grounding results in lower cost
and power loss as compared to low-resistance grounding, if the
desired fault current level is in the range of thousand amperes
[3]. However, due to the large LG fault current, a low-reactance
grounded system requires fast fault clearing using instantaneous
or time-delay ground OC relays [3], [16]. Grounded neutral
type surge arresters are used in this system if the LG fault
current ratio is 60% or larger [3], [19], [20]. The applications of
low-reactance grounding are as follows [3], [6], [30], [36]:
● Systems below 600V or above 15 kV.
● Generator grounding in industrial and commercial systems.
● North American utilities.
In high-reactance grounded systems, the LG fault current
ratio is between 5 percent and 25 percent [3], [4]. Ungrounded
neutral surge arresters are used in these systems [3]. High-
reactance grounded systems are not popular due to excessive
transient LG overvoltages (2.73 p.u.) [3], [4].
5) Resonant grounded system
In a resonant grounded system, the grounding device, i.e.,
reactor, is specially designed to resonate with the system stray
capacitance so that the LG fault current is small and in-phase
with the LG voltage [3], [4], [18], [37]. The transient LG
overvoltage magnitude can reach 2.73 p.u. [3], [4]. Ungrounded
neutral type surge arresters are used in such systems [3], [19],
[20]. The applications of resonant grounding are [3], [4], [18]:
● MV industrial and commercial systems that are isolated
from the utility system by transformers and do not involve
frequent circuit reconfiguration, e.g., MV generators.
● Relatively common in European distribution systems.
● Not popular in North America. Applied in a few instances
for generator grounding in New England.
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3
Fig. 2. Grounding configurations in AC distribution systems: (a) four-wire
multi grounded, (b) four-wire uni-grounded, (c) three-wire uni-grounded, (d)
three-wire ungrounded (served from a Y transformer), (e) three-wire
ungrounded (served from a Δ transformer).
The characteristics, protection schemes, and applications of
different grounding strategies are summarized and compared in
Table I, [3]-[6], [16]-[37], where R and X are the system
resistance and reactance, respectively, and subscripts 0 and 1
represent zero and positive sequence parameters, respectively.
A comprehensive description of the information provided in
Table I can be found in [15].
B. Grounding Configurations
Another aspect of the grounding strategy is choosing the
appropriate locations and numbers of grounding devices, which
hereafter will be referred to as the grounding system
configuration. The distribution system can be four-wire multi-
grounded, four-wire uni-grounded, three-wire uni-grounded, or
three-wire ungrounded, as shown in Fig. 2 [5], [6], [10], [24].
This part introduces and compares these configurations.
1) Four-wire multi-grounded configuration
In a four-wire multi-grounded system, the neutral conductor
of the primary feeder is grounded at multiple locations [5], [6],
[24]-[27], [30] and often interconnected with the neutral
conductor of the secondary distribution system [25], [27]. This
grounding configuration is commonly used in the MV
distribution systems of North America [6], [11], [24]-[26], [30],
[38] due to its safety and economic advantages. Multi-grounded
systems must be used at voltages above 600V and not be used
in commercial or industrial facilities, to prevent circulating
ground currents [6], [21].
This configuration has lower cost when the loads are mostly
single phase [6], [24], [27] and requires lower arrester ratings
and BIL [27]. Under a single LG fault, this grounding
configuration limits the voltage rise on un-faulted phases to
about 1.25 p.u. to 1.35 p.u. [24] and provides sufficiently large
current for fault detection and location [27]. However,
protection against high-impedance LG faults in four-wire multi-
grounded systems is difficult. Residual ground OC relays are
not sufficiently sensitive to detect high-impedance LG fault
currents, because their pickup current settings must be above
the maximum expected load imbalances [5].
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Transactions on Industry Applications
4

TABLE I
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GROUNDING DEVICES
Neutral High-
Resonant High-Reactance Low-Resistance Low-Reactance Solidly
Grounding Ungrounded Resistance
Grounded Grounded Grounded Grounded Grounded
Device Grounded
R0 X0 X0 X0 X0
Ratio of > 100 > 10 0< < 10 3≤ ≤ 10 0≤ ≤1
Symmetrical X1 X1 X1 X1 X1
N/A N/A
component R0 R0 R0 R0 R0
parameters ≤1 <2 ≥2 0≤ ≤1 0≤ ≤ 0.1
X0 X0 X0 X1 X1

LG fault current I LG I LG I LG I LG I LG I LG I LG
< 1% < 1% < 1% 5% ≤ ≤ 25% ≤ 25% 25% ≤ ≤ 100% > 95%
ratio I 3φ I 3φ I 3φ I3φ I 3φ I 3φ I 3φ

Magnitude of
expected third Negligible,
None Negligible Appreciable Appreciable Appreciable Appreciable
harmonics Small
current

Required BIL VLL VLL VLL VLL VLN VLN VLN

Transient LG
VLG > 3 VLG ≤ 2.73 VLG ≤ 2.73 VLG ≤ 2.73 VLG ≤ 2.5 VLG ≤ 2.3 VLG ≤ 1.5
voltage
Grounded neutral type
Ungrounded Ungrounded Ungrounded Ungrounded Ungrounded Grounded
Surge Arresters if LG fault current is
neutral type neutral type neutral type neutral type neutral type neutral type
60% or greater
Maintenance
High Low Low Reasonable Reasonable Reasonable Reasonable
Costs
Service
Possible, not
Continuity under Ideal Ideal Not Possible Not Possible Not Possible Not Possible
recommended
LG Fault
Personnel Safety Poor Excellent Excellent Reasonable Reasonable Reasonable Poor
Equipment
Low Low Low Low High High High
Thermal Stress
Interference with
Communication Average Low Low Low High High High
Lines
Instantaneous
Time-delay
LG Fault Overvoltage Overvoltage Instantaneous or time- or time-delay
N/A N/A ground OC relay
Protection relay (59N). relay (59N). delay ground OC relay. ground OC
(51G).
relay.
Relay
Difficult Excellent Excellent Good Good Good Good
Coordination
Protection
Average Average Average Good Good Good Good
Sensitivity
Systems below
600V and
Not MV systems of Systems below 600V 600V or over
MV generators. below, where Not used due to
recommended 2.4kV to 15kV, or over 15kV. 15kV.
Applications Rarely used in service excessive
due to transient with only Commonly used in Commonly
North America. continuity is a overvoltages.
overvoltages. three-wire loads. North America. used in North
priority.
America.

2) Four-wire uni-grounded configuration
In a four-wire uni-grounded distribution system, the primary
neutral conductor is connected to the neutral point of the source
transformer and to ground, only in one location [5], [6], [24]-
[27]. In this configuration, single-phase distribution
transformers are usually connected between phase and neutral
conductors and surge arrester are connected between phase and
ground. An arrester or a spark gap may also be connected
between the neutral conductor and ground [5]. In North
America, four-wired uni-grounded systems are used sparingly
[27]. Uni-grounded systems have been recommended to be used
at low voltages, 600V and below [6], [21].
This configuration enables application of sensitive ground
fault protection which is not adversely affected by unbalanced
loads [5], [6], [27]. However, the four-wire uni-grounded
configuration causes higher voltage swells [27] and higher LG
fault-induced overvoltages as compared with the multi-
grounded system [24].

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3) Three-wire uni-grounded configuration

There is no neutral conductor in a three-wire uni-grounded
system, but the system is grounded through a substation
transformer neutral [5], [6], [24]-[27]. Single-phase distribution
transformers are connected between phases. Surge arresters are
generally connected phase to ground, and the surge-arrester
Fig. 3. Microgrid overvoltage due to back-feed under a LG fault.
rating is higher than that of the multi-grounded configuration
since the overvoltages under LG faults are higher [5], [6], [24].
This configuration is usually used in the industrial power
systems that mainly consist of three-phase motors rather than
loads connected to neutral [6], [29]. Three-wire uni-grounded
MV distribution systems are popular in Europe [26], [27]. Uni-
grounded systems have been recommended to be used at low
voltages, 600V and below [6], [21]. Three-wire uni-grounded
systems can use more sensitive ground relay settings since load Fig. 4. Utility grid contribution to the LV-side LG fault current.
imbalances do not cause residual current [5], [6], [24].
4) Three-wire ungrounded configuration
Three-wire ungrounded systems have no intentional
grounding to earth. However, as explained in Section II-A, stray
capacitances provide a path for small currents flowing between
the phase conductors and ground [24]. Three-wire ungrounded
systems are seldom used in North American distribution Fig. 5. DER contribution to the MV-side LG fault current.
systems [24]. For personnel and equipment safety, this
configuration is currently not recommended for modern
distribution systems [6]. A single LG fault does not result in 2) Utility grid contribution to LV-side LG fault current
When a LG fault occurs at the LV-side of a DER interface
disruptive fault currents in this configuration. However, LG
transformer, the fault current magnitude depends on the
faults are difficult if not impossible to locate, due to the small
interface transformer connection type. If the transformer allows
fault current [27].
flow of zero-sequence current from the MV-side to the LV-side,
Fig. 4, the LG fault current magnitude can be as high as 15 to
III. AC MICROGRID GROUNDING
25 times the transformer rated current until the microgrid
The grounding strategies described in Section II are becomes islanded. Otherwise, this value is considerably lower
essentially applicable to AC microgrids as well. However, the and mainly depends on the grounding of the DERs [39].
unique characteristics of AC microgrids lead to additional Therefore, the DER transformer grounding impedance should
criteria that affect the choice of applicable grounding strategies. be carefully selected to prevent possible damage to the DER
In this section, AC microgrid grounding issues and transformers.
requirements are discussed, impacts of different DER 3) DER contribution to the MV-side LG fault current
transformer connection types, grounding configurations, and The large fault current magnitude under three-phase, LL and
grounding impedances are investigated, and the most solid LG faults in the grid-connected microgrid enables
appropriate AC microgrid grounding strategies are selective operation of properly coordinated OC protective
recommended. devices [40]. However, this does not apply to high-impedance
A. AC Microgrid Grounding Issues and Requirements LG faults. Utility grid protective relays may become
desensitized to high-impedance LG faults, due to fault current
This part highlights specific phenomena that require special
contributions of DER interface transformers, as shown in Fig. 5
attention due to their impacts on grounding requirements of the
[11], [24], [40]. Using large impedances to ground interface
AC microgrid.
transformers usually reduces this adverse effect, but leads to
1) Back-feed
When a microgrid is islanded due to an internal LG fault, the higher overvoltages under back-feed conditions. Therefore, in
faulted portion of the microgrid remains energized by the DERs choosing the grounding impedance, a tradeoff exists between
while losing the grounding support from the utility grid, as limiting LG fault-induced overvoltages and maintaining
shown in Fig. 3. Under the aforementioned scenario, which is protection sensitivities of utility grid relays [11], [40].
referred to as back-feed, the system would be mainly grounded Another issue associated with LG fault current contribution
by the DERs and their transformers. As a result, the fault of DERs is sympathetic tripping of feeder protective relays.
response of the system under back-feed conditions highly Breakers of un-faulted feeders may unnecessarily trip under LG
depends on the microgrid grounding strategy [24], [39]. If the faults on parallel feeders served from the same substation bus.
DERs and the associated transformers do not effectively ground In order to prevent sympathetic tripping, directional overcurrent
the MV-side, LG fault-induced overvoltages on the un-faulted relays can be used [11], [26].
phases can reach the LL voltage level [11], [40].

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Transactions on Industry Applications
B. DER Transformer Connection Types
The interface transformer connection type determines how
each DER interacts with the MV-side of the microgrid and the
utility grid, especially under LG faults [40]. As emphasized in
the previous part, this interaction impacts protection of the
microgrid as well as the overvoltage and overcurrent stresses
caused by internal LG faults. Hence, AC microgrid grounding
systems should be designed based on the winding connection
types of the utilized DER interface transformers [39]. There is
no connection type that is optimal for all systems [11], [40].
Therefore, the commonly used DER transformer connection
types [24] are compared here in terms of their impacts on the
AC microgrid grounding system.
A Yg/Yg (MV/LV) interface transformer is not a ground
current source by itself. The MV-side grounding in the islanded
mode would depend on the grounding of the source behind the
transformer [24], [39]. This can be explained by the zero-
sequence equivalent circuit shown in Table II [41]. If all sources
behind the Yg/Yg interface transformers are ungrounded or
high-impedance grounded, LG fault-induced overvoltages at
the MV-side of the microgrid may approach the LL voltage
level [11], [39]. Solid grounding of the sources would increase
the current contributions of the DERs to the LG faults in the
utility grid, which would affect coordination of the utility grid
ground fault protection systems [11], [39], [40]. Solidly
grounded Yg/Yg interface transformers also necessitate
coordination of MV-side ground OC relays with LV-side relays
[11]. A compromise between the aforementioned overvoltage
and overcurrent issues can be made by using appropriate neutral
grounding impedance. This type of transformer is mainly used
as distribution transformer in solidly grounded utility
distribution systems [3].
Δ/Δ, Y/Δ, and Δ/Yg (MV/LV) interface transformers neither
are ground current sources at the MV-side nor provide a path
for the zero-sequence current contribution by DERs [39], [40],
as shown in Table II. DERs interfaced to the microgrid by these
types of transformers do not contribute to the fault current under
LG faults in the utility grid, and thus do not adversely affect
coordination of the utility ground fault protection systems.
However, the major concern is the LG fault-induced
overvoltages under back-feed conditions, as explained in part
III-A [11], [40]. Grounding transformer(s) may be needed at the
MV-side to provide an effective ground current source and limit
overvoltages [39]. Some utilities prefer blocking LG fault
current contribution from large DERs at the cost of having to
tolerate larger temporary overvoltages [40].
A Yg/Δ interface transformer is a ground current source at
the Y-side and enables effective grounding of the MV system
even in the islanded mode [39]. It blocks the zero-sequence
current contribution from the MV-side to faults at the LV-side.
Hence, the MV-side relays do not react to ground faults on the
LV-sides of the interface transformers [11], [40]. As a result,
the MV-side ground relays may use lower pickup currents and
achieve faster operation since they do not need to be
coordinated with the ground relays at the LV-side [39].
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TABLE II
ZERO-SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF DIFFERENT TRANSFORMER
WINDING CONNECTION TYPES.
Transformer winding connection type Zero-sequence equivalent circuit
A disadvantage of the Yg/Δ transformer is zero-sequence
current circulation in the Δ-connected windings under LG faults
or unbalanced loads, which may cause transformer heating [3],
[11], [40]. This problem can be resolved using a grounding
impedance at the MV-side neutral connection, to limit the zero-
sequence current. The ground impedance should be sufficiently
large to limit the Δ-side circulating current and sufficiently low
to provide effective grounding to the MV-side [11], [40]
particularly under islanded operation mode of the microgrid.
The Yg/Δ transformer also contributes to LG fault current in the
utility grid, and thus may adversely affect coordination of the
utility LG fault protection systems [11], [26], [40].
The most common connection types of DER interface
transformers in multi-grounded and uni-grounded microgrids
are Yg/Δ and Yg/Yg [7]-[9]. The reason is that, with
appropriate grounding impedances, these transformers enable
ground OC protection of the islanded microgrid and prevent LG
fault-induced overvoltages under back-feed conditions.
C. Microgrid Grounding Configurations
This part investigates applicability of different grounding
configurations to microgrids, considering the information
provided in Section II.
1) Three-wire ungrounded microgrid
Three-wire ungrounded systems do not suffer from
disruptive LG fault currents and are designed to tolerate LG
fault-induced overvoltages [24]. Therefore, these systems may
cause less frequent service interruption due to faults. In other
words, removing the LG fault may be postponed until the next
scheduled maintenance. This may seem to be a significant
advantage in microgrid applications where reliability of the
power supplied to loads is a priority. However, as mentioned in
Section II-B, aside from the overvoltage issues, locating LG
faults in ungrounded system is extremely difficult. Voltage-
based protection strategies used in ungrounded systems are
non-selective [28]. This issue may lead to excessively long
service restoration delays after LG faults in the three-wire
ungrounded microgrid. Another serious issue is the possibility
of undetected LG faults evolving to LL faults.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2018.2864106, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
Considering the aforementioned issues, application of three-
wired ungrounded microgrids is not recommended. A rare
exception is when the host utility grid has three-wire
ungrounded configuration and the microgrid has to comply with
the utility grounding strategy.
2) Three-wire uni-grounded microgrid
A three-wire uni-grounded microgrid does not contain any
grounding device itself and is connected to a three-wire uni-
grounded utility system [8], [9]. Due to the grounding support
from the grid, the grid-connected uni-grounded microgrid does
not necessarily suffer from the fault location and overvoltage
issues associated with the ungrounded configuration. However,
this is not the case when the microgrid becomes ungrounded
after islanding. A possible solution is to restore the uni-
grounded nature of the islanded microgrid by automatically
grounding it at a single location immediately after islanding
detection. This solution does not fully resolve the problem since
the islanded microgrid would be exposed to excessive
overvoltages before the islanding is detected and the grounding
device is switched in. Considering the aforementioned technical
issues, application of three-wire uni-grounded microgrid is not
recommended.
3) Four-wire uni-grounded microgrid
Unlike the three-wire uni-grounded scenario, a four-wire uni-
grounded microgrid does not become ungrounded in the
islanded mode. The neutral conductor continues to provide
grounding support to the microgrid after islanding [8], [9].
Hence, depending on the utilized grounding impedance, the
islanded four-wire uni-grounded microgrid does not necessarily
suffer from fault detection issues or excessive overvoltages.
However, the microgrid may experience neutral voltage rise
and large voltage imbalance if the neutral is not solidly
grounded or if the feeder is long, e.g., rural microgrids.
4) Four-wire multi-grounded microgrid
The four-wire multi-grounded AC microgrid offers many
advantages including (i) improved voltage transients, (ii)
optimized size of overvoltage protective devices, (iii) lower
zero-sequence impedance compared to the uni-grounded case,
(iv) improved safety and (v) the possibility of providing power
to single-phase loads.
Multi-grounded AC microgrids suffer from ground potential
rise, large LG fault currents, and ground fault protection
coordination issues. LG faults in such systems must be detected,
located, and isolated as quick as possible, in order to minimize
damages and voltage dip [7]. However, some of these issues can
be resolved by using appropriate grounding impedances and
more sophisticated protection strategies. The remaining
unresolved issues are not as serious as those of the other
configurations. Therefore, based on the stare-of-the-art
technologies, the four-wire multi-grounded configuration is
currently the most suitable case for the majority of microgrid
applications. Of course, each of the other configurations may
be chosen for specific cases that impose different requirements
in terms of microgrid protection, reliability, insulation
coordination, power quality, and cost.
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7
D. Microgrid Grounding Devices
The grounding strategy of the microgrid impacts fault
response and protection coordination of the host utility systems,
and thus cannot be determined independent of the utility system
grounding strategy. In the grid-connected mode, the DERs in
the microgrid are seen by the utility grid as regular distributed
generation systems. Therefore, in case of an ungrounded utility
system, to maintain compatibility and prevent desensitization
of the utility ground fault protection systems, the DERs should
behave as ungrounded sources, e.g., interfaced by ∆/Yg or ∆/∆
transformer. In case the utility system is grounded, the DERs in
the microgrid should be grounded as well, to prevent
destructive overvoltages under back-feed conditions. If the
utility system is impedance grounded, solid grounding of the
DERs would still cause protection desensitization issues.
Based on the information provided in parts III-C, the
grounding configuration suitable for the majority of microgrids
is four-wire multi-grounded, especially in North America. As
mentioned in part III-B, the most common connection types of
DER interface transformers in four-wire multi-grounded
systems are Yg/Δ and Yg/Yg. For each specific microgrid
project, the grounding impedances of the DER interface
transformers should be chosen taking into account the
information provided in Table I. However, low-reactance and
low-resistance grounding are generally more advantageous
considering criteria such as LG fault current magnitude, LG
fault-induced overvoltage level, and personnel safety.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, different grounding strategies, i.e., grounding
configurations and grounding devices, of the traditional AC
distribution systems are investigated and their advantages and
disadvantages are compared. Subsequently, grounding
requirements and issues of AC microgrids are discussed. Based
on the identified grounding requirements, the appropriate
grounding strategies for microgrid applications are identified
and reported. The microgrid grounding recommendations made
in this paper mainly focus on the grounding configurations of
the AC microgrid, the DER interface transformer connection
type, and the grounding device.
This study indicates that the grounding strategy of an AC
microgrid, regardless of its grid-connection mode, must ensure
proper operation of relays, insulation integrity, and personnel
safety. This should be achieved by (i) effective grounding of the
MV-side of the islanded microgrid with Δ/Y connected DER
interface transformers, (ii) effective grounding of the LV-side
of the islanded microgrid with Yg/Yg connected DER interface
transformers, (iii) utilizing compatible grounding strategies in
the microgrid and the utility feeder.
The study results also indicate that for the majority of
microgrid applications, the most suitable grounding strategy
involves four-wire multi-grounded configuration, Yg/Δ and
Yg/Yg type of DER interface transformers, and low-reactance
or low-resistance grounding devices.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2018.2864106, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2018.2864106, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
9

Jafar Mohammadi received the B.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering from The University of
Mazandaran, Iran, in 2009 and the M.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering from The University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 2012.
Currently, he is working toward the Ph.D. degree
at the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Western Ontario,
Canada. His research interests include Protection and
Control of Power systems especially Microgrids and
Renewable Energy Systems.
Firouz Badrkhani Ajaei (S’12-M'15) received the
B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Tehran
Polytechnic University, Iran, in 2006, the M.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from The University
of Tehran, Iran in 2009, and the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from The University of
Toronto, Canada, in 2015.
Currently, he is an Assistant Professor with the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Western Ontario, Canada. His research
interests include Protection and Control of Power Systems with focus on
Renewable Energy Systems, Microgrids, and HVDC-AC Grids.
Gary Stevens received the B.Sc. degree in chemistry
in 1980, and the M.Sc. degree in inorganic chemistry
in 1984, both from Texas Tech University, Lubbock,
TX.
Gary has over 30 years of experience in process
development and advanced manufacturing of Solar
and Semiconductor technologies. In 1984, he joined
Texas Instruments in Dallas, where he was involved
in projects related to high-reliability power
transistors, microcircuits, and molten silicon refining.
In 1997, he joined Matrix Solar Technologies in Texas (an ATS Automation
holding company), and led several projects related to silicon wafer cutting and
photovoltaic module manufacturing. In 2001, he joined the Spheral Solar Power
division of ATS Automation, Cambridge ON, Canada, to manage the IP
portfolio and lead R&D efforts for new processes and product enhancements.
Currently, he is a Chief Scientist at s2e technologies Inc., St Jacobs, ON,
Canada, where he continues to lead R&D projects focused on promoting and
implementing sustainable technologies worldwide. He holds eight US Patents
with numerous international filings.

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