Kevlar

Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor including combat helmets,

ballistic facemasks, and ballistic vests.

From: High-Performance Apparel, 2018

Related terms:

Carbon Fiber, Dupont, Glass Fibre, Nomex, resin, Tensile Strength, Aramid, Aramid
Fibre

View all Topics

Learn more about Kevlar

Types of fabric and their joining re-

quirements
J. Mcloughlin, S. Hayes, in Joining Textiles, 2013

1.4.2 Kevlar
Kevlar comes from the polyamide family. They are derived from benzene resulting in
a fibre with extremely long molecular chains giving it an almost ridge-like structure.
Properties of this fibre are:

● excellent strength to weight ratio

● excellent thermal stability

● tensile fatigue is high

● high resistance to cutting

● good flex resistance

● poor abrasion resistance

● poor resistance to ultraviolet radiation.

Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armour, including combat helmets,
ballistic face masks and ballistic vests. It is also used to manufacture gloves, sleeves,
jacket chaps and other articles of clothing designed to protect users from cuts,
abrasions and heat. Motor cycle safety clothing is another area where Kevlar is used
extensively.

> Read full chapter

Fibers used for high-performance ap-

parel
Tasneem Sabir, in High-Performance Apparel, 2018

2.9.2.1 Kevlar
Kevlar comes from the distinguished polyamide family in which they are derived
from benzene, resulting in a fiber with extremely long molecular chains, giving it an
almost ridge-like structure. Properties of this fiber are:

• Excellent strength to weight ratio

• Excellent thermal stability

• Tensile fatigue is high

• High resistance to cutting

• Good flex resistance

• Poor abrasion resistance

• Poor resistance to ultraviolet radiation

Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor including combat helmets,

ballistic facemasks, and ballistic vests. It is also used to manufacture gloves, sleeves,
jackets, chaps, and other articles of clothing designed to protect users from cuts,
abrasions, and heat. Motorcycle safety clothing is another area where Kevlar is used
extensively.

> Read full chapter

Nondestructive testing method for
Kevlar and natural fiber and their hy-
brid composites
Siti Madiha Muhammad Amir, ... Ain Umaira Md Shah, in Durability and Life
Prediction in Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites,
2019

16.4.2 NDT for Kevlar (synthetic fiber) and its hybrid compos-
ites
Kevlar is a type of aramid fiber. It is woven into textile materials and is extremely
strong and lightweight, with resistance toward corrosion and heat. It is used in vast
applications such as aerospace engineering (such as the body of the aircraft), body
armor, bulletproof vests, car brakes, and boats. It is usually made into composites.
Kevlar can also be combined with other fibers to produce hybrid composites. The
hybrid composites of Kevlar are tabulated in Table 16.1.

Since Kevlar is used in many structural applications, NDT plays an important role
in determining the integrity of the structure. One of the methods used to inspect
the integrity of structures made from Kevlar is CT. CT is commonly used in the
inspection of metals. However, this method is now being used for composites.
Fidan [72] utilized microcomputerized tomography to visualize the internal damage
impact on glass fiber–reinforced and glass fiber + aramid fiber–reinforced polyester
composites. Low-velocity impacts were tested at 80 J energy. From the investigation,
the micro-CT showed that the 3D-delamination pattern defect in glass-reinforced
composites is more visible due to the nature of the glass fiber. However, the
delamination pattern lost its effectiveness when aramid fiber was added to the glass
fiber.

Another method used to detect defects is the eddy current method [73]. However, in
the work of Grimberg and Savin [73], the eddy current method used is for composites
made from synthetic fiber, which are carbon and Kevlar. Eddy current microscopy,
involving a micro-focus transducer, was used to investigate the individual fiber
breakage in the specimen after it was impacted by a 7.62-mm-caliber bullet.

Woo et al. [74] investigated the failure process and characteristics of carbon/Kevlar
hybrid woven composites under a high strain-rate impact. In this work, a destruc-
tive-nondestructive coupled impact test methodology was applied. The AE technique
was used as the nondestructive method in this work. The parameters of AE signal
cumulative counts and amplitude were interpreted to obtain results for the plastic
deformation and fibrillation of fibers, matrix cracking and propagation, and fiber
breakages. The AE technique can also be used to provide valuable information on the
structural changes in a stressed material. Juroslav et al. [75] applied the AE technique
on a tensile test on composite materials reinforced with carbon and aramid fibers.
The AE results provide information on the separation of the matrix, the extraction
of fiber from the matrix, and the breaking of the fibers. The root mean square is
observed in this work.

Maleki [76] introduced the liquid crystal thermography method for the inspection of
delaminations and air bubbles in a hybrid of Kevlar/resin as the skin and glass/resin
as the core. According to the literature [76], this method can be applied to detect de-
lamination. However, there are limitations in the preparation procedure, and access
to both sides during the inspection is required. Further work was also suggested
concerning the detection of small cracks using this method.

Destic et al. [77] conducted NDT using the THz imaging setup on Kevlar fibers. Even
though the samples tested were not real cases, since they had very thin damage,
the results seemed to be very promising. From the output, using the setup, the
delamination defect in Kevlar can be detected, and a break in a carbon/epoxy sample
was also detected.

> Read full chapter

Developments in rope structures and

technology
J.W.S. Hearle, in Specialist Yarn and Fabric Structures, 2011

3.8.4 Two unusual uses

A Kevlar rope was suspended between 8500- and 6000-foot mountain tops, which
were thee miles apart in the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. This was the
longest span in the world. It was used as a rail to support a target, with a plan for the
target to run at speeds up to 1000 mph. This is used to test ground-to-air missiles.

At the other extreme, ropes are used in farming mussels. With the right choice of
rope, mussels will attach themselves to the rope, which can be hauled up when the
mussels are ready to be harvested.

> Read full chapter

Technical textiles for knife and slash
resistance
K.K. Govarthanam, ... S. Rajendran, in Handbook of Technical Textiles (Second
Edition), 2016

7.4.3.3 Slash resistant personal protective equipment garment

Apart from the Kevlar yarn, the best resistance to slash was recorded by using Spectra
WF408 yarn, but this was replaced by three ends of WF528 yarn, which reduced the
linear density of the yarn used by 30% while maintaining the same breaking force.
This in turn reduced the area density of the knitted fabric by 250 gm–2, thus making
it lighter and potentially more comfortable to wear.

The slash resistant fabrics that passed the standard were officially named as SARK.
The first fabric was named as SARK-1, and the subsequent fabrics as SARK-2 and
SARK-3. The novel two-layer structure, named SARK-1, which passed the HOSDB
Slash Resistance Standard for the UK Police on both the faces, was a knitted fabric
with two ends of Kevlar yarn as the racked face and three ends of WF528 yarn as the
other face. The results for this fabric are shown in Table 7.9.

Table 7.9. HOSDB slash resistance test results for SARK-1

Slash test direction Failure force on Kevlar face (N) Failure force on WF 528 face (N)
Walewise  71.64  65.81
Coursewise 293.77 122.17
Crosswise 109.74  61.61
Average force 158.38  83.20

HOSDB = Home Office Scientific Development Branch.

The results reveal that a minimum failure force of 71.64 N and an average failure
force of 158.38 N were achieved. The average force of 158.38 N was almost twice the
minimum average required to pass the test. The SARK-1 fabric also passed the slash
resistance standard with the WF528 yarn as the test face. It passed with a force of
65.81 N in the walewise direction, 122.17 N in the coursewise direction and 61.61 N
in the crosswise direction. The high resistance to slash of 122.17 N in the coursewise
direction enabled the fabric to obtain the required average of 80 N and above.

Modifications were made to the SARK-1 structure to achieve a special racked struc-
ture in one of the faces, results of which are shown in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10. HOSDB slash resistant test results for SARK-2

Slash test direction Force (N) Force (N)

Walewise 92.49 115.78
Coursewise 84.25 144.41
Crosswise 97.68 64.89
Average force 91.47 108.36

HOSDB = Home Office Scientific Development Branch.

The novel two-layer racked structure SARK-2 passed the standard on both faces of
the fabric with an average value of 91.47 N on the Kevlar yarn face and 108.36 N
on the WF528 yarn face. SARK-2 achieved similar slash performance in all three
directions. This indicates that the structure is more or less isotropic with regard to
this property. Fig. 7.34 shows some of the products produced by using the patented
SARK slash resistant fabric.76

Fig. 7.34. Products produced by using SARK technology.

> Read full chapter

Textile Fibers: A Comparative Overview

J.W.S. Hearle, in Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, 2001

6.2 Para-aramid Fibers

The aramid fiber , polyphenylene terephthalamide (PPTA), was the first successful
HM-HT polymer fiber. It is a para-aramid, with benzene rings from dibasic acid and
diamine joined along the chain in 1,4 positions. The chemical formula is

7.

The polymer cannot be melted, but degrades chemically at around 500°C. To be

spun, it is dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid and extruded into an alkali bath.
The fiber, as first produced, is highly crystalline and highly, but not perfectly,
oriented. The structure consists of pleated sheets, which are slightly off-axis. This
structure causes the stress–strain curve to be concave upward, and results in some
creep under low loads. Further heat treatments under tension increase orientation
and give higher modulus forms. Other techniques can reduce modulus, as needed
in some applications.

Covalent bonds give the high axial properties, including a tensile strength around
3GPa, but intermolecular forces are weak. Hydrogen bonding between -CONH-
groups occurs only in one plane. Tensile rupture results from axial splits, which run
across the fiber, giving long fibrillar forms. The shear modulus is low. Axial yield
occurs at about 0·4 GPa. Although the low compressive strength is a disadvantage
in many ways, it has the advantage that the fibers are not brittle in bending. Yielding
on the inside of a bend allows fibers to bend back on themselves through 180°
without breaking.Kink bands can be seen internally with polarized light microscopy
and externally with electron microscopy. Although a few repetitions of sharp bending
do not cause major damage, a few thousand cycles will cause breakage by flexural
fatigue. This is seen as axial compression fatigue when component yarns in ropes are
allowed to go into compression. The nature of the tensile break and the compressive
yielding lead to high-energy absorption in structural impacts.

Technora is a copolymer aramid fiber in which half the p-phenylene diamine is

substituted by 4,4 -diaminodiphenyl ether. Its properties are similar to PPTA fibers,
but with differences which may be advantageous in some applications.

It was hoped that para-aramid fibers would find a large market in tire cords.
However, apart from the high price, they are stronger than is needed for the general
market. Going from cotton to rayon to nylon and polyester, it was possible to reduce
the amount of cord needed as strength was increased. However, there is a limit to
the sparseness of cords within the tire, so that advantage could not be taken of the
added strength of aramids. Their use depends on applications where high strength
and high stiffness justify a high price. This includes: heavy-duty tires; light, strong
ropes and industrial fabrics; ballistic impact resistance; and advanced composites.

> Read full chapter

Fiber Reinforcements and General The-

ory of Composites
Hung Man Yang, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, 2000
1.07.3.3 PPD-T Aramid Fiber
There are several types of Kevlar and Twaron filament yarn products as summarized
in Table 9. Kevlar aramid fiber products include Kevlar, Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49, Kevlar
68, Kevlar 119, Kevlar 129, and Kevlar KM2. These products differ in their linear
density, tensile properties, and end uses. By and large, Kevlar is a general tire yarn,
Kevlar 29 an all-purpose yarn, Kevlar 49 a high-modulus (HM) yarn, Kevlar 68 an
intermediate-modulus (IM) yarn, Kevlar 119 a high-elongation (HE) yarn, Kevlar
129 a high-strength (HS) yarn, and Kevlar KM2 a ballistics yarn. Similarly, Twaron
fiber also includes several standard-modulus (SM), IM, and HM types of continuous
filament yarns and chopped fibers of various lengths.

Table 10 presents the typical physical properties of various types of Kevlar and Twaron
fibers (E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-1; E.I. Du Pont de Nemours
& Co., Bulletin K-5; Nomex Aramid Products, 1989; Yang, 1992; Akzo Nobel, 1998).
Compared to other industrial filament yarns in Table 4, PPD-T aramid fiber generally
provides an outstanding combination of high temperature stability and excellent
tensile properties. Its fiber tenacity is greater than all conventional fibers, and is
relatively insensitive to temperature up to Tg. It has good chemical resistance and is
dimensionally stable.

Table 10. Typical physical properties of Kevlar and Twaron aramid filament yarns.

Product Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar

type 49 68 119 129 KM2
Denier per 1.5, 2.25 1.5, 2.25 1.5 2.25 1.5, 2.25 1.5 1.5
filament
Filament 0.012, 0.012, 0.012 0.012 0.012, 0.012 0.012
diameter 0.015 0.015 0.015
(mm)
Density (g 1.44 1.44 1.45 1.44 1.44 1.45 1.44
cm−3)
Tenacity (g  23 23 23 23.7 24 26.5 26
den−1)
(GPa) 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.4 3.3
Elonga- 3.6 3.6 2.8 3.3 4.4 3.3 4.2
tion (%)
Tenacity 550 550 950 780 430 780 500
modulus
(g den−1)
(GPa) 70 70 135 99 55 99 64
Moisture 5–7 5–7 3–4 4–6 5–7 4–6 5–7
regain(%)

Product Twaron Twaron Twaron Twaron Twaron

type SM 1000 SM 1000 HE 2100 HS 2000 SM 1041
 Twaron Twaron
HM HM
1055/6 2200
Denier 1512 365–7245 365–7245 1512–7560 990–2268 756–3024 1512
No. of fila- 1000 250–5000 250–5000 1000–5000 1000 1050–2000 1000
ments
Tenacity (g  21.3 23.8 21.8 23.8 26.5 21.3
den−1)
(GPa) 2.7 3.0 2.8 3.2 3.8 2.7
Elonga- 3.4 3.5 2.5 2.7 3.5 3.5
tion (%)
Tenacity 515 525 865a 780b 706b 470
modulus
(g den−1)
760b
(GPa) 66 71 125a 1002 90b 60
110b
Hot air 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
shrinkage
(%) 15 min
at 190°C
Moisture 7 5.5 3.5 5.5 5.5 7
regain (%)

Source: Akzo Nobel, 1998; E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-l; E.I. Du
Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K.-5; E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
1980; Yang, 1992.

a Minimum lot average measured at impregnated yarns.

b Minimum lot average measured at twisted yarns.

1.07.3.3.1 Moisture regain

PPD-T SM fiber types have a normal equilibrium moisture regain of 7.0% and HM
fiber types have a moisture regain of 4.0%. The mechanism of water absorption by
PPD-T fiber is quite complex, but appears to be associated with impurities and the
fine structure of these fiber types (Penn and Larson, 1979; Garza et al., 1981).

1.07.3.3.2 Tensile properties

Figure 9 compares the typical stress–strain curves of Kevlar aramid yarn and other
industrial filament yarns. PPD-T SM yarn has a break tenacity of about 22 g den−1,
which is more than five times that of steel wire and twice that of nylon, polyester, or
glass fibers. PPD-T yarn also has an unusually high initial modulus of 475 g den−1,
which is about twice that of steel wire or fiberglass, four times that of high-tenacity
polyester, and nine times that of high-tenacity nylon. PPD-T HM yarn has an even
higher modulus of 976 g den−1. The elongation at break is relatively low, about 4%
for SM yarn and 2.5% for HM yarn. In a loop tensile test where one yarn end is
looped around another yarn, PPD-T retains 10.5 g den−1, approximately 50% of its
tensile strength.

Fig. 9. Stress-strain curves of Kevlar aramid and other industrial yarns () (E.I. Du Pont
de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-l; E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin
K-5).

The tensile properties of industrial filament yarns may be compared by their specific
tensile strengths and moduli. Specific properties are obtained by dividing the tensile
strength and modulus by density. Figure 10 shows that Kevlar 29 and 49 have higher
specific tensile strength than other industrial fibers, and specific moduli between
glass and high-modulus boron and graphite fibers. These relative values provide
the key design parameter for applications where the ratio of strength or modulus to
weight is important.
Fig. 10. Specific tensile properties of various reinforcing fibers (E.I. Du Pont de
Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-5; Yang, 1992).

Figures 11 and 12 show that, except for steel wire, the tenacity and initial modulus
of Kevlar, nylon, and polyester fibers decrease at increasing temperature. However,
Kevlar fiber remains relatively strong with its tenacity and modulus at 300°C still
above those of conventional fibers at the ambient temperature. The strength loss of
Kevlar fiber after 48 h in dry air at 180°C is only 16%. It loses half of its strength at
about 400°C, and reaches zero strength at 455°C. At a cryogenic temperature as low
as –196°C, Kevlar 49 shows essentially no embrittlement or degradation.

Fig. 11. Effect of temperature on tensile strength of Kevlar aramid and other filament
yarns in air () (E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-5).
Fig. 12. Effect of temperature on initial modulus of Kevlar aramid and other filament
yarns in air () (E.L Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Bulletin K-5).

1.07.3.3.3 Thermal stability

PPD-T fiber exhibits good thermal stability when it is exposed to elevated temper-
atures for long periods of time. It exhibits the highest oxidative stability in terms
of strength retention at 180°C in air when compared with Dacron polyester and
nylon fibers in Figure 13 (Wilfong and Zimmerman, 1973). Unprotected nylon
showed the poorest oxidative stability, possibly because of free radical attack at high
temperatures.

Fig. 13. Oxidative stability of various industrial yarns (Garza et al., 1981).

1.07.3.3.4 Creep
Fiber Creep under tension is undesirable for some high-performance applications
such as composites and advanced materials. Kevlar 49 exhibits a small short-term
creep under tension at ambient temperatures (Bunsell, 1975). Cook (1982) reported
that the creep is about 6–8% for the stress range 0.14–1.0 GPa in the time interval
0.1–300 s. Figures 14 and 15 show the creep curves of Kevlar 49 in air and water,
respectively, at various stresses and temperatures. In all cases, however, the total
creep in 10000 h is less than 0.5%. Kevlar 29 fiber also exhibits creep under tension.
Its creep is nevertheless less critical than that of Kevlar 49 fiber.

Fig. 14. Typical creep curves of Kevlar 49 fiber in air (after Cook, 1982).
Fig. 15. Typical creep curves of Kevlar 49 fiber in water at 20°C (after Cook, 1982).

1.07.3.3.5 Compressive and lateral properties

PPD-T fiber has relatively low compressional and lateral properties. When a Kevlar
fiber is subjected to axial compression or severe bending, it will undergo plastic
deformation in the form of kink bands at 55–60° to the fiber axis. Greenwood and
Rose (1974) reported that Kevlar fiber yielded at bending strains of about 0.7%.
Deteresa et al. (1982, 1984) measured the retained tensile strength of a matrix
containing Kevlar fibers after subjecting it to compression. They found that, after
applying as much as 3% axial compressional, Kevlar fibers lost only 10% tensile
strength. The compressed fiber exhibited a substantially reduced intitial modulus
because of its morphological deformation. These observations are consistent with
the compression and shear properties of Kevlar-reinforced composites.

The torsional behavior of conventional fibers has been studied to measure their
transverse shear properties. Deteresa et al. (1982) observed that Kevlar 49 fiber lost
about 10% tensile strength after the application of >10% torsional shear strain. This
strength loss coincided with the loss of recoverable shear strain due to longitudinal
fiber splitting. An apparent shear strength of 180 MPa was calculated from the
torsional shear modulus and torsional strain at the point of fiber splitting. Table
11 compares the calculated shear properties with the tensile and compressive prop-
erties of Kevlar 49 fiber from this study. It can be seen that the shear properties
are considerably poorer than the tensile and compressive properties. Ratios of
tensile:compressive strength, tensile:shear strength, and tensile:shear moduli are
5:1, 17:1, and 70:1, respectively.

Table 11. Tensile, compressive, and shear properties of Kevlar 49 aramid fiber.

Tensile Compressive Shear Tensile\com- Tensile\shear

pressive
Strength (GPa) 3.4 0.7 0.18 5 17
Strain to break 2.5 0.5 10 5 0.25
(%)
Modulus (GPa) 130 130 1.8 1 70

Source: Deteresa et al., 1982.

1.07.3.3.6 Fatigue behavior

Cyclic loading and cyclic extension–compression of fibers, which are often required
in industrial applications, generally cause fiber fatigue and strength loss over a long
period of time. The fatigue behavior of PPD-T fiber has therefore been a concern in
light of its compressional behavior. Bunsell (1974) reported earlier that, under cyclic
loading, Kevlar 49 fiber fibrillated but would not fail unless the maximum load was
greater than 80% of its tensile strength. It was also found to stabilize quickly under
creep conditions. Lafitte and Bunsell (1982) later investigated the fatigue behavior
of Kevlar 29 under cyclic loading. They found that both the maximum applied load
and the load amplitude adversely affect the lifetime of a cycled fiber. The cyclic
loading of Kevlar 29 fiber produced longer and shorter lifetimes than that of steady
loads with zero load amplitude. The longer lifetimes indicate fiber failure due to a
creep mechanism, whereas the shorter lifetimes suggest failure acceleration due to
a fatigue mechanism. However, no difference in the fracture morphology was seen
in fiber breaks from simple tensile, fatigue, and creep conditions.

Dobb et al. (1981) compared the fatigue behavior of Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49 fibers
in cyclic bending over a free-running spindle. Both fibers exhibited rapid strength
loss in the first few cycles, but more gradual decline afterwards. Kevlar 49 fiber gave
considerably greater strength loss than Kevlar 29 fiber.

1.07.3.3.7 Chemical resistance

Most organic solvents have little effect and most aqueous salt solutions have no
effect at all on the breaking strength of PPD-T fiber. However, strong acids and
bases do attack PPD-T at elevated temperatures or high concentrations. PPD-T is
susceptible to hydrolysis under certain conditions. Morgan et al. (1984) proposed
that PPD-T may undergo chain scission during hydrolysis according to the following
mechanism:
Hydrolytic polymer degradation leads directly to the strength loss of PPD-T fiber.
Morgan et al. (1984) estimated the rate of hydrolytically induced strength loss of
Kevlar 49 fiber from their experimental data and the extrapolated reaction rate. They
concluded that the strength loss of Kevlar fiber in typical environmental conditions is
not a serious problem. The catalytic activities of salts in Kevlar fiber are also believed
to be limited.

1.07.3.3.8 Light stability

The effect of ultraviolet light on the break strength of PPD-T depends on the
thickness of an exposed item, since PPD-T is se 1 f-screening. Very thin Kevlar 49
fabric, if exposed directly to Florida sunlight for an extended period, will lose about
half its tensile strength. In thicker items, such as a 0.5 in. diameter rope, the majority
of yarns are protected by the outer layer and their strength loss is minimized.

> Read full chapter

Polymer Characterization
Masaki Tsuji, in Comprehensive Polymer Science and Supplements, 1989

34.5.3.1 Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA)298

After annealing PPTA (Kevlar) at 400 °C, fibrillar fragments were obtained at room
temperature by tearing. Figure 40(b) is a dark field image of PPTA taken with a 006
reflection. It shows a texture of alternating bright and dark bands with a period
of about 500 nm. A similar texture is reported in longitudinal thin sections314
and in fibrillar fragments.13 Careful inspection of the figure shows that there exist
microfibrils running in the direction of the fiber axis and through these bands.
Although Takahashi et al.315 have observed a line of bright spots in a bright band
of the 006 dark field image, this is not recognizable in Figure 40(b)
Figure 40. A PPTA fiber annealed at 400 °C: (a) the ED pattern; (b) the 006 dark field
image; and (c) the 110 and 200 dark field image of the same specimen portion as (b)

Figure 40(c) is a dark field image taken with 110 and 200 reflections of the same
specimen portion that was used in Figure 40(b). This figure reveals that small crys-
tallites (bright spots in the figure) are randomly dispersed throughout the fibrillar
ribbon. Moreover, bright spots seem to be placed in a row in a certain region of the
ribbon. A high resolution lattice image of the PPTA fiber is shown in Figure 41. Clear
110 lattice fringes can be seen. The area where lattice fringes appeared is of the order
of 10 nm × 10 nm through to 20 nm × 20 nm, and is almost of the same order as the
area of a bright spot in Figure 40(c). In the case of poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole)
(PBT) fiber, such an area is slightly larger than that of PPTA and 20 nm wide by
40 nm long in the fiber axis.316 This suggests the reason why a PBT fiber has a greater
modulus than a PPTA fiber. The direction of the 110 fringes in Figure 41, that is the
c-axis of each crystallite, fluctuates slightly relative to the fiber axis in the plane of the
figure. Even curved fringes can sometimes be seen.13, 298 Examples of curved fringes
are easily recognized by inspection of the region indicated by the arrow in Figure 41
Figure 41. A high resolution image of a PPTA fiber. Inset is the optical diffractogram
(OD) of the image

Since PPTA is made of rigid macromolecules, it is not supposed to have the

two-phase structure prevailing in flexible macromolecules such as PE, but has a
microfibrillar texture which is similar to the model of bundling of parallel microfibrils
proposed by Peterlin.317 Recently a SAXS with long wavelength X-rays which showed
equatorial discrete maxima was reported.318 The curved 110 fringes in the lattice
images and the results of dark field imaging with a 006 reflection or 110 and 200
reflections suggested that the microfibrils are distorted by bending and/or twisting.
The 006 dark field image of PPTA (Figure 40b) reveals that individual microfibrils
in a fibrillar ribbon have the texture of periodic bending, and as a consequence the
ribbon possesses a pleated sheet texture.314 The 110 and 200 dark field imaging,
however, reveals the existence of twisting of microfibrils in the same ribbon (Figure
40c). Therefore, it should be concluded that a microfibril in a PPTA fiber is bent
along its fiber axis with a rather large periodicity (about 500 nm), and it is also
twisted randomly around the axis. The Ag2S insertion technique is also useful for
morphological observations of the PPTA fiber.269
In the case of PBT, dark field images and lattice images showed that the crystallite
size increases from several nm in width (equatorial direction) to 10–20 nm and in
length (meridional direction) to 40 nm by annealing.316 In lattice images, lattice
fringes of 0.59 nm corresponding to the equatorial reflection were straight, but ones
of 1.24 nm corresponding to the meridional reflection were wavy. It was deduced
that this phenomenon is due to the paracrystalline nature of PBT.319 In the diffraction
pattern of PBT, many meridional and a few equatorial reflection are recognized,
but the hkl ones are faint.320, 321 Thus crystal structure analysis of this polymer is
difficult. Recently determination of the idealized crystal structure of PBT has been
attempted based on its high resolution images.322 Morphologies of polymers with
rigid molecular chains including PPTA were reviewed by Takahashi.321

> Read full chapter

Tensile properties of natural and syn-

thetic fiber-reinforced polymer com-
posites
Rozyanty Rahman, Syed Zhafer Firdaus Syed Putra, in Mechanical and Physical
Testing of Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites,
2019

5.3.2.3 Aramid
Aramid fiber, also known as Kevlar, is a synthetic fiber with high thermal properties.
They are high-strength materials because of the orientation of their molecules along
the axis. Their properties include good resistance to abrasion, good resistance to
organic solvents, nonconductivity, no melting point, a high degradation tempera-
ture (starting from 500°C), low flammability, and good fabric integrity at elevated
temperatures. Such properties made aramid fiber usable in the aerospace industry
for manufacturing the body parts, for the military for making ballistic accessories
and body armor, for making boat hulls and automobile parts, and for making of
heat-resistant helmets and clothing.

The mechanical properties of short Kevlar fiber (KF)-reinforced PP and an MA grafted

PP (MA-g-PP) composite by varying the modification process of KF were studied
by Fu et al. [24]. The purpose of the modification was to improve the interfacial
interaction and mechanical properties of the produced composites. Three different
modification were adopted for the KF: (1) direct hydrolysis treatment of KFs with
10 wt% sodium hydroxide aqueous solution at room temperature; (2) planetary ball
milling, in which predried KFs were soaked in phosphoric acid aqueous (0, 10, 20,
and 30 wt%) at room temperature and then ball milled for different times at different
roller speeds; and (3) hydrolysis treatment of the ball milled KFs. The nomenclature
for the KFs treated with different methods is listed in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7. Nomenclature used for Kevlar fiber without and with various surface
treatments [24]

Code Surface treatment methods

K Untreated KF
K–H Hydrolyzed KF
K-BM Ball milled KF
K-BM-H Ball milled and hydrolyzed KF
K-PBM Ball milled in phosphoric acid KF
K-PBM-H Ball milled in phosphoric acid and hydrolyzed KF

The stress–strain curves of PP, PP/MA-g-PP blends, and their composites containing
different types of KFs are shown in Fig. 5.14. The effects of fiber KFs obtained by
different ball milling treatments without hydrolyzation are verified in Fig. 5.14a,
c, and e. As shown in Fig. 5.14a, the samples of PP and PP/MA-g-PP had a rela-
tively low tensile strength and high elongation at break. The yield strength of the
composites increased gradually with an increase in the content of KFs but then
decreased. The composite with 7 wt% KF content possessed the highest values of
tensile strength with low elongation at break. Fig. 5.14c shows the stress–strain
behavior of PP/MA-g-PP–ball-milled Kevlar composites. The addition of ball milled
KF significantly decreased the elongation at break. The mechanical properties of
composites reinforced by KFs milled in phosphoric acid (PP/MA-g-PP/ball-milled
Kevlar) are shown in Fig. 5.14e. The yield strength of the composites increased more
significantly with the KF content, which was because the surface of ball-milled
Kevlar was rougher and the grooves on the surface further increased the contact
area with the PP matrix.
Figure 5.14. Stress–strain curves of polypropylene (PP), PP–maleic anhydride grafted
PP (MA-g-PP) (97/3) blends, and PP–MA-g-PP composites containing different types
of Kevlar (K) fiber: (a) K, (b) hydrolyzed K (K–H), (c) ball-milled K (K-BM), (d) ball
milled and hydrolyzed K (K-BM-H), (e) ball milled in phosphoric acid K (K-PBM),
and (f ) ball milled in phosphoric acid and hydrolyzed K (K-PBM-H) [24].

Fig. 5.14b, d, and f shows the stress–strain behavior of PP–MA-g-PP–hydrolyzed KFs.

By contrast, it is obvious that the mechanical performance of the composites needed
be improved. The different enhancement effects might be attributed to interfacial
adhesion between the KFs and the PP matrix. By hydrolyzation, the hydroxyl and
amino groups could be introduced to the surface of KFs. These active functional
groups could react with MA on the MA-g-PP. The formation of these firm chemical
bonds contributed much to the interfacial interaction between the KFs and the
PP matrix, which led to an outstanding enhancement in the yield strength of the
composites.

> Read full chapter

Thermoplastic Composites
Michel Biron, in Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites (Second Edition),
2013

6.5.1.3 AFs for Polymer Reinforcement

The most widespread and widely known are Kevlar and Twaron. AFs are used
especially in high- and medium-performance applications; they are also used with
other fibers to create a hybrid reinforcement.

Table 6.8 shows examples of properties of Kevlar 29 and 49.

Table 6.8. AFs: Examples of Properties

Mechanical properties
 Density (g/cm3) 1.44 1.44
 Moisture level (%) 4.5–7 3.5
 Tensile strength (MPa) 2900 3000
 Elasticity modulus (GPa) 70 112
 Elongation at break (%) 3.6 2.4
 Poisson's ratio 0.36
Thermal properties
 Continuous use temperature 150–177 150–177
unstressed (°C)
 Coefficient of thermal expan- –0.4 –0.5
sion (10–5/K)
 Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 0.04 0.04
 Specific heat (cal/g.°C) 0.34 0.34
Electrical properties
 Resistivity (ohm.cm) 1013–1015 1013–1015

AFs have high specific mechanical properties and are used for their attractive char-
acteristics such as:

• high tensile strength, particularly specific strength (engineering strength di-

vided by density)
• high modulus

• high creep resistance

• high fatigue resistance

• lower cost than CF

• lower density than glass and CFs

• low coefficient of friction

• low coefficient of thermal expansion.

On the other hand, their drawbacks are:

• higher cost than GF

• moisture uptake

• sensitivity to UV and weathering

• more limited thermal properties than glass and CFs

• high electrical resistance and a lack of surface conductivity for electrostatic

discharge
• more limited compression and flexural strengths

• difficult machining.

AFs in various forms are used for polymer reinforcement:

• short fibers dispersed in the matrix

• yarns, rovings, stratipregs or prepregs, mats, and 2D and 3D reinforcing

structures.

Short AFs lead to intermediate reinforcement between those obtained with short GF
and CF.

As for the other fibers, reinforcement with continuous AFs leads to the highest
performances.

Table 6.9 shows the enhancement ratios for AFs versus GFs used in the same com-
posite type. The enhancement ratios are the ratios of a property for an AF-reinforced
composite versus the same property for the GFRP.

Table 6.9. Examples of Enhancement Ratios Obtained with Incorporation of Short

AFs Instead of Short GFs in a Thermoplastic Composite

Property AF composite/property GF composite

Modulus 1.2
Tensile strength 1.1
Specific modulus 1.3
Specific tensile strength 1.2

Trade name examples: Conex, Kevlar, Paramid, Technora, and Twaron.

Examples of producers:
 Aramid http://www.aramid.com/
DuPont http://www2.dupont.com/Kevlar/
Teijin http://www.teijinaramid.com/

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