mina 5. Procedures for land rescuree imentory
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Title: Guidelines: land evaluation for imigated agriculture...
5. Procedures for land resource inventory
5.1 General characterization of the project area
5.2 Topographic data
5.3 Soil survey data
5.4 Climatic and meteorological data
5.5 Water resources data
5.6 Drainage data
7 Present lan station and wildlife
5.8 Environmental health
5.9 Social and economic data
‘An evaluation of the suitability of land for alternative kinds of use requires a survey
to define and map the land units (Step 6 in the Guide to Procedures) together with
the collection of descriptive data of land characteristics and resources. This
chapter outlines procedures for making a land resource inventory and contains,
checklists of thematic data that might be required in land evaluation. Details on
survey methods are not given but are covered in publications cited in each section.
Data collection is a time-consuming and costly activity, therefore, prior to field
activities, members of a project team representing the different disciplines should
meet to decide the responsibilities and cooperation needed in collecting and
interpreting different kinds of data.
The approach to data collection can be rationalized by posing a few simple
questions i.e. What or which data are required? Why are they needed? Where or
how can they be collected? Is the cost of their collection worthwhile?
‘Two major categories of data and information can be defined as follows:
i. data that are available from existing, obtainable records;
il, data that must be collected during the course of the evaluation
through surveys or investigations (including laboratory analysis of
water and soil samples).
Data obtainable from existing sources can save valuable time in unnecessary
survey or field studies and some of the organizations that can be approached are:
- government departments responsible for: agriculture, lands,
irrigation, meteorology, water resources, survey, geological and hydro-
geological survey, land titling, land reform, forestry, livestock,
conservation, wildlife, botany or botanic gardens; government and
quasi-government trading corporations, marketing boards, etc.;
- international banks;
a fanorgidocrepSt48on648o07 Him v9m3 6. Procedures for land resource imertry
- technical assistance agencies (multilateral and bilateral, e.g. FAO,
ILRI, LRDC, ORSTOM, USBR etc.);
- consultants;
- universities, including departments of agriculture, engineering,
geography, botany, education, rural development;
- research stations, international and national.
Publications can also be obtained through the retrieval services of major national
and international libraries.
The principal categories of data required are dealt with in the following sections
under eight headings: general characterization of the project area, topography,
soils, water resources, drainage, vegetation and fauna, social and economic data
5.1 General characteriza
in of the project area
hh the initial stages of the evaluation some general data and assumptions about the
project area itself should be assembled. The following are usually relevant:
- location and accessibility;
- potential water supplies within or outside the project area;
- main climatic characteristics;
- relief (landforms) and major soil features;
- population and population growth rate;
- standard of living and social values;
- basis of present economy;
- economic infrastructure (e.g. roads, services, markets);
- government subsidies;
- size of farms or other land holdings;
- land tenure systems;
- traditional water rights;
- political system and policies.
A review of these preliminary data will pinpoint the requirements for more detailed
inventory and help to identity priorities.
‘Among the early steps to be taken is to reach agreement amongst representatives
of various disciplines on the use of satellite imagery, aerial photographs, base
maps and scales (see Table 2). Basic land survey procedures are rarely
undertaken without the assistance of aerial photography and remote sensing
imagery. It can be assumed that topographic and soil surveys will involve air photo
interpretation and ground control, either on traverses or by free ground survey
methods. The reader is referred to FAO Soils Bulletin No. 42 (1979b).
The features which can usually be readily identified by stereoscopic examination of
paired air photographs include:
i. landforms (flood plains, terraces, residual uplands, dunes, ete.);
ii. surface drainage patterns and systems;
ii, erosional forms and eroded areas;
iv. land use patterns and land use boundaries, sometimes including
crop boundaries, and other evidence of human activity Such as roads,
railways, habitations, quarries, etc;
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6. Procedures for land resource imertry
v. major physiognomic types of natural vegetation;
vi. wet areas, including lakes, lagoons and swamps (the latter are not
always identifiable);
vii. surface evidence of salt-affected soils;
vii, rock outcrops;
ix. tones (colour changes in colour photography) and patterns which
may reflect soil differences and the probable position of soil
boundaries
From this evidence, subject of course to ground checking, a broad understanding
of the geomorphology, physiography, surface hydrology and, to some extent,
geology of the survey area can be obtained, which is invaluable in developing a
sound working legend for land mapping
In high and very high intensity survey work complete air photo coverage at two
scales is very helpful. The first set, at a scale of about 1:40 000 is used for stereo
interpretation and for obtaining a general appreciation of the area (a photo mosaic
at this, or smaller scales can also be very helpful for the latter purpose). A second
set at, or slightly larger than the probable final scale of soil mapping (e.g. at about
4:5 000) is used for some detailed stereo- interpretation but mainly as maps on
which soil observations and boundaries can be precisely located in the field. Single
photographs can be used for the latter purpose but even in the field more reliable
results are achieved by the study of photo-pairs, using a pocket stereoscope.
Air photo interpretation at high intensity levels needs to be checked by adequate
ground control at successive levels of detail. This is especially essential where the
area is under forest and the maps are to be used for irrigation project design. The
early surveys should give guidance on the probable distribution of major soil units,
on the selection of areas best surveyed by free survey and/or the best direction and
position of traverses, and on areas where more detailed stereo-interpretation of
larger scale photographs is likely to be valuable. The emphasis is on ground
methods for the remainder of the survey although major assistance in positioning
sample points and in checking the likely positioning of boundaries can be obtained
by the study of large-scale air photographs in the field
5.2 Topographic data
Topography is often a major factor in irrigation evaluation as it influences the choice
of irrigation method, drainage, erosion, irrigation efficiency, costs of land
development, size and shape of fields, labour requirements, range of possible
crops, etc. Stable base maps are needed and can usually be obtained from earlier
surveys. The ground truth and scale of base maps is particularly important and
should be checked especially if the area is under forest cover or dense natural
vegetation. Surface irrigation designs require contour intervals to determine slope
that should normally be one metre or less, and an appropriate map scale is
required. Very detailed topographic data are required for many irrigation structures,
especially along routes of probable canals and drains.
Four aspects of topography which have a special bearing on irrigation suitability
are: slope, microrelief, macrorelief and position
i. Slope - Slope may affect the following factors: intended methods of
irrigation, erodibility and erosivity, cropping pattern, mechanization
problems, exposure to wind, etc. Slope limitations vary greatly from
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country to country. Critical limits suitable for gravity irrigation and
different methods of irrigation are given as guidelines in FAO Soils
Bulletin No. 42 (p. 39-43). These apply to situations in irrigated areas
similar to those in the USA. In Asia and wet regions, wetland rice is
typically grown on steeper sloping land where smaller terraced field
sizes are appropriate. The reader is referred to FAO Conservation
Guide No. 1 for terrace specifications (Sheng, p. 147, 1977). Contour
bench terraces are usually satisfactory for irrigation on slopes up to
3% but on this and steeper land the stability of the terraces and the
amount of land lost to bunds should be assessed.
ii, Microrelief - This term applies to minor surface undulations and
irregularities of the land surface, with differences in height between
crest and trough ranging from 4-5 cm in flat lake plain areas to 4-5 m
in areas of wind-blown sand. Estimates of grading and levelling
requirements will depend on whether surface, overhead or drip
irrigation techniques are used. This is discussed in Part Two C.22.
The information required for an assessment of land grading costs
includes: cut and fil, the total volume of earth moved, the depth of cut,
distance of transport, soil conditions and desired precision of the final
grading and type of equipment available. These factors should be
related to whether a local contractor with simple equipment is to be
used, or whether an international tender will invite contractors with
modem sophisticated equipment to undertake the task
Topsoil depth and subsoil quality may limit the amount of grading that
is advisable, or greatly increase the cost if it is necessary to conserve
and later respread the topsoil. Some subsoils are unproductive at first,
but gradually rehabilitate with irrigation and fertilizer or organic matter
applications. In contrast, coarse sands, gravels or layers rich in lime or
gypsum (Mousli 1979; Yahia 1982) or exchangeable aluminium may
never respond to irrigation after severe truncation.
ii, Macrorelief - Permanent topographic features where slopes change
frequently in gradient and direction may influence the choice of
itrigation method, field sizes and shape, and land development costs.
Field sizes and shape need to be evaluated, especially for gravity and
surface irrigation and for mechanized farming
iv. Position in relation to command area and accessibility - The
elevation and distance of the water source often affects the ‘irrigable’
land area in gravity schemes. The area commanded may be
increased by pumping, or by constructing tunnels, inverted siphons
and other structures through natural or man-made barriers, or by
reservoir construction, Topographic data are often used in evaluating
the infrastructural alternatives and their land development costs.
Topographic data are also required in the case of flood hazard and the
design of flood protection measures (see Section A.13, Part Two) and
for the design of surface or subsurface drainage (see Section 5.6).
5.3 Soil survey data
Collection of soil survey data is dealt with in detail in FAO Soils Bulletin No. 42
Table 14 lists soil characteristics which are often required in the evaluation. Some
characteristics may be ‘class-determining’ and should therefore be given special
‘emphasis; others will be relatively unimportant. Land evaluation for irrigated crops
relies on predictions of future soil conditions, therefore the changeable soil
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characteristics must be evaluated as well as permanent unchangeable
characteristics.
‘Special importance should be given to predicting the maintenance of water in
wetland rice fields (see Part Two, A.6.6). Percolation and net irrigation water
requirements commonly vary by more than three-fold depending on whether the
soil can be effectively puddled. This is therefore an important class-determining
factor in many rice areas (see Part Two, A6).
Ih drier areas it is important to predict changes in salinity (Part Two, A8 and A9),
sodicity (A.10) and the watertable (0.28) with sustained irrigation, bearing in mind
the other factors involved, e.g. water quality, drainage, rainfall, method of irrigation,
crop, farm inputs, ete.
The reader is referred to the references which deal with the various field and
laboratory procedures and methods of analysis for determining the characteristics
listed in Table 14.1/ Laboratory support for chemical and physical determinations of
soils and water should be provided at an early stage. During the initial stages of the
evaluation unnecessary analyses can be screened out in preliminary
determinations and appropriate intensities of sampling can be decided (Peters
1979). There may be a need for detailed studies on the spatial variability in salinity
and other important characteristics
4/ In particular: Arens and Sivarajasingham 1979; FAO/IBRD 1970;
FAO 1979a; Hesse 1971; Loveday 1974; Maas and Hoffmann 1977;
Peters 1979; Ponnamperuma 1976; and USDA 1954.
5.4 Climatic and meteorological data
Table 15 lists some of the climatic data commonly required in land evaluation for
irrigated agriculture and their uses. Mean monthly meteorological data are generally
published for representative recording stations, but itis usually necessary to obtain
the original daily data (e.g. of rainfall) over as long a period as possible at the
locations of interest. For example, if the benefits of irrigation are to be evaluated, it
may be necessary to analyse rainfall data for an existing rainfed situation in order to
estimate the present variability in crop production and the influence of dry years
and seasonal droughts (see Part Two, A.1). Dates corresponding to the ‘start of
the rains’ and the ‘end of the rains’ for individual years of the rainfall record, and the
occurrence of dry periods during growing periods are often required. Rainfall and
other meteorological data are used by hydrologists, agronomists, irrigation and
drainage engineers. A multiplication of effort can be avoided by a common
approach.
5.5 Water resources data
Investigations of water resources should be considered an integral part of the land
resources evaluation process. The activities of those involved (hydrologists,
hydrogeologists, engineers, agriculturists and economists) should be appropriately
scheduled. Costly water resources surveys in areas where the land later proves
unsuitable for irrigation are wasteful; vice versa, detailed land and soil surveys for
irrigated agriculture can be wasteful in areas where water supplies later prove
inadequate
Table 14 INVENTORY OF SOILS DATA
DATA ITEM PURPOSES FOR WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED
(A. [PHYSICAL
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11. |[Effective soit
\depth
6. Procedures for land resource imertry
Root room, water and nutrient retention; land levelling; drainage;
laligning and design of irrigation and drainage channels.
(2. [Presence of
lorganic or histic
(Special problems or opportuni
lhorizons
3 For establishing homogeneity of land units and for deriving many
Icharacteristics.
(texture)
‘4. Soil structure |[Root environment, nutrient, water and soil management. Drainage
land porosity —_|and permeability especially of sodic soils. Leaching of excess
IBulk density. _|salts. Tilth and workability for seedbed and land preparation. Ability
IPore space to puddle riceland. Erodibilty
holume and
distribution.
\Airfilled pore
Ispace at field
lcapacity.
‘Structure
stability.
5. Infiltration rate
Rainfall and irrigation intake or run-off. Selection of irrigation
imethod. Furrow lengths or basin size. Sprinkler nozzle selection.
Erodibilty
(6. [Hydraulic [Soil drainage, removal of excess water and salts.
Iconductivity or
lpermeability
[7. [Available water [Soil water balance, residual water between and following irrigations.
lcapacity (field |Choice of irigation method and schedules.
\capacity and
lpermanent
\wilting point)
(a. [Plastic and Indicative of mineralogy and physical behaviour.
liquid limits
(9. |Soil strength, — |[Mechanical strength for construction works; swelling and shrinking;
linear root penetration
lextensibility
B._ [CHEMICAL
4, [Soil reaction
(To identity very alkaline, sodic and acid sulphate soils; nutrient
lextract (ECe)
(pH) (deficiencies and toxicities.
f2. [Carbon and [Organic matter content and management.
initrogen
3. [Gypsum and —_[Hardpans, gypsiferous layers liable to subside, gypsum
lcalcium requirements for sodic soils.
|carbonate
(4. Electrical [Salinity hazard
\conductivity of
\saturation
5. [Soluble salts
(Na, K, Ca, Mg,
ICI, S04, COs
land HCO3)
Interpretation of salinity hazard.
(6. ||Cation
lexchange
Icapacity (CEC),
total
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Nutrient retention and chemical fertility status.
aram3
6. Procedures for land resource imertry
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lexchangeable
lbases (TEB) and
lbase saturation
%
(7, Exchangeable _|[Sodicity or alkalinity problems.
‘sodium
lpercentage
(ESP) or
ladjusted sodium
ladsorbtion ratio
lof saturation
lextract (adj.
'SAR)
‘8, [Exchangeable [Base saturation, ESP, potassium status.
Ications (Na, K,
(Ca, Mg)
(9. [available [See Table 35, Part Two.
Iphosphorus
“10. [Total contents of Macro and micronutrient content. Toxic elements.
IP, K, Mg, Na,
‘Cu, Mn, Zn, B,
Fe, Al, As, Ni, Cr
(C__|MINERALOGICAL
1, [Sand and silt indicates parent material and degree of weathering
fraction
[2. [Clay fraction [1:1 clay minerals less sticky, swell and shrink less and have a
land iron and —_|smaller surface area (and less CEC) than 1:2 clay minerals. 1:1
laluminium \clay minerals with Fe and Al oxides predominating may prove
loxides lexcessively well-drained for wetland rice, and often physically
favourable but chemically less fertile for non-rice crops.
3. [Calcium and —_[Hardpans restricting rooting depths. Large amounts decrease
magnesium —_ nutrient retention and fertility; but soils with 60% CaCO3 can be
lcarbonates —_| successfully irrigated but with a restricted choice of crops.
Deposition under saline conditions of fine grained material blocks
pores and reduces permeability. Surface crusting interferes with
‘seedling emergence and infitration. Lime-induced nutrient
\deficiencies. Magnesium carbonate soils often very fertile, High
lexchangeable Mg leads to sodicJike impermeable profile,
‘4. [Gypsum (Gypsiferous hardpans restrict rooting and make installation of
(drains and channels diffcult. Dissolution may lead to land
|subsidence after irrigation. Gypsum crystals in soil may offset
lsodicity tendency. Iftoo high, causes nutrient problems due to
unfavourable K/Ca, Mg/Ca ratios and extra costs in fertilizers and
'soll management.
Note: The characteristics in Table 14 should be evaluated in the
context of morphological and geographical considerations
Table 15 INVENTORY OF CLIMATIC DATA
ia DATA ITEM PURPOSES FOR WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED
“1 |[Climatic class Reconnaissance and choice of LUT altematives. See Part
[Two, Table 30.
'2,|[Radiation (See Part Two, A.2. Evaporation estimates. Definition of
|- extraterrestrial radiation ||growing period. Crop growth in relation to radiation or light.
- solar radiation (Rs) The ratio n/N is used to estimate solar radiation if data for
m9m3
| PAR
| net shortwave solar
radiation
- net longwave radiation
| sunshine hours actual
lsunshine hours (n)
ldaylength or maximum (N)
lsunshine hours
6. Procedures for land resource imertry
Rs is not available.
(Crop photoperiodicity.
[Temperature (air &
lground) Monthly means of
| daily maximum
| daily minimum
|- daily mean
[Actual monthly:
| minimum and maximum
Heat units (degree days)
IWet and dry bulb
ltemperatures a.m. and
pum,
[See Part Two, A.3.
Reference crop ET estimates. Limiting conditions for cold
land frost susceptible crops; heat scorch. Definition of
(growing periods. Relative humidity and vapour pressure
lestimates (see below).
‘4.|[Relative humidit
IMonthly means of.
| daily a.m. vapour
pressure
|- daily p.m. vapour
pressure
Estimates of evaporation. Disease prevalence. Ripening and
\maturation of crops. Drying and storage of crops.
|Evapotranspiration
Reference crop ET
| monthly, 10-day, weekly
lor daily values from
climatic data
[Pan evaporation
lActual crop
levapotranspiration (e.g.
Irom soil-water
Imeasurements,
(See Part Two, A6
(Component of water balance estimates for the catchment
land of irrigated land; estimates of irrigation water
requirements; estimates of reduced crop yields with a
(deficient water supply.
Daily precipitation for as
long a period as possible.
lAnnual mean and S.D.
[Monthly mean and S.D.,
|computations)
(6|[Precipitation and (Component of water balance estimates for the catchment
rainfall land of irrigated land; growing periods; crop yields
Estimates of erosion; crop damage; management problems;
Imechanization. Estimates of irigation water requirements.
etc
[Rainfall intensity and
lerosivity
Effective precipitation
[Snow, dew
7 Wind speed and Estimates of reference crop ETo,
ldirection Estimates of reference crop ET,, adjusted as described in
(Weekly means of dally IF40 Inigation and Drainage Paper 24.
lwind speed
[Daytime vs. nighttime
ratios
(a.|[Storm incidence
[Frequency and intensity
(Crop damage; erosion
The volume of water obtainable for irrigation will depend on the outcome of
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6. Procedures for land resource imertry
hydrological studies of surface water, and hydrogeological studies of groundwater
(subsurface water). These are the water supply aspects. The water demand
aspects include studies and field work to estimate irrigation water requirements
and crop water requirements. An important part of the evaluation is the matching of
water supplies and water demand (requirement) by mutual adjustments involving
cooperative work between water resources specialists, engineers and
agriculturists (see Part Two, A. 6)
i. Hydrological studies: Studies may be carried out at national level, at
river basin level, at the project development level, and at farm or field
level (Horning 1979). Surface water resources may be progressively
developed, first using diversion structures to regulate run-of-river
stream flow, secondly, with the addition of storage, and later, to full
control, including flood control. Existing data, and data collected during
the investigations from stream measuring devices (e.g. stage posts,
formula-calibrated weirs, current meters and velocity-area rated
stations) can be used to estimate run-off and catchment yields,
divertible volumes of water, amounts of water for storage, subsurface
flows of water, flood peaks and volumes, etc. The reader is referred to
standard texts, e.g. for hydrological models, their practical application
and limitations e.g. Chow (1964), Clarke (1973).
ii, Hydrogeological studies: Investigations of groundwater resources
are generally carried out at the level of the whole hydrogeological basin
or aquifer. The studies include observations of water levels and quality
in existing open wells and tubewells, and specially drilled observation
wells. Mathematical models are usually needed to evaluate the aquifer
(e.g. a numerical model which simulates the non-steady state, two-
dimensional, groundwater flows). The model can be calibrated using
all the available data pertaining to the aquifer in space and time. The
input data requirements can be expressed in the form of a flow chart
and a programme of work that would lead to a complete
hydrogeological assessment including all aspects of the water balance
in relation to the characteristics and geometry of the aquifer and the
time scale. The output data includes the initial water levels,
transmissivities (permeabilities), the specific or storage coefficient,
percentage recharge from rainfall, river bed infitration and the safe
yield for irrigation. An example, of such a flow chart is given in Figure 1
(Jacovides 1982). Further surveys and studies are required to
establish the precise location of production wells and their water yield
for irrigation, the type of well (shallow hand-dug, shallow tubewell,
hand-dug with tubewell, deep tubewell, spring or qanat), the depth of
the well, borehole lithology and hydrogeological logs. Investigation
wells are test pumped to give data including discharge, drawdown,
transmissivity, specific capacity (V/s/m), and specific drawdown
(mills). The potential water discharge is expressed in litres per second
(Us) which may vary over time according to season or year.
Standard texts that can be referred to are: Bouwer (1978); Todd (1959)
and various supplements to Unesco's groundwater studies.
ili. Irrigation water requirements: Meteorological data and field studies
are usually necessary to estimate crop water requirement, effective
precipitation, run-on, groundwater contribution, soil water storage, run-
off, seepage and percolation, conveyance losses, and leaching
requirements (see Part Two, A6 and FAO Irrigation and Drainage
Paper No. 24, 1977). Irrigation water supplies and their control often
determine water volumes used by farmers, therefore water
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6. Procedures for land resource imertry
management may be as important as physical factors in matching the
available supply to the requirements. Irrigation efficiencies in different
parts of the world are discussed in Bos and Nugteren (1974).
In rice cultivation, the duration in days of the different operations in land
preparation (soaking, seeding, ploughing, harrowing, puddling,
transplanting), as well as the related water use for land preparation
and transplanting, and the water balance components after
transplanting (effective precipitation, evapo-transpiration, seepage and
percolation), are the major data that must be specified (see Part Two,
AS).
For crops other than rice similar gains and losses of water need to be
quantified together with the need for pre-planting wetting and
allowances for the use of residual soil water as annual crops mature
implified flow chart of a groundwater model programme showing
inputs and outputs
Figure 1
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6. Procedures for land resource imertry
READ BASIC OATA
BS. WUT WL.
‘Top. ELEV, BEDR. ELE.
EAD MONTHLY DATA
IVERBED INFILTRATION,
PAINT MONTHLY AND
BASIC DATA
READ MONTHLY WL,
AAINFALL, ABSTRACTION
COMPUTE
‘TOTAL MONTHLY INFLOW
FOR EACH NODE
PRINT TOTAL
MONTHLY INFLOWS,
COMPUTE NEW WL AND
Jouy FLOWS. 70 SEA ANO LAKE
PRINT COMPUTED
WATER LEVELS)
PRINT YEARLY OUTFLOW
SUMMARIES “AND
EARLY GA.W BALANCE,
YES
PRINT
HYOROGRAPHS.
aigm3 6. Procedures for land resource imertry
iv. Water quality data: Water quality for agricultural use can be
evaluated using field and laboratory analyses of the properties listed in
Part Two, Tables 37 and 38. Analytical procedures for these
determinations are described in USDA Handbook 60 (1954), FAO Soils,
Bulletin No. 10 (1970), and Standard Methods of the American Water
Works Association (1971). The electrical conductivity of, and other
simple tests on, samples of irrigation water can be measured in the
field using portable conductivity bridges, pH meters and testing kits.
For example, having tools-of-the-trade for the testing of groundwater in
wells obviates the need for transporting water samples. Local
analyses of carbonate, bicarbonate and nitrate may be required where
storage of samples may lead to chemical changes and inaccurate
results
In arid and semi-arid areas it will be necessary to predict the salt
balance and the water balance for a project area to evaluate leaching
requirements, and the drainage needed to maintain the land in a
productive condition. In rehabilitation projects, water samples may be
analysed at different points of the network, The flow of water and salts
in an irrigated area are illustrated in Figure 18 (see also Part Two,
D.27). Special analyses will be required for recycled sewage where it
is intended for irrigation. The biological oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), boron, heavy metals and other
potentially toxic substances must be ascertained. Bacterial analysis,
may also be necessary. Routine analyses are normally part of the
procedures of the water treatment plant. Sewage or activated sludge
can be subjected to primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.
Analyses of chemical constituents, suspended solids and dissolved
organic substances are required to evaluate whether water from
secondary or tertiary treatment can be used for irrigation, and the
potential problems in handling such water.
Water for drip irrigation and for other techniques where there is a
potential clogging problem can be evaluated on the basis of
measurements of the suspended solids and chemical or biological
properties of the water (see Part Two, Table 38)
Guidance on the interpretation of water analyses is given in FAO
irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 29 (1976c; Revision 1 in press) and
other publications
5.6 Drainage data
Conditions and requirements for surface drainage, subsurface (pipe) drainage, or
both may need to be evaluated. in arid and semi-arid areas, where salinity and
sodicity are possible problems, it will be essential to carry out field investigations.
The soil scientist and drainage engineer should first agree on the types and scales
of maps and photographs to be used and on the information that will be placed by
each on these. Field hydraulic conductivity and other tests are required; the
number of tests for a drainage survey is related to the soil variabilty in the project
area (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 38, 1980a). This variability is intially
assessed from surveys in sample areas that cover 5-10 percent of the project area
from representative major soil units. Local experience and sound judgement will
often be needed to determine an average hydraulic conductivity value for the design
of drain spacings, sizes and depths. This particularly applies to the drainage of
heavy, poorly permeable soils under crops other than rice.
Drainage investigations in arid and semi-arid areas will involve the logging and
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sampling of 3-5 m borings to identify barriers with a relatively low hydraulic
conductivity compared to overlying soil or a high resistance to vertical flow (i.e, C
250 or over constitutes a real barrier, whilst no barrier exists where C = 50 or less:
Cis the hydraulic resistance and equals the thickness of the layer divided by its,
vertical hydraulic conductivity).
Much data useful to the drainage study may be obtained in soil survey (e.g. reliable
soil profile logs to 3-5 m; depth to watertable or visible indications of saturated
conditions; water quality, soil salinity, sodicity and acidity). Soil survey information
will make it possible to interpolate hydraulic conductivity measurements to
intermediate soils. Therefore, where possible, the soils and drainage investigations
should proceed concurrently. The soil scientist should bring areas of potentially
poor drainage to the attention of the drainage engineer. These may include visibly
wet areas, areas visibly saline or sodic, topographically low areas, areas with fine
textured layers within a 5 m depth; slowly permeable layers within a 5 m depth;
massive structure not usually associated with the identified texture; man-made
barriers which could impede surface drainage or groundwater movement;
potentially unstable materials, especially gypsiferous layers (the latter may lead to
subsidence and irrigation and drainage construction problems with a high water
table). ttis usually the responsibility of the drainage engineer to determine the
investigations required for estimating the cost of the surface and subsurface
drainage systems and related flood control facilities. The estimated costs can be
tabulated by areas and used in the evaluation of land suitability class and the
delineation of the irrigable land.
I the land cannot be physically drained because of low hydraulic conductivity, or
because of barriers too close to the ground surface, it should be excluded at the
‘provisionally-irrigable’ stage. In the ‘irrigable' land evaluation, physical drainage can
be envisaged to meet the water table requirements, but land may still be excluded
for economic reasons. Later, if the drainage areas are small in comparison to the
rest of the area and a properly designed and located drainage system for the
irrigable area cannot be installed without going through such lands, the classifier
has the option of retaining these lands as suitable in the ‘provisionally-irrigable’ and
‘irrigable' classifications. These considerations are important in determining the
extent of the drainage investigations.
Drainage requirements and costs for surface, subsurface, and related flood control
should be made available by the drainage engineer for all ‘provisionally-irrigable’
lands but no subsurface drainage or flood control requirements and costs need
normally be provided for lands' initially rated N1 or N2, for reasons other than
drainage.
The reader is referred to FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 38, (1980a) and
the USBR Drainage Manual (1978). Part Two of this bulletin, sections C,20 and
C.21, give further information on land evaluation for drainage and drainage system
design
5.7 Present land use, vegetation and wildlife
Many land evaluations will be carried out in areas which are partially covered with
natural vegetation and partially farmed. The geographical extent of vegetation and
the existing agriculture should be studied early in the evaluation mapping where
necessary. Present land use surveys are generally required to determine the
production which will be foregone when an irrigation project is implemented
Existing vegetation and present land use may be important because of:
i. costs of clearing different kinds of vegetation (see Part Two, C.19);
wan te0 rg HocrepiSSABREEABEOT him rangm3 6. Procedures for land resource imertry
il. potential value of the vegetation, e.g. for forest and grazing;
ii, presence of noxious weeds;
iv. need to preserve vegetation for environmental, aesthetic reasons;
v. value of present agricultural production;
vi. preferences for continuing present production on certain lands.
Needless removal of vegetation due to inadequate survey and beaconing often
occurs. Areas of natural vegetation should be preserved wherever possible.
Close liaison with departments responsible for environmental protection is
generally essential to ensure that the boundaries of national parks and wildlife
conservation zones are respected. The preservation of natural vegetation as,
windbreaks may prove important. Damage by wildlife in farmers’ fields may
necessitate costly measures such as fencing. Hippopotamus, warthog and bush
pigs in African countries are fairly easily excluded but large game requires very
costly fences. Monkeys and baboons are almost impossible to exclude leaving a
choice between poisoning or shooting. Bush can also harbour tsetse, while the
introduction of irrigated perennial crops, e.g. bananas, can promote the spread of
tsetse. Irrigation can also be a barrier to seasonal animal movements. information
collected on potential problems from wild animals, including rodents, birds, crabs,
etc. may dictate the choice of crops and LUTs. Rodents and crabs may bore holes
in the banks of canals and the bunds of ricefields leading to excessive losses of
water. Factor ratings under heading A.12, Part Two can be used to evaluate the
potential damage to crops, stored products and infrastructure from wildlife.
5.8 Environmental health
Failure to consider the environment when evaluating irrigation development may
result in an increased incidence of disease among the local human population,
especially of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis (bilharzia),
onchocerciasis (river blindness) and yellow fever. The vectors are certain aquatic
snails, flies and mosquitoes which host the disease-causing parasite and transfer
it from the infected to the healthy individual. These agents need water to breed and
mutiply; thus the expansion of irrigation spreads the diseases through the irrigation
networks, particularly in areas where the water is used for domestic purposes as
well, The need for environmental control measures through the design of reservoirs
and canals and the prevention of unnecessary vegetation or pools of stagnant
water should be assessed. Further information is available from the joint
WHO/FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts on Environmental Management for Vector
Control (PEM) and from FAO 1984. The general subject of the environmental
health consequences of irrigation are discussed by Worthington (1977).
5.9 Social and economic data
ial and economic consideration:
Checklist of socio-economic data
Social and economic evaluations depend on survey work which should usually
start early in the land evaluation process. The objectives of the survey work are to
identify and assess the social and economic features affecting the development
potential of the study area and to evaluate alternative proposals; to assemble
financial and economic price and cost data of relevance in the assessment of
LUTs and class-determining factors; and to meet the analytical and reporting
requirements of the sponsor of the given study (e.g. World Bank etc.)
wan te0 rg HocrepiSSABREEABEOT him wingm3
6. Procedures for land resource imertry
The socio-economist may need survey data collected by agriculturists and vice
versa (i.e. on present farming practices and production, land use, farm inputs etc.)
and there can be some sharing of survey activities based on prior agreement.
Present land use surveys are generally required to determine the production that
will be foregone when an irrigation project is implemented, Trends in production,
land use and yields need studies, particularly where rehabilitation of existing
irrigation and drainage systems is being considered. Where there is a trend of
rising or falling production this, rather than a static assessment of the present
situation, should form the basis of predictions of the ‘without’ situation in the
economic evaluation (see Chapter 7)
5.9.1 Social and economic considerations
Some of the considerations that may prevent the full utilization of natural and
human resources are listed below. These are often outside the control of the
individuals affected by them and constitute many of the constraints to agricultural
and social progress
i. Setf-perpetuating poverty: Lack of venture capital, knowledge, and
the will to adopt new technology is characteristic of subsistence level
farming where meeting today's needs may be the practical limit of
forward planning,
ii. Tradition, attitudes and perceptions: Viewpoints of the possibility of
change in order to control one's own destiny better may be entirely
formed on extremely limited observations, those being the only ones
known to an individual. The situation beyond could be so obscure as to
have no effect upon the subject's aspirations for something better.
ii, Disincentives: Crop production goals may be limited by quotas, and
prices may be controlled at below the cost of production; under such
circumstances little more than the level of output required for
subsistence and local barter may be produced.
iv. Tenure: Land ownership and tenurial rights together with water
rights are often a major cause of maldistribution of income and wealth.
Access to credit and production inputs may be linked to tenurial
patterns. Unfavourable tenurial conditions may restrain the natural
economic forces that normally determine efficient farm size, and crop
selection
v. Food preferences: These limit the range of crops grown for local
consumption, especially where a market outlet has not been
developed. A degree of crop or livestock specialization may have
developed around the local food preferences.
vi. Labour supply: The existing labour supply and the seasonal labour
peaks may limit the range of land use possibilities. The labour supply
may be limited in its present technology because of failure by the
younger generation to participate. A new technology could lead to their
participation.
vii. Pricing systems: Controlled or artificial prices may constitute either
a disincentive or an incentive. If a price is controlled to the point that
the production is discouraged, one must look for a possibility that this
could be changed if itis of importance to a project.
Ff these types of unfavourable conditions exist, they could well prevail into the future
wan te0 rg HocrepiSSABREEABEOT him 1819m3 6. Procedures for land resource imertry
and continue to influence strongly what farmers would do under an irrigated system
of farming. Therefore, proposed changes to traditional farming systems require a
full appreciation of the reasons why present agricultural patterns exist.
Furthermore, a judgement is necessary on how rapidly and to what extent
favourable changes could occur when irrigation is introduced. Forecasted changes
‘ought to be not only economically favourable, but they must also be likely to occur
and not just be speculative, Whilst it may be helpful to develop plans that appear
economically optimal, in reality what will be achieved is nearly always short of the
optimum. That which is likely to be achieved should be projected in the values
assigned to future productivity. in-country and regional experiences on similar
projects may prove to be the best key to this. These should be observed closely.
Social and economic constraints can frequently be removed at a cost. Project cost
estimates may include outlays for training, resettlement, infrastructure, markets
and other items considered necessary to achieve the levels of productivity
forecasted
Some activities that may be required with the introduction of irrigated farming may
be incorporated in the project plan, at least during the gestation period or build-up to
full development, for example:
- inputs must be increased and made available;
- research, extension and the dissemination of technical knowledge
might need to be expanded;
- transportation, storage and other infrastructure may need to be
developed; fuel and power demands may increase and need to be
satisfied; marketing facilities may be required; credit and financing
needs, and protection against the risks of commercialized farming
may have to be considered
Favourable features of prospective farmer groups might include a demonstrated
capacity to accept new agricultural methods, community and cooperative
endeavours aimed at social change, responses to financial incentives, initiatives
and diversified farming enterprises, etc. Such information may be available from
the experience of ongoing and past agricultural programmes.
5.9.2 Checklist of socio-economic data
Acomprehensive list of data that may need to be collected in social and economic
survey work is given in Table 16 (adapted from IRRI 1975). The reader is also
referred to standard texts on procedures for social and economic survey work
(Yang 1965) and to Chapter 7 on the economic aspects of land evaluation for
irrigated agriculture.
Table 16 CHECKLIST OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY DATA
DATA WHERE
OBTAINED
(A. [PRESENT FARMING PRACTICES. District or
\Village levels
[Crops and varieties planted in the area
List of present LUTS, include cultivars classed as high yielding, modern,
improved local, or traditional; cropping calendar (pre- & post-harvest)
(2. [Farm practices
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5 Procedures fer ardreseurceimertery
[Planting methods, fertilizer, organic manures, insecticides, herbicides,
|weeding; hand, animal or tractor power; land preparation,
Imechanization, changes in practices
[Existing inigation and drainage
‘Types of irrigation systems; periods of water availability, persons or
lauthorities controlling water allocation; drainage adequacy; water use
input-output data
(Costs of all inputs, yields and value of produce whether used for
Isubsistence, barter or cash sales; crop disposal
Land tonure, farm sizes, land values, water rights
|Land tenure, leased and shared cropped land, titles to land and water,
{ragmentation, social contexts, land sales, land prices
(Credit and loans
[Amounts borrowed, who borrowed from whom, credit for personal or
farming use, in cash of kind, duration of loan, terms of repayment or
interest rate, level of indebtedness, future access to loans
[Household size and income
[Farm family size and age distribution, employment on and off the farm;
‘sources of income; changes in income
[Farm labour and employment, farm power
|Family labour, hired labour, labour costs; influence of labour, power and
|water on land preparation, seasonal practices; peak labour requirements,
ichanges
[Production and marketing problems
[Obtaining seed, fertilizer or chemicals, credit, water (domestic,
irrigation); pests and diseases, weeds, harvesting, threshing, drying,
‘storage, selling, processing, others; markets
INFRASTRUCTURAL,
INational
[Regional
District and
\Village levels
‘Transportation
[Roads and waterways; availability of buses, trucks, carts, boats, and
lother modes of transportation; railroads, quality of roads - paved or not;
lyear-round use, etc,
‘Storage, processing and marketing facilities
‘Types that serve the villages in project area; driers, milling capacity,
local weights and measures, milling outputs etc.
[Banks and other credit faciliti
[Other goverment facilities for production
[Research and experimental stations; demonstration trial
Isenices
[Schools, clinics, postal senices and others
[Communications media
IPress, radio, and other forms of mass media, extent of news of direct
relevance to farmers, markets news senice
[Electricity
fo
[Domestic water suppli
THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
‘National
Regional
District and
\Village levels
amgm3
6. Procedures for land resource imertry
[Prices of major produce, differences between cultivars, seasonal and
lannual variations; prices at nearest dealer or cooperative for fertilizer and
lother major inputs; data on price differentials between local and major
Imarkets
Wages
\Wage rates; systems of wage payment; changes over time
interest
[Rates usually paid on loans from different sources; changes over time
[Rent
[Rates per season, year, and others; in cash or kind; fixed or shared;
Ichanges over time
[Taxes
‘Types and totals; paid to village or other agency; changes over time
Land prices
|Average, for major land types; changes over time
Iigation costs
(Government irrigation fees and normal collection rates; normal cost of
lprivate irrigation systems, if any
‘Seed or planting material
‘Availability, source, quality, and prices
Power
Typical farm power requirement and investment for land preparation, also|
rental rates for tractor and animal services
Incomes
[DEMOGRAPHIC AND LAND USE
[National
Regional
District and
\Village levels
\Village populations
TTotal, and percentage changes in last 10 years; main sources of
livelihood, farming and non-farming
[Other census data
Religion, ethnic group, castes, and others
\village settlement pattern
[Along road, with house gardens, cluster, isolated, etc.
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS.
‘National
Regional
District and
\Village levels
[Farmers organizations
(Cooperatives, farmer associations and similar bodies; other types of
joint or group activities, changes over time
[Brief description of the way new crops, varieties and methods of
management were introduced into the area
[Extension senices. also credit, and other senices
[Number of agencies that provide services; quantity and quality of
Isenices; main complaints of farmers
jal government programm:
|Land reform, land consolidation, crash programmes, and others
Kinship
Role in inheritance, cost of ceremonies, etc.; also factionalism,
litigation, etc
i.
[Leadership in agriculturally relevant activities
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saom3 6. Procedures for land resource imertry
(7. \/Attitudes and values affecting development
(Change in the size and cost of ceremonies; evaluation as to whether
farming is a preferred occupation and similar assessments
F. |THE NATIONAL POLICY FRAMEWORK ‘National
[Regional
levels
‘Aims of national policy for crops and irrigation
(2. [Policy measures
IPrice policies - input and output; restrictions on input and output
Imarketing, if any; package programmes, etc.; income and employment
Ipolicies - income redistribution, access to land resources, etc.
3._|[importance of ne ind irrigation in the context of national
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