Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
By
CHIA-JUNG CHEN
Doctor of Philosophy
January, 2014
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
Chia-Jung Chen
Doctor of Philosophy
candidate for the degree *.
John Lewandowski
David Schwam
Gerhard Welsch
Malcolm Cooke
11/15/2013
(date)
*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any
proprietary material contained therein.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [12]
ABSTRACT [13]
1
1. Chapter 1: Aluminum Cast Alloys
1.1. Introduction 1
[1]
Content Page
3. Experimental Procedure
40
[2]
Content
Page
3.5. PoDFA
50
[3]
Content
Page
5. Conclusions
100
6. References
103
[4]
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table Page
[5]
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
1.5. Polarized light micrographs showing the effect of B addition on the A356
grain structure 6
1.11. BFTEM image and [001] SAD pattern from the 319 alloy 13
[6]
Figures Page
1.25. Schematic illustration of the quality index, QT, as the ratio of the
experimentally observed elongation as a fraction of the maximum possible 30
elongation QT = eF/eF(max) at the given level of yield strength, σY.
1.26. The nomogram with iso- QT lines for A356/A357 alloy castings shows four
distinct regions 31
2.3. The average UTS and elongation of cast A356-T6 aluminum alloy curves 35
2.4. S/N curves of E319 with low SDAS and 70μm SDAS 36
2.5. Ultimate tensile and yield strengths versus gas content and per cent voids for
37
remelted A356 alloy
3.1. Electric resistance furnace 40
[7]
Figures Page
3.9. Stahl mold with large round shape sprue (Stahl HS Mold) 44
3.13. Schematic of the cast bars from Case mold version.3 and version.4 47
3.19. (a) Dimensions of the step casting and (b) Illustration of the set-up for 51
cooling rate measurement
3.22. Sthal and Case mold version.1 and step mold test bars 54
[8]
Figure Page
4.8. The effect of sprue size on mechanical properties of A356 alloy on Stahl 69
mold
4.10. Effect of sprue size on mechanical properties of A356 alloy on Case mold 71
4.16. The effect of the knife gate on mechanical properties of A356 alloy 76
[9]
Figure Page
4.22. The micro-porosity at gage section of Case mold V4 with two kinds of 81
coating
4.23. Applying a coating on the gage section effects on the fracture surfaces of 82
tensile test bars of A356 alloy in different molds
4.28. Mechanical properties of samples from the 2” Step Casting with and w/o 86
HIP
4.29. Best mechanical properties for test bars cast in different molds (T6 87
condition)
4.31. Data from this study in QT lines for A356 alloy casting 90
4.33. Fracture surface of Stahl mold and Case mold v.4 test bar 92
4.34. The effect of Knife ingate on alloy 319 in the as-cast condition 93
[10]
Figure Page
4.40. Fatigue properties of Step Mold 1” sample with and without HIP 98
[11]
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor Schwam for lending his insight and experience to
this project. I am proud to have been given the opportunity to work with him. Also, I
would especially like to thank Dr. David Neff and Dr. Xuejun Zhu for all of his time
and effort while being an invaluable help thorough the length of this work. My thanks
also to our foundry staff, Rich Tomazin and Rich Miller for all of their hard work and
I would like to thank the American Foundry Society whose funding made this
work possible.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends who provided support
[12]
Optimization Of Mechanical Properties In A356 Via Simulation
CHIA-JUNG CHEN
Abatract
Using as-cast test bars is a quick and convenient method of determining as-cast
metal quality in the foundry--although such results are only representative of the
section of a casting solidifying at the same rate as the test-bar. Unfortunately the
current standard test-bar mold suffers from shrinkage porosity which detracts from
best properties. In this work computer simulation has been utilized to predict and
design an improved permanent mold test bar mold. A356 and 319 alloys have been
melted and treated with best metal cleaning practices (degassing, filtration) in order to
assess the effect of clean metal as a baseline of this research prior to microstructural
The results show that with a knife-ingate in the re-designed test-bar mold, better
mold temperature range. With best in-furnace clean metal practice and virgin ingot,
applying filters in the test bar mold have minimal effect, but show that filtration is
In the standard heat treated T6 condition, the new test-bar mold delivers superior
[13]
Chapter 1: Aluminum Cast Alloys
1.1 Introduction
In industrial applications, aluminum alloys can be divided into two groups. One is cast
aluminum alloys, the other is wrought aluminum alloys. Cast aluminum alloys are used to
cast final products; wrought aluminum alloys are cast into ingots or billets, then formed
by rolling, extrusion or forging into final products. Table.1 lists the main designations of
cast and wrought aluminum alloys. The designation provides key information on the
alloy. For instance, 1xx and 1xxx series means the aluminum content exceed 99%; 2xx
and 2xxx series means that copper is the primary alloying element in these alloys.
2xx Cu 2xxx Cu
4xx Si 4xxx Si
5xx Mg 5xxx Mg
6xxx Mg, Si
8xx Li 8xxx Li
1
1.1.1 3xx Alloy
3xx series alloys are widely used in the aluminum casting industry. Silicon is the
primary alloying element in this alloy, added to increase fluidity and strength.
A356 and 319 alloys were used in this study and their compositions are listed in
Table.2. A356 is easy to cast in complex shape products. Silicon can also improve
strength of aluminum alloy. Besides silicon, A356 alloy contains 0.3% magnesium which
can precipitate Mg2Si with silicon to become a strengthening phase by heat treatment;
319 alloy also has good castability; it contains about 3% copper and precipitates Al2Cu as
Alloy/Element Si Mg Cu Mn Fe
Fig.1 shows the phase diagram of aluminum-silicon alloys. Generally, silicon content
in aluminum alloy will not exceed the eutectic point (silicon content 12.6%) to avoid
formation of a primary silicon phase. The primary silicon phase is very hard, therefore
2
Fig.1 Phase diagram of aluminum-silicon alloys
Generally, the strength of cast metals is related to grain size via the Hall-Petch
equation
σ = σ0 + kD-1/2 Equation.1
Where σ0 is the yield stress; σi is the friction stress, or overall resistance of the crystal to
their average grain size. It is based on blocking the motion of dislocations at grain
3
boundaries, thus decreasing the number of dislocations present in grains. As the
dislocations motion from grain to grain becomes more difficult, the material would
become stronger. Fig.2 shows the Hall-Petch relationship. In this study, the grain size of
A356 alloy is generally larger than 10nm, therefore we will not consider the inverse of
Hall-Patch relationship.
mechanism of grain refining is to produce a heterogeneous solid phase which can make
grain nucleation easier in the melt. Undercooling occurs often during the solidification
4
process. Generally, a large undercooling temperature will lead to larger grain size.
Conventional grain refiners, different compounds of Ti, such as TiB2 and TiAl3 are
used as grain refiners in this study. Fig.3 shows the effect of the grain refiner on
undercooling. The more the titanium and boron present in A356 alloy, the less the
undercooling. Fig.4 shows the effect of titanium content on average grain size. Over 800
ppm of titanium can lead to a grain size of 600 µm. Fig.5 shows the decrease in grain size
aluminum alloys. The purposes of modification is to change the needle shape phase of
silicon into a spherical shape or change the needle shape secondary phase into a different
component phase with a different shape. It is easy to image why brittle, needle-shaped Si
particles present in a cast alloy can act as stress concentration sites and cause it to break
in a brittle manner. In the case of A356 alloy, we are trying to modify the silicon needle
phase into a spherical shape; in 319 alloys, we are modifying the needle silicon phase into
a spherical morphology and the needle β phase into Chinese script-shape α phase.
6
1.2.3.1 Modification in A356 alloy
Fig.6 shows the typical microstructure of an A356 alloy. As shown in Fig.6 (a), the
eutectic silicon phase is needle-shape like. In a tensile test, the fracture initiates readily at
these silicon particles, because these silicon needles are very brittle. In order to improve
properties, sodium or strontium are used as modifiers in A356 alloys. Generally, 0.01%
sodium or 0.02% strontium is used. After modification, the silicon needles become
7
1.2.3.2 Modification in 319 alloys
319 alloy. Fig.7 shows an eutectic silicon structure modified by strontium in a low
magnesium-content 319 alloy. Starting from a well modified eutectic silicon region in
Fig.7(a), additions of bismuth coarsen the silicon structure with bismuth increases from 0
ppm to 1555 ppm, Fig.7(B); when bismuth is increased from 1555 ppm to 6060 ppm, the
Fig.7 Eutectic Si structure observed in 319 alloy with (a) 0 ppm,(b) 1555 ppm, and (c)
6060 ppm Bi additions [3].
319 alloy. It is known that the Mn/Fe ratio larger than 5 can modify the β-Al5FeSi phase
effectively [5]. Fig.8(a) shows a microstructure of 319 alloy with only 0.02% manganese
addition after T6 heat treatment. Plate-like β phases (Al5FeSi) are presented in this figure.
It is well known that the intermetallic β-Al5FeSi phase that forms during the
8
both brittle and exists as thin plates [6]. For 0.35% Mn addition in the 319 alloy, Fig.8(b),
the amount of the plate-like β phases is reduced and Chinese script α phases
phases almost disappear and the α-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2 phases become larger, as illustrated in
Fig.8 SEM microstructures observed in the 319 type aluminum alloys after T6 heat
treatment. (a) 0.02%Mn, (b) 0.3%Mn, (c) 0.65%Mn, and (d) 0.85%Mn sample showing
the α and β intermetallic phases [6].
9
1.2.4 Heat Treatment of A356 Alloy
aluminum alloy. Aluminum cast alloys, 2xx, 3xx, 7xx series cast alloys and 2xxx, 6xxx,
7xxx series wrought alloys can be strengthened by precipitation hardening heat treatment.
Table.3 shows 10 codes used to designate heat treatment conditions. The most commonly
used is T6 condition which can obtain the highest strength in aluminum alloys. T6 temper
Solution treatment is the first step in the precipitation hardening process. The alloy is
heated above the solvus temperature and soaked there until a homogeneous solid solution
is formed. The precipitates (θ or β) and segregation are re-dissolved into the matrix.
Quenching is the second step in which the aluminum alloy is rapidly cooled from α
phase to form a supersaturated solid solution. This solid solution is not an equilibrium
phase.
Artificial aging is the third step applied to precipitate supersaturated elements into the
aluminum alloy matrix to strengthen it. The aluminum is keep under a tight temperature
window (around 320~340°F) for a few hours. For example, the aging temperature for the
A356 alloy is 320°F and the aging time is 4~6 hours to obtain optimum strength. Fig.9
shows the aging time-strength relationship for aluminum-copper alloy. The sequence of
phase→ θ phase. As this figure illustrates, the best condition is between θ” and θ’
precipitated in the alloy When the GP-Zone is too small and θ is too big they have less
Code Content
11
Fig.9 Artificial aging of aluminum alloys [7]
Fig.10 shows a high magnification picture under SEM. Needle-like Mg2Si phases are
present in the A356 alloy matrix. The maximum mechanical properties are controlled by
the heat treatment condition to produce uniform needle-like Mg2Si phases in the alloy [8].
In the case of 319 alloy, it is known that needle like θ’-Al2Cu phase is the
strengthening phase after T6 heat treatment [9]. Fig.11(a) shows a TEM image of Mg-
free 319 alloy after T6 heat treatment. Needle like θ’-Al2Cu phases are present uniformly
along [001] direction. Fig.11(b) shows Mg-containing alloy after the T6 heat treatment.
The additional Mg elements produce Q phases after T6 heat treatment, showing as black
spots in the image. Arnberg et al. [10] reported that the composition of the Q phase was
12
Fig.10 SEM micrograph of A356 alloy solutionized in a conventional furnace for 6 hours
at 1000oF and aged at 340oF [8]
Fig.11(a) BFTEM image and [001] SAD pattern from the Mg-free alloy (b) BFTEM
image and [001] SAD pattern from the Mg-containing alloy after the T6 heat
treatment[10].
13
1.3 Extrinsic Effects on Mechanical Properties of 3xx alloy (porosity and inclusion
effects)
Gas porosity and shrinkage porosity are two of the most common defects in cast
aluminum alloys. Gas porosity is formed when gas becomes entrapped in the molten
metal. This type of porosity is usually spherical in appearance. It can be avoided through
proper degassing of the molten metal, proper gating design and good pouring practices.
Shrinkage porosity is caused by the volumetric contraction which taken place when
molten aluminum solidifies. The shape of shrinkage porosity is irregular and usually
interdendric. Increasing the cooling rate can reduce the size, and form a more uniformly
dispersed shrinkage porosity; this will improve the fatigue properties of the cast
aluminum. Fig.12 and Fig.13 show typical shrinkage and gas porosity respectively [11].
14
Fig.12 Typical shrinkage pore surrounded by dendrites and eutectic phase [11]
aluminum alloys are shown in Table.4 [12]. Generally, most inclusions exhibit complex
structures, are hard and brittle. In most cases, inclusions larger than 10 microns to 20
fluxing and filtration can remove inclusions from the molten metal.
16
1.3.1.1 Hydrogen in Molten Aluminum Alloys (gas porosity)
Hydrogen is the only gas which is soluble in aluminum alloy melts. The solubility of
hydrogen in aluminum alloy melts is depended on temperature. Fig.13 shows the effect of
exceeds 1220F (melting point), the hydrogen solubility increases dramatically. Hydrogen
gas is produced from the dissociation of water vapor in the atmosphere. The hydrogen
aluminum drops and the gas is rejected from the metal, forming porosity in the aluminum
casting. This type of porosity is also known as gas porosity. The detrimental effect of gas
well documented.
17
Predeterminations of gas content
The Reduced Pressure Test (RPT) is one of the most commonly used methods to assess
the hydrogen level in the aluminum alloys. In RPT, also known as the vacuum density
test (VDT) a sample is usually taken from molten aluminum (between 100 and 200 grams)
with a metal or ceramic crucible, and allowed to solidify under vacuum. Fig.15 shows a
typical RPT apparatus. As the sample solidifies under vacuum, hydrogen bubbles
nucleate because of the reduced pressure. Fig.16 shows typical voids with respect to each
density and hydrogen level. Since porosity is formed at lower pressure, the volume of
these voids is larger than the voids formed under atmosphere for the same gas content. By
this method, it is relatively simple to detect and quantify the hydrogen level from a small
The volume of gas porosity in the sample can be calculated by comparing the density
of the measured sample with the theoretical density of the same aluminum alloy [14].
completely solidified metal that blocks additional feeding with molten metal. As the last-
to-solidify metal cools down, the volume contraction cannot be compensated without
Shrinkage porosity is also detected frequently near the junction of a thick and thin
section and at the center of fairly thick cast parts. In this case it is the difference in
cooling rates that drives the formation of shrinkage porosity by preventing adequate
modified with Ba, Ca, Y and Yb. All additions increased the porosity level compared to
the unmodified alloy and it increased with increased addition level. Additions of Ca and
and Yb resulted in small, round, dispersed porosity. These results indicate a strong
correlation between porosity amount and distribution and the eutectic solidification mode
[15],[16].
20
Table.5 Summary of trends in porosity distribution and level, eutectic solidification
modes and proposed eutectic solidification mode in the hot spot of the casting [16]
Degassing
aluminum has become an essential step in molten metal treatment for attaining high
quality castings.
Degassing systems are based on injecting an inert gas (nitrogen or argon) into the
bottom of the melt. When the nitrogen or argon gas is injected into the melt, the
differential in hydrogen pressure will cause hydrogen start to diffusing into the ascending
gas bubbles. If we use a lance to inject inert gas, the degassing process is as efficient. A
better result is obtained with a rotary impeller degasser, because relatively fine and
21
evenly spread bubbles are produced. A schematic picture of degassing device is shown in
Fig.17 [17].
PoDFA
PoDFA (Porous disc filtration apparatus) identifies the inclusions and measures their
concentration in the melt for each type of inclusion. The PoDFA method is based on
porosity disc under vacuum condition. Due to the pressure differential, the liquid
22
aluminum can easily penetrate the filter. However, any inclusions present in the molten
metal are retained as a “cake” on top of the filter. Fig.18 (a) shows the PoDFA equipment
and Fig.18 (b) shows the schematic picture of the PoDFA. In Fig.18 (b), the left image
shows the aluminum melt before filtration; the right image shows it after filtration. After
filtration, the inclusion will remain on top of the filter disc. The inclusion concentration
can be determined by sectioning and image analysis of the filter disc and the “cake”.
Fig.19 shows a typical micrograph of the inclusions “cake” on the filter disc. The trapped
inclusions are clearly visible at the bottom of the micrograph [18]. The inclusion
…...Equation.2
23
Fig.19 Typical micrograph of a sectioned PoDFA sample [18]
24
1.3.2.2 Methods of Inclusion Removal from Molten Aluminum
Fluxing
Metal cleanliness can be improved by proper use of flux. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
particles and films form rapidly on the surface of the molten aluminum during melting
and holding. Fluxes can be used to remove these oxides. Although the density of oxides
is higher than liquid aluminum, they tend to accumulate at or near the melt surface
because of surface tension effects and adsorbed gases. Fig.21 shows that oxidation
markedly increases with the temperature. Drossing fluxes are the most economical. Dross
may contain more than 80% metal suspended in less than 20% oxide; Treated with
drossing fluxes dross changes its appearance from wet to dry as its metallic aluminum
content decreases. These exothermic fluxes release oxygen and generate heat by
combusting a portion of the metallic aluminum in the dross. Drossing fluxes are added
either by weight at about 0.2-1% of the metal charged or by melt surface area at about
0.5lb/ft2. The amount of flux needed depends on the cleanliness of the charge materials
Fig.22 shows a modern method of flux delivery called flux injection. The traditional
method of spreading flux onto the melt surface is not as efficient since the flux stays
predominantly on the surface rather than mixing with the melt. Flux injection can
overcome this limitation by delivering the powdered flux underneath the melt surface.
Typical flux injection equipment involves a dry powder feeder that mixes powdered flux
into an inert gas stream carrying it through a lance immersed in the melt. Therefore, flux
injection not only removes inclusions but also performs degassing [20].
25
Fig.21 Effect of time and temperature on oxidation of aluminum [19]
26
Filtration
Foam filters made of ceramics are an effective way to remove inclusions from
aluminum alloys. Alumina (Al2O3) particles and films are the most common and readily
aluminum with air if during casting. If the metal pouring velocity is relatively high, more
turbulence will be produced trapping air in the molten metal. Excessive turbulence will
generally lead to formation of more Al2O3. Fig.23 shows the melt flow pattern through a
filter. The originally turbulent flow before the filter becomes laminar flow after passing
27
1.4 Quality Index for Aluminum Alloy Castings
Drouzy, Jacob and Richard indicated that a linear relationship between ultimate
tensile stress (UTS) and log(eF) in the underaged condition up to the peak strength [22].
They introduced the quality index, Q, for underaged and peak-aged alloys as:
Where c is a constant (=150 MPa). The authors also indicated some processes can affect
yield strength and the quality index with minor modifications to chemical composition,
Another quality index, QT, was proposed by M. Tiryakioglu and J. Campbell based
on the concept of ductility potential for cast aluminum alloys [23-26]. The authors used
extensive data taken from hundreds of tensile tests excised from aerospace and premium
strength for A356/A357 alloys. The maximum elongation (ductility potential) of cast
Equation.3
Where β0 and β1 are coefficients, the values are 36 and 0.064(MPa-1) respectively for
A356/A357 alloys.
28
These coefficients were determined manually so that the lines could follow the trend of
Equation.4
The concept of QT is presented in Fig.25. This quality index is easy to use and provides a
29
Fig.25 Schematic illustration of the quality index, QT, as the ratio of the experimentally
observed elongation as a fraction of the maximum possible elongation QT = eF/eF(max) at
the given level of yield strength, σY [26].
Fig.26 shows a nomogram for QT with four distinct regions. It was developed and
based on the experience of the authors. When tensile data are in Region 1 (QT = 0 to
oxides” from remelts and/or ingot should be first removed. Region 2 represents melts that
are free from major old oxides. In this region, quality can be improved by further
and paying attention to all details of melt preparation or even using vacuum casting
30
Fig.26 The nomogram with iso- QT lines for A356/A357 alloy castings shows four
distinct regions [26].
31
Chapter 2 - Literature Review on Mechanical Properties of A356 and 319 Alloys
Properties
S. Shivkumar et al. investigated the heat treatment of A356 alloy [27]. This study
looked at how strontium modifies the microstructure and applied the T6 heat treatment to
increase the mechanical properties of sand and ASTM B-108 permanent mold catings.
For sand casting, the results showed that 0.02 % strontium could increase the UTS
from 23.9 to 24.4ksi (164.6 to 168.1 MPa) and the elongation from 4.25% to 6.12% in the
as-cast condition. After 1000oF for 800 min solution treatment and 310F for 4h artificial
aging, the UTS for modified and unmodified samples are both 39.3ksi (271 MPa), but the
elongation increased from 5.5% to 8.4%. Strontium didn’t show much effect on the UTS
On the other hand, for the ASTM B-108 permanent mold test bars, the results showed
that 0.02 % strontium could increase the UTS from 28.7 to 29.6ksi (197.7 to 204 MPa)
and the elongation from 7.42% to 9.45% in the as-cast condition. After 1000oF x 800
min solution treatment and 310oF for 4h artificial aging, the UTS for modified and
unmodified samples were both around 49ksi (337 MPa), and the elongation increased
from 8.38% to 8.66%. Therefore, strontium modification didn’t show much effect for
Fig.1 shows the solution time effect on UTS and elongation of sand and ASTM B-108
mold.
32
Fig.1 UTS and elongation as a function of solution time [27]
type 319 aluminum casting alloys [28]. The test bar mold used in this study was not
mentioned. After casting, the samples were solution-treated at 910oF for 8 h. The
subsequent T6 aging treatment was carried out at 380oF for 8 h. The results showed that
the UTS increased from 21.7 to 29ksi (150 to 200MPa) and the elongation decreased
from 0.75% to 0.45% for Mg-free test bars. On the other hand, the UTS increased from
28.8 to 46.4ksi (198 to 320MPa) and the elongation decreased from 0.9% to 0.1% for
33
Fig.2 Ultimate tensile strength and % elongation of Mg-free and Mg-containing samples
in the as-cast (blue) and the T6 (red) conditions [28].
Guang Ran et al. investigated the effect of hot isostatic pressing (HIPing) on the
microstructure and tensile properties of and unmodified A356-T6 cast aluminum alloy
[29]. The A356 alloy was cast into a plate and then machined into test bars according to
ASTM E8M. The solution treatment was 1000oF for 5 h and artificial aging was 320oF
for 4 h. In this study, the authors tried to compare different SDAS with UTS and
elongation. The results showed that the UTS decreased from 36 to 32.9 ksi (248 to
227MPa) and the elongation decreased from 0.5% to 0.35% as SDAS increased from 82
to 96 micron for non-HIPed samples. On the other hand, the UTS decreased from 35.4 to
34.5 ksi (246 to 238MPa) and the elongation decreased from 0.5% to 0.35% as SDAS
34
Fig.3 The average UTS and elongation of cast A356-T6 aluminum alloy curves [29]
behavior of E319-T7 cast aluminum alloy in very long life cycles [30]. In this study, they
discussed how tensile strength and fatigue property changed with SDAS. The E319 alloy
was subjected T7 heat treatment that solution at 925oF for 8 h and aging at 500oF for 4 h.
30μm SDAS (low SDAS) and 70μm SDAS (medium SDAS) samples showed 42ksi and
26ksi UTS respectively. Fig.4 shows S/N curves of 30μm SDAS (low SDAS) and 70μm
SDAS (medium SDAS) fatigue samples. Obviously, low SDAS E319 alloy has much
35
Fig.4 S/N curves of E319 with low SDAS and 70μm SDAS [30]
tensile and yield stress of remelted 356 aluminum alloy decreases as porosity increases.
The ultimate tensile and yield stress are 41.5ksi and 35ksi respectively with no void
content. As porosity content increases to 2%, the ultimate tensile and yield stress decrease
36
Fig.5 Ultimate tensile and yield strengths versus gas content and per cent voids for
remelted A356 alloy [31]
B. Chamberlain et al. also investigated the effect of gas content on the tensile
properties on cast aluminum alloys [32]. The aluminum alloy used in this study is CA-
B135 (0.72% Si and 0.35%Mg), similar to 356 type alloys. At same solidification rates
(0.28-0.32), the ultimate tensile, yield stress and elongation are 41.8-44.2ksi, 33.2-
34.85ksi and 6.5-7.5% respectively at 0.15 ml H2/100g gas levels. As the gas level
increases to 0.36 ml H2/100g, the ultimate tensile, yield stress and elongation decrease to
37
38.3-41.1ksi, 30.42-33.86ksi and 3-3.5% respectively.
Table.1: Gas levels, solidification rates and tensile properties of CA-B135-T6 sand cast
step castings [32]
L. Liu and F. H. Samuel investigated the effect of inclusions on the tensile properties
of A356.2 cast aluminum alloys [33]. Table.3 lists the total inclusions, harmful inclusions
and oxide films as measured by the PoDFA technique, and the corresponding tensile
properties measured for similar melt conditions. It is evident from this table that the oxide
films have a far more deleterious effect on the mechanical properties. In Table.3, Serial
no.1 shows the highest mechanical properties since it includes no oxide films. Therefore,
oxide films were assessed as the most harmful inclusions in this alloy. Moreover, by
comparing Serial no.10 with Serial no.26, Serial no.10 contains 3.78 mm2kg-1 total
harmful inclusions and Serial no.26 contains 1.12 mm2kg-1 total harmful inclusions, yet
the mechanical properties of Serial no.10 are much higher than Serial no.26. This
provides further evidence that oxide films are relatively more harmful to mechanical
38
Table.2 Inclusion/oxide-mechanical properties relationships for A356.2 alloy [33]
39
Chapter 3: Experimental Procedure
The A356 metal was melted in a Lindberg electric resistance melting furnace with a
1,000 lb crucible shown in Fig.1. The melt temperature was held at 1350±10˚F.
In this study, virgin and recycled alloy were used. Sometimes the text refers to virgin
metal as “clean” and recycled metal as “dirty” metal. Fig.2 shows how we prepared the
dirty melt. The recycled parts were from ingates and runner sections of commercially cast
products.
Degassing was performed by bubbling argon through a steel lance for 30 minutes
(Fig.3). Flux was used in the melt to remove inclusions (Fig.4). The hydrogen level was
and grain refining was carried out in this part of the study.
41
Fig.4 Fluxing and skimming
Three kinds of molds, a standard Stahl permanent mold (type ASTM B-108), a HS
Stahl mold with an enlarged sprue cross-section, and a modified Stahl mold designated as
“Case mold” (filter mold) were used in this study. A detailed description of the
modifications in the Stahl mold design, leading to the present Case mold is provided later
in this section. The Stahl mold and Case filter mold were pre-heated to 625˚F. We used
42
three methods to pre-heat the molds: an electrical resistance heater (Fig.6); an oxy-
hydrogen flame torch (Fig.7) and built-in electrical calrods in the SH-Stahl mold.
Fig.8 shows the standard Stahl mold. Fig.9 shows the HS Stahl mold with the larger
and round cross-section sprue replacing the thin, rectangular cross-section of the standard
Stahl mold,. This larger cross-section increases feeding speed and prevents premature
chilling and solidification of the molten metal chill in the gage sections.
43
Fig.8 Standard Sthal mold
Fig.9 Stahl mold with large round shape sprue (Stahl HS Mold)
44
Fig.10~13 show the Case mold version 1 to version 4. Fig.10 shows the sub-insert
with filter prints for use of filters designated to remove impurities. The sprue of the Case
mold version1was deepened to 0.4” from 0.2” to ensure molten metal can pass through
the filter. In retrospective, this change was unnecessary as the wider cross-section of the
filter print allowed unrestricted flow through the filter. Fig.11 shows the Case mold
version 2. The diameter of the entrance to the riser was enlarged from 0.5” to 0.75 to
reduce the front velocity to below 20 in/sec. Fig.12 shows the Case mold version 3. The
sprue was narrowed back from 0.2”, uniformly deep in each side to an inclined shape
(0.1” at the top and 0.06” at the bottom on each side). This change provides a slower,
stable filling pattern, controls the filling velocity and reduces the air aspirated. Fig.13
shows the schematic figure of test bars made with the Case mold version 3 and version 4.
The key difference is in version 4 we introduced a knife ingate between the runner and
the test bar. The knife ingate can be removed carefully with a grinder (Fig.14)
46
Fig.13 Schematic of the cast bars from Case mold version.3 and version.4.
47
3.3 Filter Preparation
In this study, we used two types of filters: in-mold filters in the Case mold and a
large, in-crucible filter. Fig.15 shows three sizes of in-mold filters used. From left to right
are 30ppi, 20ppi, and 10ppi respectively. Fig.16 shows the in-crucible filter.
48
3.4 Reduced Pressure Test
solidification of castings, excessive gas is rejected from the melt and forms undesirable
porosity. The reduced pressure test (RPT) is a method used widely in the aluminum
casting industry to monitor the quantity of gas in molten metal. This project also utilized
the RPT to monitor and quantify gas presence on porosity of aluminum in the molten
aluminum. Buttons were sampled from the melt and solidified under reduced pressure,
one before degassing and the other after degassing in each experimental session. The
samples were then sectioned to reveal gas porosity. The density measurement by
weighing RPT samples in air and water shown in Fig. 17(b) is discussed in detail in
Chapter 2.
49
3.5 PoDFA
To determine the inclusion content in the melt, two PoDFA samples were also cast in
each section of experiment, one before degassing and the other was after degassing.
A356 and 319 alloys were cast into an instrumented vertical permanent step mold.
The dimensions of the step casting are shown in Fig.19. The mold was coated with Hill
& Griffith ConcoteTM Mag 669, and pre-heated to 400oF using an electrical die heater. In
order to measure the local cooling rates, thermocouples were embedded in the center of
50
Fig.19: (a) Dimensions of the step casting and (b) Illustration of the set-up for cooling
rate measurement.
As expected, the highest cooling rate is obtained in the thinnest 0.5” step and
gradually decreases toward the heaviest 3” step as depicted in Fig.20. The values of the
measured cooling rates are alloy specific, as the thermal properties of the alloy play an
important role in the transfer of the heat from the solidifying molten metal to the mold.
However, the cooling rate is affected by many other parameters. The size and
configuration of the casting and the location within the casting, can make a significant
difference. The metal at the center of a casting will generally solidify at a slower rate that
the center. The flow of the incoming metal into the mold can also make a difference, as it
51
Fig.20: Respective cooling rates.
The initial temperature of the mold is an important factor. The higher the initial
temperature, the slower the cooling rate of the casting, as the heat transfer is a function of
the temperature difference between the casting and the mold. Preheating of molds is
practiced to ensure good filling of the thin sections. However, excessive mold
temperatures lower the mechanical properties of the casting and can slow down cycle
time.
Another factor that determines cooling rate is the heat transfer coefficient at the
interface between the mold and the casting. This coefficient can be controlled to some
extent by application of coatings on the surface of the mold. Insulating and/or conductive
mold coatings (washes) are applied on specific parts of the mold to generate directional
solidification patterns that promote a defect free casting. In general, different casting
processes are associated with certain ranges of cooling rates. Sand and investment
casting utilize insulating media, and are at the low end of the solidification rate range.
52
Die casting employs metal molds and is at the high end of the solidification range. Most
other processes fall between these. Fig.21 is a qualitative map of cooling rates across
metal casting processes. As described earlier, many additional factors play a role in
The cooling rate determines the microstructure which in turn drives the mechanical
circumstances is often times difficult. A common practice is to use instead the inter-
dendritic arm spacing that is inversely proportional to the cooling rate. An advantage of
this method is the ability to examine the local inter-dendritic arm spacing in the area of
interest. In the present study, the inter-dendritic arm spacing has been used as an
53
3.7 Tensile Test
The diameter of the gauge section in the Stahl, Case and step mold test bars is 0.5”.
Fig.22 shows test bars cast with the standard Stahl mold, the Case mold and the step mold.
The test bars were tested primarily in the as-cast condition at room temperature at a strain
rate of 10-3s-1.
Fig.22(a) Stahl mold test bars Fig.22(b) Case mold version.1 test bars
54
Fig.22(c) Step mold sample Fig.22(d) Step mold 2” machined test bars
The fatigue test unit is an MTS 810 and ran at 125 MPa fully reversed sinusoidal
loading for testing 0.25” material. An alignment fixture is used to obtain less than 15
micro strain prior to testing. The software is MTS Multipurpose elite. Fig.23 shows the
55
Fig.23(a) Fatigue testing machine
relationship for both Stahl Mold and the modified design. The Finite Volume Method
(FVM) based commercial software MagmaSoft [35] was used and a 3D simulation model
was created. The model was meshed with about 1,500,000 non-body-fit structured
hexagon elements. The edge length of the smallest element was chosen to be 0.3mm so
as to ensure at least five layers of elements in thin wall sections (such as the knife ingate).
The mold material was H13 tooling steel, with the thermal conductivity of 17Wm
elevated temperature (>204℃, 400℉). The cast alloy was aluminum alloy A356, with
solidus temperature of 550℃ (1022℉) and liquidus temperature 616℃ (1141℉) [36].
Two kinds of coatings, Graphite coating and Dycote 8 coating, thermally conductive
and insulating, respectively, were used in the study. According to the previous
experimental observations [37], the following assumptions were made for the interface
heat transfer coefficient (HTC). The HTC was defined to be casting surface temperature
×hr×℉) for temperatures above 616℃ (1141℉). The HTC of Dycote 8 coated interface
℃ (1141℉).
The casting processes, comprising filling and solidification, were simulated. The
filling process was simulated by filling pressure control, whereby the molten metal was
assumed to fall from 50.8mm (2 inch) above the mold and generate 1.2kPa fill-in
pressure. Initial mold temperature was set to be uniform at T0 (to be specified later).
The pouring temperature of molten A356 was chosen at 705℃ (1300℉), which was
within the normal pouring temperature range of 680-705 ℃ (1250-1300℉ [38]. The
mold was cooled in air with ambient temperature of 20℃ (68℉). The cast part was
solidified in the mold for one minute, and then cooled in ambient air for 5 minutes.
The microstructural features of cast test bars, such as the secondary dendrite arm
space (SDAS) and shrinkage induced micro-porosity were predicted based on the heat
transfer simulation. Equations developed by Carlson and Beckermann [36] from Niyama
criterion [39] were adopted to compute the micro-porosity and SDAS as a function of
cooling rate and thermal gradient. The accuracy of the simulation was examined by
58
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
improvement in mechanical properties of A356 and 319. These are the most common
among cast aluminum alloys in automotive and industrial applications. A reliable and
determine the effect of the various processing parameters. The Stahl permanent mold
was selected, as it is commonly used to test melt quality in commercial casting operations.
However, shrinkage porosity was frequently encountered in the fracture surfaces of the
test bars. This porosity has an overriding impact on mechanical properties and had to be
and experimental verification was undertaken. The subsequent objective of the study
was to determine the effect of processing variables on the mechanical properties of two
mainstream alloys, 356 and 319, employing the redesigned Stahl mold.
Table.1 shows the relationship between the results of the reduced pressure and the
Alspek hydrogen concentration readings of A356 alloy. The pressure test results were
used to determine the specific gravity of each sample and then calculate the percentage of
porosity. The results did not so much depend on the condition of the melt (clean or dirty)
but rather on temperature and relative humidity. The percent porosity determined with the
59
reduced pressure test seems to be proportional to the Alspek readings. Fig.1 shows the
PoDFA result related to table.1 as a bar graph. The total inclusion content of clean and
dirty metal before degassing and fluxing were 0.6 and 2 mm2/Kg. After degassing and
fluxing, the spinel and Mg-oxide were mostly removed, but somehow induced Al-carbide.
A possible source is the degassing system that introduces argon gas bubbles with a
spinning graphite shaft and impeller. Finally, we used an in-situ filter in the melt that
reduced the total inclusion content to only 0.002mm2/Kg Mg-oxide. The efficient
reduction in inclusions with the in-melt filter is another reason why we decided to
Dirty +
In-melt Yes 4.34 2.56 0.19
filter
60
Fig.1: PoDFA results for five different conditions
The composition of the 356 aluminum alloy is shown in table 2. One objective of this
study is to improve the melt quality of this alloy so as to obtain maximum mechanical
properties in the casting. However, if shrinkage porosity is present, it may reduce the
porosity and inclusions have to all be eliminated or reduced to very low levels for good
solidification pattern of the casting. This in turn is determined by the gating design and
feeding of the casting. These are the main topics discussed in this chapter.
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4.2.1 Effect of the Gating System on Mechanical Properties
An early concern in implementing filters in the test bar permanent mold, was the
filter would slow down the flow of the molten metal, causing premature solidification,
before the cavity is filled. Therefore, the thickness of the sprue in the Case mold (Case
mold v1 and v2) was increased to 0.4”. However, after increasing the dimension of the
sprue, an undesirable increase in oxides was noticed, as illustrated in Fig.2. The fracture
of test bars cast without degassing and without a filter had 10%~20% of the surface
covered by a black film; in contrast, another kind of film (white) covers on the fracture
EDX results shown in Fig.2 indicate the black film has much higher oxygen content
then the oxide-free fracture surface. Fig.2 also includes an SEM micrograph of the oxide
film. It clearly shows the dendritic structure typical around folded oxide films. The white
film in the SEM micrograph (Fig.3) shows a clear dendritic structure yet didn’t contain
higher oxygen compared to the dimpled region. We therefore concluded the white region
properties of A356.2 aluminum cast alloy. Their results show that oxide films are
investigated the effect of gating design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings. Their
results show good gating systems can prevent formation of oxide films [34]. Too large
63
Fig.3: The fracture surface of a Stahl mold test bar
In order to understand how these two kind of porosity are produced, we examined
the influence of the diameter between the filter and runner of the Case mold v1. The
Magma [35-39] flow simulation in Fig.4, shows the melt front velocity between the filter
and runner was larger than 30 in/sec (Fig.4 (a)). This velocity is considered too fast and
could produce turbulence thus create oxide in the metal. Fig.4 (b) shows the Case mold
v2, where the thickness between the filter and runner was increased from 0.5 inch to 0.75
64
inch. The simulation now shows the melt front velocity was reduced to about 17 in/sec.
However, this change still didn’t eliminate the oxide film in the test bars. Therefore, the
cause of the oxide film present in the test bars must be the size of the sprue cross-section.
Another experiment was conducted with two Stahl molds with different sprue sizes, to
better understand how the gating system influences the formation of the oxide films and
resulting mechanical properties. This experiment employed the standard Stahl mold Fig.5
(a) with a thin rectangular sprue,the modified Stahl mold Fig.5 (b) with a larger cross-
section, and the Stahl HS mold with a round sprue. By increasing the size of the sprue,
the fillng time is reduced from 10 to 5 seconds. However, test bars cast with the Stahl
mold with a larger cross-section round sprue still exhibited oxide films on the fracture
To understand the effect of different sprue sizes on the microstructure and mechanical
properties additional computer simulations were run. These simulations show the filling
time obtained with the standard Stahl mold (Fig.6 (a)) is below one second; the filling
time in the modified Stahl HS mold (Fig.6 (b)) is longer. The molten metal flows
continuously in the Stahl mold, but is “falling” from the top to the bottom in the Stahl HS
mold. As a result, more air is trapped in the runner and the test bars during pouring in the
Stahl HS mold.
66
Fig.6 (a) Filling time in Stahl mold Fig.6 (b) Filling time in Stahl HS mold
Fig.7 shows the molten metal front velocity as it flows into the runner. Magma
simulation predicts the melt front in that part of the Stahl mold to be about 20 in/sec
(Fig.8 (a). For the Stahl HS mold it is about 30 in/sec Fig.8 (b). Therefore, the larger
sprue size will create a faster melt front velocity. As discussed before, more air is
aspirated by the larger sprue, producing more oxide films in the test bars.
67
Fig.7: Melt front velocity of Stahl mold and Stahl HS mold
Due to the increased oxides content, the mechanical properties of the Stahl HS mold
test bars in as-cast and T6 condition were lower than the Stahl mold test bars. Fig.8
shows that the UTS and elongation of the Stahl and Stahl HS mold test bars in the as-cast
condition are 26.55ksi, 5.23% and 23.65ksi, 4.67% respectively. In the T6 condition the
UTS and elongation are 44.36ksi, 7.1% and 41.74ksi, 5.6% respectively.
68
Fig.8: The effect of sprue size on mechanical properties of A356 alloy on Stahl mold
To further investigate the sprue size effect on filling time, we used Magma to
simulate filling time for the 0.4” and 0.1” sprue sizes in the Case mold. In Fig.9 (a), the
sprue size is 0.4” and filling time of sprue, runners and test bars were similar at the same
height. However, when the sprue size is 0.1” as shown in Fig.9 (b), the filling time in the
sprue was much faster than other locations. As before, when the Stahl and Stahl HS
molds were compared, the larger sprue size will increase air entrapment in the test bars
69
Fig.9: (a) 0.4” Sprue size (Case mold V2) Fig.9 (b) 0.1” Sprue size (Case mold V3)
Fig. 10 shows a similar result when comparing the Stahl HS mold to the standard
Stahl mold. The test bars cast with the Case Mold v.2 contain lots of oxides. The
mechanical properties these test bars were lower than bars cast with the Case Mold v3
test bars. The UTS and elongation of Case Mold v2 and v3 test bars in the as-cast
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Fig.10: Effect of sprue size on mechanical properties of A356 alloy on Case mold
Based on the reported results, we can conclude the Stahl mold and Case Mold v3 with
the 0.1 inch sprue thickness eliminate air aspiration effectively. The fracture surface of
bars cast with these molds only contain a small shrinkage region at the center (Fig.11 (a));
however, Stahl HS mold and Case Mold v1 and v2 with the larger sprue size will produce
71
Fig.11: (a) Macrograph of Stahl mold and Fig.11 (b) Macrograph of Stahl HS mold
Case mold version 3 and Case mold version 1 and 2
In summary, the small 0.1” thickness of the sprue in the Stahl mold is facilitating
longer fill times, with no turbulence and/or air entrapment. Conversely, the oxide film
identified on the fracture surface, explain the lower tensile properties measured for test
bars with a thick sprue. To correct this problem, the sprue of the Case mold was welded
Even with the thinner sprue size, that should eliminate air aspiration, the fracture
surface of Stahl mold and Case mold v 3 still exhibits shrinkage defects.
Fig.12 (a) and Fig.12 (b) show the Case mold with and without a 0.07” wide “knife
ingate” respectively; Fig.13 (a) and Fig.13 (b) shows the simulation of solidification in
the Case mold with and without knife ingate respectively. In Fig.13 (a), the solidification
72
rate in the gage section is very fast (around 35 sec) and the melt solidifies from the gage
section towards the grip sections of the test bars. This solidification pattern is detrimental
to mechanical properties because it prevents feeding. Since no more melt can feed into
the gage section shrinkage porosity would be produced. Fig.14 (a) shows the prediction
of shrinkage porosity in the Case mold without a knife ingate. The shrinkage porosity in
the center of the gage section is about 2.8%. Fig.13 (b) shows the melt solidifying from
the outer surface to the inner section. This solidification pattern allows molten melt to
continue filling the gage section of test bars. Fig.14 (b) predicts the shrinkage porosity of
the Case Mold with a knife ingate (v4). The knife ingate is very effective in reducing
shrinkage porosity in the gage section of the test bars. The shrinkage porosity predicted
by the simulation in a Case Mold with a knife ingate was only 1%.
Fig.12 (a) Case mold without Fig.12 (b) Case mold with
knife ingate (v3) knife ingate (v4)
73
Fig.13 (a) Solidification time of Fig.13 (b) Solidification time of
Case mold without knife ingate (v3) Case mold with knife ingate (v4)
74
Fig.15 (a) and (b) show the prediction of SDAS in the Case Mold with and without a
knife ingate respectively. The Case Mold with a knife ingate had a slightly larger SDAS
than without a knife ingate. The smaller SDAS can increase mechanical properties of
both A356 and 319 alloys, but if the porosity is large enough, it will overwhelm other
Despite the improvements obtained with Case Mold v3, the porosity present in the
gage section still dominates the mechanical properties. Therefore, based on the
simulation results, we replaced the bottom gating with a 0.07” wide knife ingate between
the runner and the test bar. This version was designated as Case Mold v4. Fig.16 shows
75
the mechanical properties of test bars cast with Stahl mold and Case-H mold in the as-
cast condition. The UTS of Case Mold v4 is just a little highe, but the elongation is much
higher than the Stahl mold in the as-cast and T6 condition (the elongation is increased
from around 5.23% to 8.3% at as-cast condition and 7.1% to 12.98% in theT6 condition).
Fig.16 The effect of the knife gate on mechanical properties of A356 alloy
Fig.17 (a) and Fig.17 (b) show the microstructure of test bars cast with the Stahl
mold and Case mold v4 in the middle of the gage section. This microstructure provides
clear evidence on the ability of the knife ingate to improve elongation dramatically. It is
because the knife ingate eliminates most porosity in the gate section of the test bar. There
are many shrinkage pores on the fracture surface of a Stahl Mold test bar shown in Fig.17
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(a); however, the fracture surface of bars cast with the Case Mold v4 is nearly perfect
Fig.17 (a) Fracture surface of Stahl Mold Fig.17 (b) Fracture surface of Case mold
Test bar version 4 test bar
Fig.17 (c) Stahl mold test bar broke in 90 degree (left) and Case mold test bar broke in 45
degree
77
Fig. 18 is a SEM image of the fracture surface from a Stahl Mold test bar. Shrinkage
is pervasive on the surface shown in Fig.18 (a). Fig.18 (b) shows at higher magnification
a shrinkage pore with dendritic structure; the fractography of bars cast with the Case
Mold v4 shows no porosity. Fig.19 (a) and Fig.19 (b) show at different magnification the
fracture surface of bars cast with the Case mold v4. All the fractures are porosity free and
poses a challenge when trimming the test bars. The knife ingate is at gage section and has
to be removed carefully to avoid introducing any defects in the gage section. Fig.20
When casting test bars, controlling the cooling rate of the gage section during
Insulating coatings like Dycote34 are generally used on the runner and the riser. We used
this coating in the gage section of Case Mold v4, otherwise the molten metal will not
easily flow through this thin section without solidifying prematurely. Coating is a very
tedious process, so at the beginning we just applied Dycote34 on the entire parting line
including the gage section. Applying Dycote34 on the gage section can however reduce
79
Fig.21 and Fig.22 illustrate the cooling rate and micro-porosity for two coatings
applied on Case Mold v4. Faster cooling rate and less micro-porosity were obtained
when a graphite coating was applied on the gage section. A possible reason for the
effectiveness of the graphite coating in preventing shrinkage is the faster cooling that
Fig.21: The cooling rate at gage section of Case mold V4 with two kinds of coating
80
Fig.22: The micro-porosity at gage section of Case mold V4 with two kinds of coating
Fig.23 shows the fracture surface of test bars with graphite and Dycote34 coating on
the gage sections in three molds. Fig.23 (a) indicates that using graphite coating on Stahl
mold and Case Mold v3 produced a small shrinkage porosity region at the center on the
test bar; Fig.23 (b) indicates Stahl mold and Case Mold v3 coated with Dycote34
produced a large shrinkage porosity region in the test bar. It confirms the prediction of
the simulation that the hot spot in the gage section will results in shrinkage porosity.
A similar result is shown in Fig.23 (c) and Fig.23 (d). The knife ingate by itself can
remove most shrinkage porosity in the gage section of test bars; if we apply Dycote34 in
the gage section, a small shrinkage porosity region will be produced. Fig.23. (d) confirms
the simulation prediction with regard to the shrinkage porosity shifting off the center,
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Fig.23: Applying a coating on the gage section affects on the fracture surfaces of tensile
test bars of A356 alloy in different molds
PoDFA results indicate in-crucible filtration can remove most inclusions from the melt.
The in-mold filter can improve the melt cleanliness during the treatment process. The
45ppi in-mold filter contains 75% porosity, while the in-crucible filter contains only 40%
porosity. Fig.24 shows the mechanical properties of the A356 alloy with and without the
45ppi filter in the Case Mold v4 in as-cast and T6 conditions. The properties of test bars
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Fig.24: In-mold filter effect on mechanical properties of A356 alloy
4.2.4 Best Mechanical Properties of A356 alloy Test Bars Cast with Each Mold
Fig.25 illustrates a Step Mold used to cast Step Castings. The 2” second step was used
to machine test bars. The step mold was used to produce almost porosity free casting
because it solidifies in a directional manner (from thin part to thick part). The thin part is
in contact with the mold wall, therefore solidifies first. In this study, we use the 2” part to
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Fig.25: Schematic of the step mold and step casting
Fig.26 shows the comparison of micro-porosity among the Stahl mold, Case Mold
v4 and Step Mold. The Stahl mold test bar has about 3% micro-porosity at the center of
the gage section. The Case Mold v4 test bar and Step Mold 2” section have less than 1%
porosity. Fig.27 illustrates the SDAS in the Stahl mold, Case Mold v4 and Step Mold.
The SDAS of test bars cast in the Stahl mold and Case Mold v4 at the center of the gage
section is about 24~27 µm; in the step mold 2” section the SDAS is about 35 µm. The
prediction of the simulation for the 2” section of the step mold is very close to the cast
samples; however, the SDAS at the center of the test bar is only about 20 µm for Stahl
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Fig.26: Micro-porosity prediction in three different molds
section of the Step Mold. Fig.28 shows the tensile testing results for an A356 alloy with
and without HIP in the as-cast and T6 conditions. The HIP improves both UTS and
elongation;, the tensile properties of bars machined from the Step Mold are lower than
the Stahl and Case-H Mold samples. This may be because the SDAS of the test bars
taken from the Step Mold samples is much larger than in the Stahl and Case-H Mold
samples.
Fig.28: Mechanical properties of samples from the 2” Step Casting with and w/o HIP
86
Fig.29 shows the best mechanical properties of A356 alloy cast in different molds.
The squeeze casting mold, Case Mold v4 and Step Casting can be considered porosity
free, but the Stahl mold is not. The mechanical properties of squeeze cast and Case Mold
v4 bars are very similar. If the SDAS is lower than 20 µm in a porosity-free test bar, we
obtain the best mechanical properties of A356 alloy. Because the 2” section of the step
casting has a larger, 35 µm SDAS it yields lower mechanical properties than squeeze
Fig.29: Best mechanical properties for test bars cast in different molds (T6 condition)
87
4.2.5 Quality Index
It is convenient to use the quality to describe overall casting quality and to compare
different sets of data on castings. The quality index accounts for differences in strength
levels, which may be caused by differences in Mg content or aging time. The quality
where Q and UTS are given in MPa and the elongation to fracture, E, is given in percent.
The best mechanical properties obtained so far in our study are superimposed on a plot
from a recent in a paper by G.K. Sigworth and T.A. Kuhn [40]. Our result show as a star
in Fig.30. The aging time we used in this study was 6 hours (320℉) and the Case-H mold.
43.84Ksi UTS and 13.4% elongation (QI=471). This is a very good result according to
this plot because our A356 contains 0.09% Fe. We can say the Case mold v4 is better
than standard Stahl mold, because the knife ingate reduces shrinkage porosity in the gage
88
Fig.30: Mechanical properties of 356-T6 alloy as a function of iron content and aging
time. Castings were aged 2, 6 and 18 hours at 310oF (155oC). (Ken Whaler 10) [40]
To compare with another quality index QT also mentioned in the literature review,
three average data points were used from Fig.29 and shown in Fig.31 [26]. The green star
represents the Stahl mold test bars (σY. = 215 and QT = 0.33), the blue star stands for the
step mold with HIP test bars (σY. = 243 and QT = 0.49) and the red star represents the
Case-H mold test bars (σY. = 245 and QT = 0.66). The data from the Case-H mold test
bars could only reach the top of Region 2. The reasons of why literature data could reach
Region 3 are:
1. The authors didn’t show all the dimensions of the test bars. Elongation depends on
the shape an thickness of gauge section. (The authors only mentioned the kind of
free test bars or employed fast cooling rate to obtain extremely fine grain test bars.
3. The authors should have used a single mold to generate the plot, because the three
stars from this study have the same melt preparation and the test bars have the same
size of the gauge section. The only difference is the mold. This plot could be used as
evidence on how the Case-H mold improves the quality of A356 test bars.
Fig.31: Data from this study in QT lines for A356 alloy castings [26]
90
4.3 Improving Mechanical Properties of Alloy 319
In this study, we used four different 319 alloys: low Mg - low Mn, low Mg – high Mn,
high Mg – low Mn, and high Mg – high Mn alloys. The compositions are shown in
Table.3.
Adding Mg and Mn can increase mechanical properties in alloy 319. Fig. 32 shows
the Mn modified microstructure of 319. Fig.32 (a) shows many needle-shape secondary
phases (β phases - Fe (Al5FeSi)) in low Mn 319 alloy; and Fig.32 (b) shows modified
91
Fig.32 (a) Low Mn 319 alloy Fig.32 (b) High Mn 319 alloy
A similar trend for the A356 alloy is shown in Fig.33. The fracture surface shows a
shrinkage pore at the center of the Stahl mold test bars; Test bards made with the Case
Fig.33 (a) Fracture surface of Stahl Mold Fig.33 (b) Fracture surface of Case mold
Test bar v4 test bar
92
Fig.34, Fig.35, and Fig.36 show how test bars cast with the Stahl mold compare with
those cast with the Case Mold v4 for four kinds of 319 alloys in the as-cast, T6 and T7
condition respectively. Fig.34 indicates Mg increases the UTS; Mn increases both UTS
and elongation of 319 alloy. The knife ingate didn’t change the mechanical properties of
low Mg – low Mn and high Mg – low Mn 319 alloys, but increased by a small degree the
properties of high Mg – high Mn alloy. It is possible that the low Mn 319 alloy is too
brittle to benefit from the absence of the shrinkage pores in the test bars. Fig.35 shows a
similar results relative to the as-cast condition. Fig.36 demonstrates the knife ingate
Fig.34: The effect of Knife ingate on alloy 319 in the as-cast condition
93
Fig.35: Effect of knife ingate on properties of 319 alloy in T6 condition
Fig.37 and Fig.38 show the effect of in-mold filtration in Case mold v4 test bars for
three kinds of 319 alloys in as-cast, T6 and T7. Fig.37 shows a low Mg – high Mn 319
alloy in the as-cast condition with and without filter. The filter only improves a little on
both UTS and elongation. Fig.38 shows the filter doesn’t improve the UTS and reduces
95
Fig.38: Effect of in-mold filtration on alloy 319 in T6 and T7 conditions
Fig.39 shows the results of A319 alloy with and without HIP at as-cast and in T7
condition. The HIP improves elongation but reduces yield stress and only improves a
little the UTS. Like A356 alloy, the tensile properties of the step mold samples are much
lower than the Stahl and Case-H mold samples. This may because the SDAS of the step
mold samples is much larger than Stahl and Case-H mold samples.
96
Fig.39: Mechanical properties of Step Mold 2” tensile samples with and without HIP
Fig.40 shows the fatigue properties of samples excised from the Step Mold, 1” step
sample with and without HIP that corresponds to the reference data with 125 MPa fully
reversed sinusoidal loading. The reference curve of the A356 alloy is from the Casting
Technologies Company (CTC). The blue triangles represent A356 alloy without HIP in
T6 condition and the red circles represent A356 with HIP. The no-HIP samples have
lower results than the reference curve while the HIP samples show better results than
97
reference curve.
HIP also improves the fatigue properties of the 319 alloy. The blue stars represent
319 alloy without HIP in T7 condition; the red circles represent it with HIP. The 319
reference curve is from X. Zhu’s study [30]. Evidently, reducing microporosity by HIP
improves the fatigue properties dramatically. Fatigue test bars were cut and machined
plastic zones which create locally high regions of plastic strain at or very near the
specimen surface, adjacent to the pore. The main mechanism by which HIPing improves
fatigue life is the reduction in crack initiation due to the lower level of porosity facilitated
Fig.40 Fatigue properties of Step Mold 1” sample with and without HIP [30]
98
0.250+/-0.001
1.050 (Ref.) 1.050 (Ref.)
0.500+/-0.001
R 2.000
3.50
99
5. Conclusions
A number of key conclusion were derived from this study and are listed below.
These conclusions have both fundamental and practical implications for the metal casting
industry:
1. Magma computer simulation of the molten metal flow demonstrated reducing sprue
size of the Case mold from 0.4” to 0.1” prevents air entrapment in the test bars. The
Case Mold, largely due to the incorporation of the knife-ingate design. This design
promotes a laminar, turbulence-free flow of the metal into the mold cavity while
providing a more directional heat flow pattern in the gage section of the test specimen.
and therefore improving tensile properties in the test-bar. The total inclusion content of
clean and dirty metal before degassing and fluxing were 0.6 and 2 mm2/Kg. After
degassing and fluxing, the spinel and Mg-oxides were by –and-large removed; using an
in-furnace filter reduced the total inclusion content to only 0.002mm2/Kg Mg-oxide.
3. Experiments with 30 ppi in-mold filters had little or no effect on mechanical properties
of the test-bars. Applying filtration and degassing best practices enabled the recycled
metal to reach nearly the same properties as those obtained from a virgin ingot alloy. In
other words, if the molten metal is very clean, additional filtration makes no difference.
4. The knife ingate design improves the UTS, elongation and Q/QT of permanent mold
test bars. The Case-H Mold that includes an in-mold heater, could keep the mold
temperature at 625℉ and allow the knife ingate to stay open and fill the test bars well.
100
For the traditional Stahl mold design, the average UTS, elongation and quality indexes Q
and QT are 41.13ksi, 6.68%, 407Mpa and 0.33 respectively; for the Case mold test bars
(after improving the gating system), the average UTS, elongation, Q and QT are 43.84ksi,
5. Tensile properties were improved by Hot Isostatic Pressing, especially the elongation
which is more sensitive to the porosity than Ultimate Tensile Strength. For the A356
alloy, the elongation was improved from an average of 7.17 to 10.83 in the T6 condition;
for the 319 alloy, the elongation was improved from an average of 3.17 to 3.5 in the T7
condition.
6. The fatigue properties of aluminum 356 and 319 are very sensitive to the presence of
porosity. The fatigue life could be improved significantly by HIPing of the Step Mold
samples. For the A356 alloy at 125 MPa fully reversed sinusoidal loading at 60 Hz, the
fatigue life was improved from an average of 4.5 x 105 to 3.5 x 106. For the 319 alloy the
fatigue life was improve from an average of 1.2 x 104 to 3.5 x 106.
Because of these improvements, the study has attracted strong interest in the
aluminum casting community The Case mold design is currently considered by ASTM as
a possible replacement for the traditional ASTM B108 test bar mold.
Future Work
Improved mechanical properties in 0.5” diameter test bars made feasible with the
knife ingate design were demonstrated in this study. Similar improvements were
obtained by Hot Isostatic Pressing. Both are attributed to a reduction in the porosity level.
101
Quantifying the porosity level in the test bars and step castings, and correlating it to the
In this study, we used test bars machined from the step casting for hot isostatic
pressing studies. Hipping test bars cast with the Stahl and Case mold to determine the
Since fatigue is very sensitive to porosity, a broader study on the effect of HIPing on
102
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