1

LAB : HEAT TRANSFER - Cycle 2

YEAR/SEMESTER : III B.TECH II SEMESTER
BRANCH : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

S.No Experiment Page no

1 Heat transfer through concentric sphere 2

2 Heat transfer in transient conduction 4

3 Parallel and counter flow heat exchanger 9

4 Emissivity apparatus 14

5 Stefan Boltzmann apparatus 18

6 Critical heat flux apparatus 21

7 Drop wise and film wise condensation 26

8 Study of heat pipe and its demonstration 31

 2

EXPERIMENT_-3
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SPHERE
Introduction:
Thermal conductivity is the physical property of material denoting the ease
with a particular substance can accomplish the transmission of thermal
energy by molecular motion. Thermal conductivity of a material is found, to
depend on the chemical composition of the substances of which it is a
composed, the phase (that is gas, liquid or solid) in which its crystalline
structure if a solid, the temperature & pressure to which it is subjected and
whether or not it is homogeneous material.
Description of the apparatus:
The apparatus consists of the aluminum sphere of 75 mm diameter and 150
diameter concentrically placed. Heat is provided by means of oil bath heater.
Thermocouples are provided at the suitable points to measure the surface
and inner temperatures. Proper insulation is provided to minimize the heat
loss. The temperature is shown by means of the digital temperature indicator
on the control panel, which also consists of heater regulator and other
accessories instrumentation having good aesthetic looks and safe design.
Experimentation:

Aim:
To determine the thermal conductivity of given concentric sphere.
Procedure:
1. Give necessary electrical and water connections
2. Switch on the MCB and console on to activate the control panel.
3. Give input to the heater by slowly rotating the heater regulator.
4. Note the temperature at different points, when steady state is reached.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heater input.
6. After experiment is over, switch off the electrical connections.
 3

Observations:

Heat input i.e Temperature, 0C

S.NO Thermostat setting, Inside sphere Outer sphere
Q (W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
1 30
2 40
3 50
4 60

Calculations:
1. Heat input to the system, Q

2. Thermal conductivity of the concentric sphere, K

Q= watts

Where, r1= radius of the inner sphere = 0.0375 m

r2 = radius of outer sphere = 0.075 m
K= thermal conductivity of aluminum sphere
T1 = temperature of the inner sphere
Tavg = temperature of the outer sphere = (T2+T3T4+T5)/4
Precautions:
1. Input should be given very slowly
2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180 v
3. Check all the electrical connections before running
4. Before starting and after finishing the experiment the heater controller
should be in off position.
5. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
 4

EXPERIMENT-6

TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION APPARATUS

Introduction:

When a body is subjected to heating or cooling, irrespective of the material

it' requires certain time to attain steady state. Hence the other way of
expressing is that the unsteady process will occur till it attains the steady
process. In unsteady process the temperature will change with respect to
time. Although I temperature of the body is generally expressed as the
function of 3 different axis and time it is not easy to solve.
Unsteady state heating or cooling can' be categorized as,
PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature within the system
undergoes periodic changes which may be regular or irregular.
NON - PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature at any point within
the system changes non - linearly with' respect to time. Unsteady state heat
flow is very common in all heating .or cooling problems at the beginning of
the system. Hardening by quenching, cooling of IC engine cylinders, and
heating of boiler tubes are common examples of unsteady state heat flow.

Description Of Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of a specially designed Stainless Steel Tank with

heater arrangement. An ALUMINIUM sphere is provided to study the
experiment with the stand to place in the heater tank. Heater regulator with
Thermostat to supply –the regulated power input to the heater and to set the
temperature. Thermocouples at suitable position to measure temperatures.
Digital Temperature Indicator with channel selector to Measure the
 5

temperatures. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically

designed study frame made of MS tubes and NOVAPAN Board with all the
provisions for holding the tanks and accessories.

Aim:
To determine heat transfer coefficient and instantaneous heat transfer rate
for transient heat conduction and-draw the graph of temperature variation
with time.

Procedure:

1. Take the fluid-(water or oil) in the tank

2. Heat the fluid to the required temperature say. 70°C in case of water and

more than 100°C in case of oil;

3. Note down the initial temperature of sphere and hot fluid,

4. Immerse the sphere in hot fluid bath for heating.

5. Note down the core and outer surface temperature of the sphere at every

10 seconds till it attains the fluid temperature.

6. Take out the sphere from hot fluid and cool It in atmospheric air.

7. Note down the temperature at every 30 second till the consecutive three

readings of temperatures are same.

8. Repeat the experiment for different temperatures of fluid.

 6

Observations

Initial Temp, of the fluid, T0 = ………………………0C

Temperatures of
Sl No. Time, t sec sphere, °C
T2•

Calculations:
1. Determination of Heat transfer coefficient, h
NuK
h
L
Nu = 2+0.43 (GrPr) 0.23 for 1 < GrPr <105
Nu = 2+0.50 (GrPr)0.25 for 3*105 < GrPr <8*105
Pr = Prandtl number from handbook
Gr = Grashoff’s number and is given by,
L3 g 2 t
Gr 
2

D = Diameter of sphere = 0.075m; Characteristic length, L = D/2.

K= Thermal conductivity of fluid, W/mC,
 7

ρ - density of fluid, kg/m3

β - Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient = 1 / (Tf+273)
Δt = Tmax - Tmin
Tf = mean film temperature, 0C
= (Tmax+Tmin) / 2
Tmax – specimen temperature just after heating
Tmin - specimen temperature before heating
μ = Absolute viscosity of fluid, Ns/m2
Properties of fluid such as ρ, µ, K, P r are obtained from HMT data book at Tf
2. Determination of instantaneous heat flow, Qi
Qi  hA(Ti  T0 )e  Bi F0 Watts
Where,
h - heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2C
Ti - Temperature of the sphere at given time instant, 0C,
T0 – Initial temperature of fluid
hL
Bi – Biot’s number =
Ks

t
F0 – Fourier number =
L2
α =Thermal diffusivity of sphere material = 84.18x10-6 m2 /s
t = time at the given instant, sec
Calculate the values of Fo at all time instances and tabulate
Ks = thermal conductivity of sphere = 205 W/mC
3. Determination of Theoretical Temperatures, T

T  T
 e  Bi Fo
Ti  T
Where,
T = Theoretical temperature of the sphere in the given time, 0C
 8

Tα = Temperature of water after heating, 0C

Results:

Temperature of
Experimental Theoretical
Fourier the sphere at
Time, temperatures of temperatures of
Sl No. number, given time
t sec• sphere, °C sphere, °C
F0 instant, 0C
T2 T
Ti

The heat transfer coefficient for transient heat conduction heat transfer is calculated

Graphs:
1. Experimental temperature (T2) Vs time (t)
2. Theoretical temperature (T) Vs time (t)

Precautions:
1. Clean the tank regularly after every use.
2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Check all the electrical connections’ before running.
4. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to whole system.
 9

EXPERIMENT-9

PARALLEL & COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

Introduction:

Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to
another. The fluids may be in direct contact with each other or separated by
a solid wall. Heat Exchangers can be classified based on its principle of
operation and the direction of flow. The temperature of the fluids changes in
the direction of flow and consequently there occurs a change in the thermal
head causing the flow of heat. The temperatures profiles at the two fluids in
parallel and counter flow are curved and have logarithmic variations. LMTD
is less than the arithmetic mean temperature difference. So, it is always safer
for the designer to use LMTD so as to provide larger heating surface for a
certain amount of heat transfer.

Description Of The Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of concentric tubes. The inner tube is made of copper
while the outer tube is made of Stainless Steel. Insulation is provided with
mica sheet and asbestos rope for Effective heat transfer. Provision has been
made for hot water generation by means of geyser.
Change - Over Mechanism is provided to change the direction of flow of
cold water in a single operation. An ACRYLIC Rota meter of specific range
is used for direct measurement of water flow rate.
Thermocouples are placed at appropriate positions which carry the signals to
the temperature indicator. A Digital Temperature indicator with channel
 10

selector is provided to measure the Temperature. The whole arrangement is

mounted on an aesthetically designed self sustained sturdy frame made of
MS tubes with NOVAPAN board control panel. The control panel houses all
the indicators, accessories and necessary instrumentations.
Experimentation:

Aim:
To determine LMTD & Effectiveness of the heat exchanger under parallel
and counter Flow arrangement.

Procedure:

1. Switch ON mains and the CONSOLE.

2. Start the flow on the hot water side.
3. Start the flow through annulus also.
4. Set the exchanger for parallel or counter flow using the change over
mechanism.
5. Switch ON the heater of the geyser.
6. Set the flow rate of the hot water (say 1.5 to 4 lpm) using the rotameter of
the hot water.
7. Set the flow rate of the cold water (say 3 to 8 lpm) using the rotameter of
the cold water.
8. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
9. Note down the Temperatures 1 to 4 using the channel selector and digital
temperature indicator.
10. Note down the flow rates of the water and tabulate.
11. Now, change the direction of flow for the same flow rates and repeat the
steps 9 to 11
12. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates of water.
 11

Observations:

Temperature 0C Flow rate, LPM

Flow
S.NO
direction
T1 T2 T3 T4 Hot water H Cold water C

Note:
T1 = Cold Water Inlet Temperature (In Case Of Parallel Flow)
= Cold Water Outlet Temperature (In Case Of Counter Flow)
T2 = Cold Water Outlet Temperature (In Case Of Parallel Flow)
= Cold Water Inlet Temperature (In Case Of Counter Flow)
T3 = Hot Water Inlet Temperature.
T4 = Hot Water Outlet Temperature.

Calculations:

1. HEAT TRANSFER RATE, Q

Q= Watts

mH xC pw (T3  T4 )
QH =
60
mC xC pw (T2  T1 )
Qc =
60
Where,
QH - heat transfer rate from hot water
QC - heat transfer rate from cold water
mH - mass flow rate of hot water (LPM)
mc - mass flow rate of cold water (LPM)
 12

CPH - Specific heat of hot water – 4.184 kJ/kg K

2. LMTD – Logarithmic mean temperature difference:

Where,
ΔTi = (THI – TCI) for parallel flow
Δ Ti = (THI – TCO) for counter flow
ΔTo = (THO– TCO) for parallel flow
Δ To = (THO– TCI) for counter flow
NOTE: The suffix H = HOT WATER; C = COLD WATER; I = INLET;
O = OUTLET
3. OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT:

U= W/m °K

Where,
Q = heat transfer rate
A = π *DO*L m² where, DO = 0.02 m & L = 1 m.
= LMTD.
4. EFFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGER, E

EXPERIMENTAL:

EExp = if, CMax > CMin

EExp = if, CMax < CMin

THEORETICAL:

ETH = For PARALLEL FLOW

ETH = For COUNTER FLOW

 13

Where,

Cmax = mH x CpH
Cmin = mC x CpC

R = Cmin/ Cmax

NTU - No. of Transfer units =

CM = minimum of Cmin & Cmax

5. Percentage of error, % Error

% of Error = x 100

Reference:

1. Heat and Mass transfer by Arora & Domkundwar

2. Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, by Robert H. Perry / Cecil H. Chilton
Publication: McGraw – Hill Book Company (6th edition)

Precautions:

1. Check all the electrical connections.

2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
 14

EXPERIMENT-10

EMISSIVITY APPARATUS
Introduction:
Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which does not require any
material medium for its propagation. All bodies can emit radiation & have
also the capacity to absorb all or a part of the radiation coming from the
surrounding towards it. The mechanism is assumed to be electromagnetic in
nature and is a result of temperature difference. Thermodynamic
considerations show that an ideal radiator or black body will emit energy at a
rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.
Other types of surfaces such as glossy painted surface or a polished metal
plate do not radiate as much energy as the black body, however the total
radiation emitted by these bodies still generally follow the fourth power
proportionality. To take account of the gray nature of such surfaces, the
factor called emissivity (e), which relates the radiation of the gray surface to
that of an ideal black surface, is used. The emissivity of the surface is the
ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of the black
surface at the same temperature. Emissivity is the property of the surface and
depends upon the nature of the surface and temperature.

Description of apparatus:

The setup consists of a 200mm diameter two copper plates one surface
blackened to get the effect of the black body and other is patented to give the
effect of the gray body. Both the plates with mica heaters are mounted on the
ceramic base covered with chalk powder for maximum heat transfer. Two
Thermocouples are mounted on their surfaces to measure the temperatures
 15

of the surface and one more to measure the enclosure/ambient temperature.

This complete arrangement is fixed in an acrylic chamber for visualization.
Temperatures are indicated on the digital temperature indicator with channel
selector to select the temperature point. Heater regulators are provided to
control and monitor the heat input to the system with voltmeter and ammeter
for direct measurement of the heat inputs.
The heater controller is made of complete aluminum body having fuse. With
this, the setup is mounted on an aesthetically designed frame with control
panel to monitor all the processes. The control panel consists of mains on
indicator, Aluminum body heater controllers, and change over switches,
digital temperature indicator with channel selector, digital voltmeter and
ammeter for measurement of power and other necessary instrumentation.
The whole arrangement is on the single bench considering all safety and
aesthetics factors.

Experimentation:
AIM:
The experiment is conducted to determine the emissivity of the non – black
surface and compare with the black body.
Procedure:
1. Give necessary electrical connections and switch on the MCB and switch
on the console on to activate the control panel.
2. Switch On the heater of the black body and set the voltage (say 30V)
using the heater regulator and digital voltmeter.
3. Switch On the heater of the Gray body and set the voltage (say 30V) using
the heater regulator and digital voltmeter.
 16

4. Observe temperatures of the black body and test surface in close time
intervals and adjust power input to the test plate heater such that both black
body and test surface temperatures are same.
NOTE: This procedure requires trial and error method and one has to wait
sufficiently long (say 2hours or longer) to reach a steady state.
5. Wait to attain the steady state.
6. Note down the temperatures at different points and also the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
7. Tabulate the readings and calculate the surface emissivity of the non –
black surface.

Observations:
Heat input Ambient
S.NO Black body Gray body Temp. 0C
V I T1 T2 V I T3 T4 T5
volts amps volts amps
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

1. Heat input to the black body,

QB = V x I Watts.
2. Heat input to the gray body
QG = V x I Watts.
 17

3. Emissivity of the gray body, εG

εG =

TB = Temperature of black body = (T1+T2)/2

TG = Temperature of gray body = (T3+T4)/2
T5 - Ambient temperature

RESULT
The emissivity of the gray body is εG = ________.

Reference:
1. Heat and Mass transfer by Arora & Domkundwar
2. Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, by Robert H. Perry / Cecil H. Chilton
Publication: McGraw – Hill Book Company (6th edition)

Precautions:

1. Check all the electrical connections.

2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Make sure that heater regulator is at the minimum position before
switching on the console.
4. After finishing the experiment open the acrylic door to remove the heat
from the chamber.
5. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
 18

EXPERIMENT-11

STEFAN BOLTZMAN’S APPARATUS

Introduction:

The most commonly used relationship in radiation heat transfer is the Stefan
Boltzman’s law which relates the heat transfer rate to the temperatures of hat
and cold surfaces.

q = σ.A.( )

Where,
q = rate of heat transfer, watts
s = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant = 5.669 x 10-8 Watts/m² °K
A = Surface area, m²
TH = Temperature of the hot body, °K
TC = Temperature of the cold body, °K

The above equation is applicable only to black bodies for example a piece of
metal covered with carbon black approximates this behavior) and is valid
only for thermal radiation. Other types of bodies (like a glossy painted
surface or a polished metal plate) do not radiate as much energy as the black
body but still the total radiations emitted generally follow temperature
proportionality.

Description Of The Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of Copper hemispherical enclosure with insulation.

SS jacket to hold the hot water. Over head water heater with quick release
mechanism and the thermostat to generate and dump the hot water. Heater
regulator to supply the regulated power input to the heater.
Thermocouples at suitable position to measure the surface temperatures of
the absorber body.
Digital Temperature Indicator with channel selector to measure the
temperatures.
Control panel to house all the instrumentation.
With this the whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed
self-sustained MS powder coated frame with a separate control panel.
 19

Experimentation:
AIM:
To determine the Stefan Boltzmann’s constant.

Procedure:

1. Fill water slowly into the overhead water heater.

2. Switch on the supply mains and console.
3. Switch on the heater and regulate the power input using the heater
regulator. (say 60 – 85 °C)
4. After water attains the maximum temperature, open the valve of the heater
and dump to the enclosure jacket.
5. Wait for about few seconds to allow hemispherical enclosure to attain
uniform temperature – the chamber will soon reach the equilibrium. Note the
enclosure temperature.
6. Insert the Test specimen with the sleeve into its position and record the
temperature at different instants of time using the stop watch.
7. Plot the variation of specimen temperature with time and get the slope of
temperature versus time variation at the time t = 0 sec
8. Calculate the Stefan Boltzmann’s constant using the equations provided.
9. Repeat the experiment 3 to 4 times and calculate the average value to
obtain the better results.

Observations:

Enclosure Temperature, Te =
Initial Temperature of the specimen, Ts =

Time, t in Specimen
sec Temperature, Ts
0
15
30
45
60
75
 20

Note: The above readings need to be taken till the temperature reaches its
steady state (three consecutive readings of temperature must be same).

Calculations:

Stefan Boltzman’s constant is calculated using the relation:

σ=
Where,
m = mass of the test specimen = 0.0047Kg
Cp = Specific heat of the specimen = 410 J/Kg °C
Te = Enclosure temperature, °C
TS = Initial temperature of the specimen, °C
(dTa/dt) to be calculated from graph.
AD - Surface area of the test specimen = πd²/4
d = 0.015m
Result:

Stefan Boltzmann’s constant is found to be _______________

Reference:

1. Heat and Mass transfer by Arora & Domkundwar

2. Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, by Robert H. Perry / Cecil H. Chilton
Publication: McGraw – Hill Book Company (6th edition)

Precautions:

1. Check all the electrical connections.

2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Do not switch on the heater without water in the over head tank.
4. Do not turn the heater regulator to the maximum as soon as the equipment
is started.
5. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
 21

EXPERIMENT-12

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

Introduction:
Boiling and condensation are the specific convection processes which is
associated with change of phase. The coefficient of heat transfer is
correspondingly very high when compared to natural conventional process
while the accompanying temperature difference is small.
However, the visualization of this mode of heat transfer is more difficult and
actual solutions are still difficult than conventional heat transfer process.
Commonly, this mode of heat transfer with change of phase is seen in
boilers, condensers in power plants and evaporators in refrigeration system.

Description of Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a specially designed Glass cylinder. An
arrangement above the cylinder in the form of Bakelite plate is provided to
place the main heater and the nichrome wire heater arrangement.
The base is made up of MS and is powder coated with rubber cushion to
place the glass cylinder. Heater regulator to supply the regulated power input
to the heater. Digital voltmeter and ammeter to measure power input to the
heater.
The thermocouples fit at suitable position to measure the temperatures of
body and air. Digital temperature indicator with channel selector is used to
measure the temperatures. The whole arrangement is mounted on an
aesthetically designed sturdy frame made of MS tubes and NOVAPAN
Board with all provisions foe holding the tanks and accessories.
 22

Experimentation:
Aim :
To study the phenomenon of the boiling heat transfer and to plot the graph
of heat flux versus Bulk temperature difference up to burn out condition.
Theory:
When heat is added to a liquid surface from a submerged solid surface which
is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is
usual that a part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is called
‘boiling’. If the liquid is not flowing and present in container, the type of
boiling is called as ‘pool boiling’. Pool boiling is also being of various types
depending upon the temperature difference between the surfaces of liquid.
The different types of zones are as shown in the figure A. The heat flux
supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw ~ Ts) where Ts is the
temperature of the submerged solid and Tw is the saturation temperature of
the liquid at exposed pressure. The boiling curve can be divided into three
regions:
I. Natural convection region
II. Nucleate boiling region
III. Film boiling region
As temperature difference (Tw ~ Ts) is very small (10C or so), the liquid
near to the surface gets slightly superheated and rises up to the surface. The
heat transfer from the heating surface to the liquid is similar to that by
natural convection and hence this region is called ‘natural convection
region’.
When (Tw ~ Ts) becomes a few degrees, vapor bubble start forming at some
discrete locations of the heating surface and we enter into ‘Nucleate boiling
region’. Region II consists of two parts. In the first part, the bubbles formed
are very few in number and before reaching the top liquid surface, they get
 23

condensed. In second part, the rate of bubble formation as well as the

locations where they are formed increases with increase in temperature
difference. A stage is finally reached when the rate of formation of bubbles
is so high that they start coalesce and blanket the surface with a vapor film.
This is the beginning of region III since the vapor has got very low thermal
conductivity, the formation of vapor film on the heating surface suddenly
increases the temperature beyond the melting point of the submerged surface
and as such the end of ‘Nucleate boiling’ is important and its limiting
condition is known as critical heat flux point or burn out point.
The pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point can be visualized
and studied with the help of apparatus described above.

Procedure:
1. Distilled water of about 4 liters is taken into the glass container.
2. The test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected across the studs and
electrical connections are made.
3. Keep the heater regulator to the minimum position.
4.Connect the power cable to 1Ph, 220V, 10 Amps with earth connection.
5. Switch on the mains on to activate the control panel.
6. By using main heater heat the water to the known temperature and switch
off the same.
7. Now, using dimmer provided start heating the test wire by slowly rising
the current till the wire breaks.
8. Mean while, record the temperature, voltage and current till the wire
breaks. (also note the above parameters even at the break point.)
9. Repeat the above experiment by replacing the test wire and for different
temperatures of water.
 24

Observations:

Temperatures, 0C
Heat input
S.NO Wire
Heater
Temp, Water Temp, T3 V volts I amps
Temp, T1
T2
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:
1. Surface area of wire, A
A= m2
Where d = diameter of test wire = 0.000122 m
L= length of test wire=0.06m
2. Heat Input, Q
Q= V*I Watts
Where,
V= voltage in volts.
I= current in Amps.
3. Heat flux, q
q = Q/A W/m2
4. Heat transfer coefficient, h
h = 1.45 q0.75 W/m2C
Where,
q= heat flux
 25

5. Temperature Excess, ΔTTh (Theoretical)

ΔTTh = K

6. Temperature Excess, ΔTexp (Experimental)

T1  T2
Texp   T3
2

S.NO Heat flux, Temperature Excess, Temperature

q ΔTTh Excess, ΔTexp

Results:
1. Draw the graph of q Vs ΔT and
2. Compare ΔT with the experimental values (difference of water
temperature and test wire temperature).
Precautions:
1. All the switches and Dimmerstat knob should be operated gently.
2. When the experiment is over, bring the Dimmerstat to zero position.
3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance. Do not switch
on heaters unless distilled water is present in the container.
 26

EXPERIMENT-14

Drop wise and film wise condensation

AIM:
To determine the overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of both Drop and Film
wise Condensation.

INTRODUCTION:
Condensation is the change in phase from the vapour state to the liquid or
solid state. It can be considered as taking place within a bulk material or on a
cooled surface and is accompanied by simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
Condensation plays a significant role in the heat rejection parts of the
Rankine Power Cycle and the vapour compression refrigeration cycle, which
generally involve pure substances. Dehumidification in air conditioning and
the production of liquefied petroleum gases, liquid nitrogen and liquid
oxygen and exampled in which condensation in a mixture takes place.
Condensation on a cooled surface occurs in one of two ways: film or drop
wise condensation.
In film condensation, the liquid condensate forms a continuous film which
covers the surface and takes place when the liquid wets the surface. This
film flows over the surface under the action of gravity or other body, surface
tension and shear stresses due to vapour flow. Heat transfer to the solid
surface takes place through the film, which forms the greatest part of the
thermal resistance.
In drop wise condensation the vapour impinges on the cool wall, reducing its
energy and thereby liquidifying and forming drops, which grow by direct
condensation of vapour on the drops and by coalescence with neighboring
drops until the drops are swept off the surface by their action of gravity or
the drops move they coalesce with other droplets in their path, sweeping a
 27

portion of the surface clean so that condensation can begin a new. The
details of drop wise condensation are not completely understood but it is
known to take place under circumstances where the liquid does not wet the
surface.

APPARATUS:
The condensing chamber A is the plain copper tube (PCT) and chamber B
consists of the Chromium Plated copper tube (CPCT) of identical
dimensions. Boiler is provided to prepare steam, which will be allowed
inside the chamber.
Pump P circulates cooling water through the tubes. Inlet (suction) of the
pump is connected to the sump S. By operating valve V 1& flow control
valves, V6 & V7 experiments to be carried out at different flow rates. Rota
meter R1& R2 measures water flow rate.

SPECIFICATIONS :
TEST SECTION SIZE (FOR BOTH COPPER AND CHROMIUM
PLATED TUBES):

COPPER TUBE DIAMETER : 15.7 mm

COPPER TUBE LENGTH : 300 mm
STEAM GENERATOR CAPACITY : 12 Liters.
MAX.STEAM PRESSURE : 0.8-1.2 Kg / cm2.
WATER MEASUREMENT : By rotameter
DIGITAL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR : 0 - 200 OC
 28

PROCEDURE:
1) First fill the water in the steam generator and then, switch- ON the Mains.
2) Switch-ON the heater wait for pressure reaches to 0.5- 1.2 kg/cm2.
3) Change the valve position for conducting drop & film wise condensation
experiment.
4) Maintain a steady water flow to the tube (inlet water) through the
Rotameter.
5) Wait for some time till steady steam is generated. Then open the steam
value.
6) Note down the different temperature reading, Rotameter reading.
7) Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates or different pressure.
OBSERVATION:
Water flow
Sl.
rate Q Temperatures 0C
No.
cc/sec
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

THERMOCOUPLE POSITION:
T1 = WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
T2 = SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN COPPER TUBE (A)
T3 = VAPOUR TEMPERATURE IN PCT GLASS COLUMN (A)
T4 = SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN CHROMIUM PLATED TUBE (B)
T5 = VAPOUR TEMPERATURE IN CPCT GLASS COLUMN (B)
T6 = WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF PCT (A)
T7 = WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CPCT (B)
T8 = STEAM INLET TEMPERATURE
 29

ELECTRICAL SUPPLY : 1Ph, 230 Volts, 16 Amps with grounding

FORMULA:
From Heat Balance Equation,
HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT
1) Hence heat transfer rate can be calculated by,

Q = m Cp ΔT in KW.

Where, m = Mass flow rate of water in ltr/sec.

Cp = Specific heat of water.
= 4.187 KJ/Kg0K.
ΔT = (T6 – T1) FOR COPPER TUBE (FILM WISE)
= (T7 – T1) FOR CHROMIUM PLATED TUBE (DROP WISE)
= Difference in water Temperatures in oK

[(Surface temp- water inlet temp)-

(Surface temp-water outlet temp)]
2) LMTD = ------------------------------------------------------
ln [(Surface temp-water inlet temp)/
(Surface temp- water outlet temp)

[(T4-T1) - (T4-T7)]
= ------------------------- FOR CHROMIUM PLATED TUBE (DROP WISE)

ln [(T4-T1)/(T4-T7)]
 30

[(T2-T1) - (T2-T6)]
= ------------------------- FOR COPPER TUBE (FILM WISE)

ln [(T2-T1)/(T2-T6)]

3) Over all heat transfer coefficient (h)= --------------- in W/m2 - k

A x (LMTD)
Where, Q = Heat transfer rate in Watts.
A = Surface area of the test piece
= π x d x L in m2.
d = diameter of condenser rod = 15.7 mm.

CONCLUSION:

The Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Drop wise Condensation is higher than that
of Film wise Condensation.
 31

EXPERIMENT NO.:

HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATION

AIM:

To compare the performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other

geometrically similar pipes of copper and stainless steel.

THEORY:

The performance of heat pipes can be studied by measuring the temperature

distributed along the length of the pipe and heat transfer characteristics of
each pipe under steady state for each heat pipe.

Energy input to heater in time ∆t

Q=V X I X ∆t

Heat transferred to water

Qw = Mw X Cw (Tfinal – Tinitial )

PROCEDURE:

1) Fill the known quantity (500ml) of water in three heat sinks and measure
its initial temperatures.

2) Switch on the mains and supply the same power input to each heater
equipped with three pipes.

3) Wait for steady state conditions, and note down the readings of
thermocouples connected to pipes.

4) Measure the final temperature of water in three heat sinks.

5) Repeat the experiment for different heat input.

SPECIFICATIONS

Standard heat pipe: A

Inside Diameter of the pipe = 24 mm

 32

Outside Diameter of the pipe = 28 mm

Length of pipes = 300 mm.

OBSERVATION TABLES:
Quantity of the water in the out let-500ml
STAIN LESS STEEL TUBE
Readings of thermocouple
Sl. Heat input
along pipe ◦C
No
V I T1 T2 T3 T4
1
2
3

COPPER TUBE
Readings of thermocouple
Sl. Heat input
along pipe ◦C
No
V I T5 T6 T7 T8
1
2
3

HEAT PIPE
Readings of thermocouple
Sl. Heat input
along pipe ◦C
No
V I T5 T6 T7 T8
1
2
3
 33

CALCULATIONS:
1. Stain less steel Pipe
Energy input to heater in time ∆t,
Q=V X I X ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Q w =Mw X Cw (Tfinal –Tinitial )
T 1 =__________ ◦c; T 2 =__________ ◦c; T 3 =____________ ◦c;
T 4 =__________ ◦c
2. Copper Pipe
Energy input to heater in time ∆t,
Q=V X I X ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Qw =Mw X Cw (Tfinal – Tinitial )
T5 =________ ◦c; T6 =_________ ◦c; T7 =________ ◦c;
T8 =______________ ◦c
3. Standard heat Pipe
 34

Energy input to heater in time ∆t,

Q=V X I X ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Qw =Mw X Cw (Tfinal – Tinitial )
T9 =__________ ◦c; T10 =_________ ◦c; T11 =_________ ◦c;
T12 =__________ ◦c

RESULT:
The performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically
similar pipes of copper and stainless steel has been determined.