jkpo;ehL muR

Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; gapw;rpj;Jiw

gphpT : TNPSC Group II Njh;T

ghlk; : jhtutpay;
gFjp : nry;ypay;

fhg;Ghpik

jkpo;ehL muRg; gzpahsh; Njh;thizak; F&g; - 2 Kjy;epiy kw;Wk; Kjd;ik

Njh;TfSf;fhd fhnzhyp fhl;rp gjpTfs;> xypg;gjpT ghlf;Fwpg;Gfs;> khjphp Njh;T
tpdhj;jhs;fs; kw;Wk; nkd;ghlf;Fwpg;Gfs; Mfpait Nghl;bj; Njh;tpw;F jahuhFk;
khzt> khztpfSf;F cjtpLk; tifapy; Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; gapw;rpj; Jiwahy;
nkd;nghUs; tbtpy; jahhpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,k;nkd;ghlf; Fwpg;GfSf;fhd fhg;Ghpik
Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; gapw;rpj; Jiwiar; rhh;e;jJ vd njhptpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

ve;j xU jdpegNuh my;yJ jdpahh; Nghl;bj; Njh;T gapw;rp ikaNkh

,k;nkd;ghlf; Fwpg;Gfis ve;j tifapYk; kWgpujp vLf;fNth> kW Mf;fk; nra;jplNth>
tpw;gid nra;Ak; Kaw;rpapNyh <LgLjy; $lhJ. kPwpdhy; ,e;jpa fhg;Ghpik rl;lj;jpd;
fPo; jz;bf;fg;gl VJthFk; vd njhptpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J Kw;wpYk; Nghl;bj;
Njh;TfSf;F jahh; nra;Ak; khzth;fSf;F toq;fg;gLk; fl;lzkpy;yh NritahFk;.

Mizah;>
Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; gapw;rpj; Jiw
 nry;ypay;
(Cytology/Cell
Biology)

 nry;Yyh vd;gJ xU yj;jpd; 1. $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fp

nrhy;> mjd; mh;j;jk; : xU 2. kpd;dZ Ez;Nzhf;fp
rpwpa miw 3. nrd;l;hp gpA+[;
 uhghl; `Pf; 1665 : nry;iy 4. fNyhhp nkl;hp
Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jhh;. 5. ];ngf;l;Nuh Nghl;Nlh nkl;hp
 jf;ifapd; rpWgFjpia mth; 6. FNuhNkhl;Nlh nkl;hp
fz;lwpe;j Ez;Nzhf;fpd; 7. vyf;l;NuhNghurp];
%yk; ghh;j;j NghJ Njd;$L 8. fjph; ,af;f Kiwfs;
Nghy ,Ug;gijg; ghh;j;jhh;.
 nry;iyg; gw;wpg; gbg;gjw;F
gpd;tUk; topKiwfs;
ifahsg;gLfpd;wJ.

Microscopy at a Glance
Year Discoverer Country
1558 Contrad Gesner Switzerland
1590 Hans Janssen and Zacharias Netherland
Jansseen
1610 Galileo Galilei Italy
1758 Athanasius Kircher ......
1661 Marcello Mapighi Italy
1665 Robert Hooke England
1674 Antoni van Leeuwenhock Netherland
1877 E Abbe ............
1900 Zigmondy ...........
1932 M.knoll and E. Ruska Germany
1935 F. Zernicke .........

Page 1
 jhtutpay;;

caph; nghUs; rhaq;fs; : Nfhy;if cWg;G> FNuhNkhl;bd;

 capUs;s nry;iyg;gw;wp gbf;f> ,io
mit nfhy;yghlkNyNa rpy 3. fhq;Nfh rptg;G (Gongo red B)
rhaj;ij Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; <];l;
jd;ikahy; gbg;gJ 4. mNahbd; (Iodene) - ghf;Bhpah
vspjhfpd;wJ. 5. ,Nahrpd;(Eosin)-
1. N[d]; gr;ir B (-janes green- irl;Nlhgpshrk;
B) ikl;Nlhfhd;l;hpah 6. rptg;G Nrg;uhdpd; (Red safranin)
2. kPijypd; GS (Methylene blue) 7. cl;fU

Name coiner –
nry; cWg;Gfs; Discoverer - fz;lwpe;jth;
ngahpl;lth;
nry; uhgh;l;`Pf; - Robert Hook 1665
nry; Ez; cWg;Gfs; Md;ld;yhd; yP]d;Vhf; 1668
cl;fUkzp ghd;lhdh - Fontana 1781
epA+f;spNahy];

epA+f;spa]; uhgh;l; gpuTd; 1840

ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah Nfhy;ypf;fh; - Kollikar 1880 ngd;lh Benda 1897
nrd;l;NuhNrhk; thd; ngdbd; - Van Beneden nghNthp Bouari 1888
1880
irl;Nlhgpshrk; ];l;uh];gh;fh; - Strasburger 1882

FNshNuh gpsh];l; ];fpk;gh; - Schiimper1888

FNuhNkhNrhk; thy;Nlah; - Waldeyer 1888

iyNrhNrhk; C.B. LNy - C. De duve 1898

GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk; Gh;fpd;[p - J.E.purkinje (animal) L[hh;bd; Dujardin

thd;Nkhy; - Voh mohl (plant)
hpNghNrhk; fpshl; & ghyl; Claude and
Palade
nrd;l;Nuhkpah; thy;Nlah; - Waldeyer 1903
vz;Nlhgpshr tiy Nghh;l;lh; - Portar 1945
(E.P. Veticulum)

Page 2
 jhtutpay;;

nry; nfhs;if : 7. rpy rkaq;fspy; rpy ,we;j

 1839 - n[h;kd; mwpQh;fs; - nry;fSk; nray;jpwd;
cs;sitahf ,Uf;Fk;. (v-fh)
nry;nfhs;if $wpath;fs;
jhtuq;fspy; iryf; Foha;fs;,
N[f;fg; ];ypgd; kw;Wk; jpNahlh; l;uf;fPLfs; tpyq;Ffspy; Kl;fs;
];thd; Nghd;w nry;fs;.
 nry;Nfhl;ghL %yk; nry;ypay;
midj;J caphpdq;fSf;Fk; nry;fNs
Njhd;wpaJ.
mbg;gil myFfs; :
 nry; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; cs;Ns
 nry;fs; mjd; mikg;ig
cs;s rpWrpW clyq;fisAk;
nghWj;J ,U tifahf
nry; gphpjy; Mfpad gw;wpa
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mwptpay; gphpT nry;ypay;.
1. A+Nfhpahl;Lfs;
nry;ypay;:
 khw;wq;fSld; $ba 2. GNuhNfhpahl;Lfs;
nry;nfhs;if ‘nry; tpjp’ (m)  ngah; itj;jth; - `hd;];
‘nry; Nfhl;ghL’ vdg;gLk;. hp]; Hans Ris
 gphpj;jth; - nls`hh;b
nry;tpjp:
1. midj;J caphpdq;fSk; Douharti
nry;fshy; Mdit.
2. Vw;fdNt cs;s nry;fspy; GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs;:
,Ue;J Gjpa nry;fs; 1. GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs; nry;fspy;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. kugpay; jfty;fs; ikaj;jpy;
3. caphpdj;jpd; mbg;gil mike;Js;s tl;l tbt, jdpj;j
myfhfj; jpfo;tJ nry;. DNA %yf;$wpy; mike;Js;sJ
4. nry; kugpay; jfty;fis ,g;gFjpia ,d;]pgpad;l;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. nry; gFg;gpd; epA+f;spa]; (m) epA+f;spaha;L
NghJ ,J xU nry;ypypUe;J vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
kw;nwhU nry;Yf;F 2. xU FNuhNkhNrhk; jtpu rpy
flj;jg;gLfpwJ. ghf;bhpaq;fs; rpwpa tl;l
5. Ntjpj; jd;ikapYk; tsh;rpij tbtkhd, FNuhNkhNrhk;
khw;wr; nray;fspYk; midj;J my;yhj DNA it ngw;Ws;sd
nry;fSk; xj;jit. ,jw;F gpsh];kpl; vd;W ngah;.
6. nry;ypd; mikg;igAk;
nray;fisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ A+NfhpNahl;fs;:
DNA MFk;.  midj;J jhtu tpyq;F cyfpd;
caphpdq;fis cs;slf;fpaJ.

Page 3
 jhtutpay;;

gz;G GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs; A+NfhpNahl;fs;

msT ngUk;ghyhdit kpfr; ngUk;ghyhdit nghpar;
rpwpait rpy 50 mm Itplg; nry;fs; (10mm) rpy
nghpait 150 mm Itplg; nghpait
nghJg; gz;Gfs; ngUk;ghyhdit rpy Ez;Zaphpfs;. gy
Ez;Zaphpfs;. xU nry;yhy; nghpa caphpfs;
Mdit my;yJ $l;likT midj;Jk; rt;tpdhy;
cilait. epA+f;spaha;L #og;gl;l epA+f;spai]
rt;tpdhy; cilait.
#og;gl;bUg;gjpy;iy.
nry; gFg;G ikl;lh]p];> kNah]p]; ikl;lh]p];> kNah]p];
fpilahJ. ,uz;lhfg; tifahd nry; gFg;G
gpsj;jy; Kiw my;yJ eilngWk;
nkhl;L mUk;Gjy; (budding)
Kiw fhzg;gLk;
ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; ngUk;ghyhditfspy; mNefkhditfspy;
fpilahJ. rpytw;wpy; kuGg; cz;L fUTWjypy; ngz;>
nghUs; khw;wk; (xU top Mz; ,uz;Lf;Fk; rk
kl;Lk;) toq;fp nry;ypy; gq;F cz;L.
,Ue;J ngWk; nry;Yf;F
eilngWfpwJ.
tsh;r;rp ,ul;ilka irNfhl;bypUe;J kNah]p]; %yk;
cUthf;fk; gy nry;fs; Njhd;Wtjpy;iy xw;iwaKk;
jpR NtWghLk; njspthff; irNfhl;bypUy;J
fpilahJ. ,ul;ilakaKk;
cz;lhfpwJ. gy nry;
caphpfs; njspthd jpR
NtWghl;ilg; ngw;Ws;sd.
firapio tif rpytw;wpy; vspa 9 + 2 tif firapio
ghf;Bhpahtif firapio fhzg;gLfpwJ.
cz;L. ,J xU
Ez;zpioahy; MdJ.
nry; Rth; ngg;bNlhfpisf;fhd; jhtuq;fspy;
(kpA+f;Nfhngg;ilL) y; nry;YNyh]pdhy; Md
Mdit nry;YNyh]; nry; RtUk; G+Q;irapy;
fpilahJ. ifl;bdhy; Md nry;
RtUk; cs;sJ.
Ez; cWg;Gfs; vz;Nlhgpshrtiy> Nfhy;[p vz;Nlhgpshr tiy>
cWg;Gfs; Nfhy;if cWg;Gfs;>
ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpaq;fs;> ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpaq;fs;>
gRq;fdpq;fs; gRq;fzpfq;fs;
thf;FNthy;fs; Nghd;w thf;FNthy;fs; Nghd;w
rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;l rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;l
Ez;ZWg;Gfs; fpilahJ. Ez;ZWg;Gfs; cs;sd.
iuNgh Nrhk;fs; iuNghNrhk;fs; rpwpait 70 iuNghNrhk;fs; nghpait

Page 4
 jhtutpay;;

S tif (S vd;gJ ];tPl;ngh;f; 80 S tif

myF. ,J my;l;uhnrd;bhp
G+[pd; NghJ ngw;wg;gLk;
iuNghNrhkpd; tPo;gbT vz;
MFk;.)
b.vd;.V kuGg; nghUl;fs; (b.vd;.V) kuGg; nghUl;fs; ed;F>
fl;like;j fl;like;j
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy; FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy;
fhzg;glhJ. fhzg;gLk;.

 nry;Rth; ,y;iy  nry; Rth; cz;L

 ntspvy;iy - gpsh];kh rt;T
 gRq;fzpfk; ,y;iy
 Ez;Fkpo; - rpwpaJ
 nrd;l;NuhNrhk; cz;L
 Nrkpg;G nghUs; - fpisNfh[d;
 Nfhy;if cWg;G - ey;y
tsh;r;rp cz;L
 hpNghNrhk; 55 S, 80 S tif
 ikl;Nlhfhz;Bhpah fphp];Nl
tif
 ntsp vy;iy - nry;Rth;
 gRq;fzpfk; cz;L
 Ez; Fkpo; nghpaJ
 nrd;l;NuhNrhk; ,y;iy
 Nrkpg;G nghUs; - ];lhh;r;
 Nfhy;if cWg;G - ey;y
tsh;r;rp ,y;iy.
 hpNghNrhk; 70 S, 80 S tif
 ikl;Nlhfhz;;Bhpah cUis
tif

Page 5
 jhtutpay;;

nry; mikg;Gk; msTk; :  nry; Rth; %d;W mLf;Ffshy;

 kdpj clypy; nry;fspd; MdJ.
vz;zpf;if 6>50>00>000  Kjd;ik mLf;F

 midj;J caphpdq;fSk;  ,uz;lhk; mLf;F - %d;W

gFjpfs; cz;L S1, S2, S3
(itu]; jtpu) nry;fshy;
 %d;whk; mLf;F
Mdit.
 ,tw;wpd; nry;fs; fhy;rpak; -
 nry; caphpdq;fspd; mikg;G
ngf;Nll; nghUs;fshy;
kw;Wk; nray; myF.
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 nry;fs; → jpRf;fs; → cWg;G
kz;lyq;fs; → caphpfs;  ,jw;F kj;jpa Nynky;yh

vYk;G nry; cWjp kw;Wk; nghUs; Ntjpapay; myF

cliy jhq;Fjy; nry;YNyh]; FSf;Nfh];
euk;G nry; euk;G J}z;liy n`kpnry;YNyh]; irNyh];>
flj;jy; NkNdh];>
$k;Gnry;> Fr;rp ghh;it> epwj;ij Nfyf;l;Nlh];
nry; czUk; ypf;dpd; Nfhdpngiuy;
jl;L vgpjpypak; tbtk;> ghJfhg;G My;f`hy;
nry; fPA+l;bd; nfhOg;G
ej;ij $L (nrtp) xyp miy mkpyq;fs;
nry; czUk; ngf;bd; FSf;NfhNuhdpf;
Rug;gp nry; Ruj;jy; mkpyk;
jir nry; RUq;fp tphpjy; RNghpd; nfhOg;G mkpyk;
nfhOg;G nry; nfhOg;G
Nrkpf;Fk;
nry; tbtk;
euk;;G el;rj;jpuk;
Rlh; Foy;
Rug;gp fdrJuk;
jl;L vgpjpypaypk; gy;Nfhzk;
J}z; vgpjpypak; cUis
,uj;jk; ePs;tbtk;
jir ehh; ePs;tbtk;
Fly; J}z; tbtk;
(Middle lamella) vd;Wngah;.
nry; Rth;
 fz;lwpe;jth; : ,uhgh;l;`Pf;  ,ij Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth;
1665. ];l;uh];ngh;fh; Strasburger 1901
 jhtuq;fspy; kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.  ,it nry;gFg;gpd; NghJ KbT
 jhtu nry;ypd; ntspAiwahf epiyapd; (Telo phase) NghJ
mike;Js;sJ. cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

Page 6
 jhtutpay;;

gzpfs; : 2. myFgly Nfhl;ghL

 nry;Yf;F tbtj;ijf; (Unit Membrane concept)
nfhLf;fpd;wJ.  tpthpj;jth; : uhgh;l;rd;
nry;ypd; cl;nghUs;fisg; (Robertson) 1953
ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.
gpsh];kh rt;tpd; jbkd; 75 A
gpsh];kh rt;T (m) nry; rt;T
 jhtuk; kw;Wk; tpyq;F nry;fspy;
Gwvy;iy kw;Wk; tbtj;ijf;
nfhLf;fpd;wJ.
 ,it 60% Gujk;> 40% nfhOg;Gg;
nghUs;fshy; MdJ.
 xU nry; rt;Tk; mLj;j nry;
rt;Tk; nl];NkhNrhk;];
(Desmosomes) vd;w
,izg;gpdhy; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ.
tbtk; :
 gy;NtW tpjkhd tbtq;fs; gy
g;@apL nkhirf; khly; (Fluid-
mwpQh;fshy;
vLj;Jiuf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mosaic model )
1. gl;lh; - rhz;ltpr; khly; (Butter –  tpthpj;jth; : rpq;fh; & epf;fy;rd;
(Singer & Nicholson) 1972
sandwich model)
 njhlh;r;rpahd ,ul;il nfhOg;G
 tpthpj;jth; : Nldpay; &
mLf;Ff;F ,ilNa Guj
Nlt;rd; (Danielli & Davson) %yf;$Wfs; fhzg;gL fpd;wd.
1935
 ,uz;L Guj mLf;Ffspy; gzpfs; :
kj;jpapy; ,uz;L  xU rpy nghUl;fis kl;Lk;
%yf;$Wfshy; Md flj;Jtjhy; ,jw;F Njh;T
nfhOg;G mLf;fpdhy; MdJ flj;jp rt;T (m) miu flj;jp
vd;wdh;. rt;T vd;W ngah;.
 czT vLj;J nfhs;Sk; Kiw :
vd;Nlhirl;Nlhrp];
(Endocytosis)
o nry; tpOq;Fjy; - jplg;;
nghUs; - NgNfhirl;Nlhrp];
(Phagocytosis )

Page 7
 jhtutpay;;

o nry; Fbj;jy; - jputg;  nghpal;lth; : Nfhy;ypfh;

nghUs;gpd;Ndhirl;Nlhrp];  xj;j $Wfs; cila n[y;yp
(Pinnocytosis ) Nghd;w nghUs;.
 fopT nghUs; ntspNaw;Wk;  ntsp> cs; vd ,uz;L
Kiw : vf;N]h irl;Nlhrp]; gFjpfs; cs;sd.
(Exocytosis)  nfhOg;G> Gujk;>
rt;T+L guty;: fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; > jhJf;fs;> ePh;
 ePh; my;yJ fiug;ghd; cs;sJ
%yf;$Wfs; mjd; nrwpT  gy nry; Ez; cWg;Gfs;
mjpfkhd ,lj;jpypUe;J mjd; gjpe;Js;sd.
nrwpT Fiwthd ,lj;Jf;F
Njh;Tflj;J rt;tpd; topNa guTk; gzpfs; :
Kiw.  nry;ypd; cs;Ns nehjpfs;>
czT gut cjTfpwJ.
rt;T+L gutypd; gq;F:
1. Nth;j;J}tpfs; ePiu kz;zpypUe;J  Gujk;> epA+f;spNahilL>
,k;Kiwapy; cwpQ;Rfpd;wd. nfhOg;G mkpyq;fspd;
2. xU nry;ypypUe;J kw;nwhU cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F nfhs;fpwJ.
nry;Yf;F ePiuf; flj;Jjy;. vz;Nlhgpshr tiy
3. rt;T+L guty; tpiwg;gOj;jk;  xd;Wnfhd;W njhlh;Gila
Vw;gl fhuzkhf cs;sJ. (v-fh) rt;tpdhy; Md tiygpd;dy;
,iy Jis jpwj;J %Ljy;. fhy;tha; mikg;G.
 vz;Nlhgpshr tiy vd
GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk; ngahpl;lth; : Nghh;l;lh; 1947
 irl;Nlhgpshrk; kw;Wk; cl;fU  ,J 70 rjtPjk; Gujk; kw;Wk; 30
Nrh;ej
; gFjpahFk;. rjtPjk; nfhOg;G nghUs;fshy;
 $o;kk; Nghd;w jputk; vd;wth; : MdJ.
tpy;rd; (1925)  gpsh];khrt;;itAk;
 ngahpl;lth; : Gh;fpd;[p cl;fUitAk; ,izf;fpd;wJ.
 ,J caphpfspd; ,aw;gpay;  Xt;nthU cl;fU gpstpw;Fk;
myfhFk; gpwF cUthFk;> xU Gjpa
 ,jd; gFjp nghUs;fs; : cl;fU> vz;Nlhgpshr
o ePh; - 75% > tiyiaj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
o gFjp nghUs;fs; - 25%  vz;Nlhgpshr tiy %d;W
o O2 – 62% tbtq;fshy; MdJ.
o C - 20% o rP];lh;Nd - 400 - 500A
o H – 10% o bA+g;A+y]; - 500 -1000 A
o N - 3% o ntrpf;fps; - 250 - 5000 A
irl;Nlhgpshrk;  ,J ,Utifg;gLk;
 cl;fU ePq;fyhd
GNuhl;Nlhgpshr gFjp

Page 8
 jhtutpay;;

nrhunrhug;ghd vz;Nlhgpshrtiy
(ROUGH ER):
o ,jpy; iuNghNrhk; xl;b
(irl;Nlhgpshrj;ij Nehf;fp C
face ) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
totog;ghd vz;Nlhgpshrtiy
(SMOOTH ER) :
o ,tw;wpy; hpNghNrhk;
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy
o nfhOg;Gfs; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
nry;ypy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

gzpfs; :
 nry;Yf;F xU rl;lfk; Nghd;W
tYT+l;l gad;gLfpd;wJ. (jl;L tbt jl;ilahdit)
 nry;Yf;Fs; flj;jy;; gzpia  Nfhy;if nt]pf;fps;- rpwpa Ez;
Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fkpo;fis nfhz;lJ.
 ,ij fz;lwpe;jth; Blobel,  Nfhy;if thf;FNthy;fs; -nghpa
1999y; Nehgy; ghpirg; ngw;whh;. Ez; Fkpo;fis nfhz;lJ.
 RER - Guj cw;gj;jp jskhf gzpfs;
mikfpd;wJ.  iyNrhNrhk;fis
 SER - ];Buhl;L `hh;Nkhd; cUthf;Fjy;
cw;gj;jp nra;J> rh;f;fiug;  nry; Rth; kw;Wk; nry;rt;T
nghUs;fis rpijf;fpd;wJ. cUthf;Fjy;. tpe;J nry;fspd;
 nfhOg;G cw;gj;jpf;Fg; mf;NuhNrhk; cUthf;Fjy;
gad;gLfpd;wJ.  Ruj;jy; gzpia
Nfhy;if cWg;G Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;.
 fz;lwpe;jth; : fhkpy;Ny  tsUk; Cirl;Lfspy; fU
Nfhy;if(1898) kQ;rs; czit cUthf;Fjy;.
 ,jd; Gjpangah; : bf;bNahNrhk;.  nul;bNdh (tpopj;jpiu)
 ngahpl;lth; : Perroncito nry;fspy; epwkpfis
(1910) cUthf;Fjy;
 ,it 60 rjtPjk; Gujk; kw;Wk; iyNrhNrhk;
40 rjtPjk; nfhOg;G  Nfhs tbt ig Nghd;w
nghUs;fshy; MdJ. mikg;G
 1.3 µ mlh;j;jp nfhz;lJ.  ngahpl;lth; - fphp];bad; b LNt
 ,it 3 rt;T mikg;Gfis (1955)
nfhz;lJ.  Fwpg;gpl;l tbtk; ,y;yhjit.
 Nfhy;if rp];lh;Nd  0.2 Kjy; 0.8 ikf;uhd; msT
Rug;G ig 60 - 70 A nfhz;lJ. nfhz;lit.

Page 9
 jhtutpay;;

 70 A jbkd; nfhz;lit. gzpfs; :

 ehd;F tifahd tiffs; 1. nry;Yf;F ntspNa md;dpa
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. nghUs;fisr; nrhpkhdk; nra;Ak;.
o Kjd;ik iyNrhNrhk; (m) 2. nry;Yf;F cs;Ns ,we;j nry;
GNuhl;Nlh iyNrhNrhk; Ez; cWg;Gfis nrhpkhdk;
o Jiz iyNrhNrhk; (m) BNyh nra;Ak;. vdNt mopf;Fk; gil
iyNrhNrhk; tPuh;fs;/ Jg;Guthsh;fs;/ nry;
o Kd; iyNrhNrhk; (m) eph;thfpfs; vdTk;
NgNfhNrhk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
o gpd; iyNrhNrhk; (m) hpNghNrhk;fs;
vQ;rpaJfs;fs; nrhpkhd  ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fs; kw;Wk;
nehjpfis nfhz;lJ. vdNt Kjph;ej
; tpe;J nry;fs; ePq;fyhf
nrhpf;Fk; igfs; vd midj;J GNuhNfhpNahl;L kw;Wk
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. A+NfhpNahl;L nry;fspy;
 nehjpfshy; (gpw Ez;ZWg;G iuNghNrhk;fs; fhzg;gLk;
fis) KO nry;iyAk;  A+NfhpNahl;bf; nry;fspy; ,it
mopg;gjhy; jw;nfhiy igfs; irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpy; jdpj;Njh
vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. my;yJ nrhunrhug;ghd
o epA+f;spNahy]; - DNA kw;Wk; vz;Nlhgpshr tiyfspd; ntspg;
RNA it [Puzk; nra;Ak; gug;Gfspy; ,ize;Njh fhzg;
o gh];gl;Nl]; - gh];Ngl; glyhk;.
rq;fpypfis [Puzk; nra;Ak;.  iuNghNrhk;fs;jhd; Guj cw;gj;jp
o ypNgr]; - nfhOg;G ikaq;fshFk;.
nghUs;fis [Puzk; nra;Ak;.  xU nry;ypy; 1 Kjy; -10 kpy;ypad;
o GNuhl;bNar]; - Guj tiu fhzg;gLk;.
%yf;$Wfis [Puzk;  ngahpl;lth; : ghyl; 1955
nra;Ak;.  epA+f;spNah]py;
o fpisf;NfhrpNlr]; - fhh;Ngh cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
`l;Nul;Lfis [Puzk;  xt;ntU hpNghNrhKk; 150 - 250 A
nra;Ak;. tpl;lk; nfhz;lJ.
o ry;gNlr]; - ry;gh;  ,uz;L rpwpa gFjpfisf;
gpizg;Gfis [Puzk; nfhz;lJ.
nra;Ak;.  xU nghpa gFjp miuf;Nfhs
 ,it mkpyjd;ik nfhz;l tbtkhdJ. rpwpa gFjp Kl;il
Clfj;jpy; (5.0 PH) ed;F tbtpy; cs;sJ.
nray;gLk;  rpwpa gFjp nghpa gFjpapy; Nky;
 ,it Nfhy;if cWg;Gfspy; njhg;gpg;Nghy; fhzg;gLk;.
ntrpf;fpspy; ,Ue;J  ,uz;L gFjpfSk; irl;Nlh
cw;gj;jpahfpd;wd. gpshrj;jpy; jdpj;J fhzg;gLk;.
Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ kl;LNk

Page 10
 jhtutpay;;

,ize;J KO hpNghNrhk;fis  tbtk; my;yJ tPo;gbT tPjj;jpd;

cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mbg;gilapy; hpNghNrhk;fs;
 Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ mNef ,uz;L tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
hpNghNrhk;fs; mRNA cld; o 80 s - A+Nfhpahl; nry;
,ize;J ghypngg;ilL o 70s, 80 s - A+Nfhpahl; kw;Wk;
efy;fis vLf;fpd;wd. GNuhNfhpahl; nry;
 ,jw;F ghypNrhk;fs; (m) o S vd;gJ ];tPl;ngh;f; myF
ghyphpNghNrhk; vd;W ngah;

 ngahpl;lth; : Boveri
gzpfs;:
 tpyq;F nry;ypy; cl;fU mUfpy;
 Gujk; jahhpj;jypy; gq;F
Foy; kw;Wk; Fr;rp tbtj;jpy;
vLg;gjhy; - Guj njhopw;rhiy
xU N[hb fhzg;gLk;.
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 250 A  tpl;lk; nfhz;lJ.
nrd;l;hpNahy;fs; (m) nrd;;l;NuhNrhk;
 fz;lwpe;jth;fs; : Benden 1887

Page 11
 jhtutpay;;

gzpfs; :  ,jpy; tl;l tbtkhd DNA

 ikl;lhrp]; kw;Wk; kpahrp]; (2–6), 70s hpNghNrhk;
nry; gphpjYf;F cjTk;. fhzg;gLk;.
 nry; gphpjypd; NghJ fjph; ,io  Guj;jjhy; Md ,ul;il rt;T
ehh;fisAk;> M];l;uy; nfhz;lJ.
cWg;GfisAk; cUthf;fp  ntsp rt;T - ig Nghd;wJ.
nry;gphpjiy jpl;lkpLfpd;wd.  cl;rt;T - fphp];Nl vd;w
tpuy; Nghd;w ePl;rpfshy; MdJ.
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah  mjpy; F1 Jfs; / Mf;]pNrhk; /
 fz;lwpe;jth; : Nfhypf;fh; 1880 njhlf;f epiy Jfs;
 ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah nry;ypd; xl;bf;nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Mw;wy; ikak; vd  ,ij fz;lwpe;jth; : Fernandez
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. – Moran 1962
 ,ij nrhd;dth; : Seekevitz  ,it irl;Nlhgpshrj;ij
 irl;Nlhgpshr nkhj;j mstpy; Nehf;fp (c - face ) fhzg;gLk;
25 rjtPjk; ikl;Nlfhz;l;hpah  F1 Jfs;fspy; jhd; Rthr
cs;sJ. rq;fpyp mike;Js;sJ. ,jpy;
 jd;idj;jhNd ngUf;fpf; cs;s nehjpfs;> $l;L nehjpfs;
nfhs;Sk; Rakhd Ez; cWg;G. Nrh;eJ
; vyf;l;uhd; Vw;gpfis
 ,io Nghd;w kpjpab tbtk; cUthf;fp ATP %yf;$Wfis
nfhz;lJ. cUthf;fpd;wd.
 ePsk; 3-5 ikf;uhd;> 0.5 ikf;uhd; fzpfk;
mfyk; nfhz;lJ.  fz;lwpe;jth; : `pk;gh; & Nkah;
 %d;W tif fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.  jhtu nry;ypy; kl;Lk;;
 fphp];Nl tif - tpyq;F fhzg;gLk;
nry;  3 tif fzpfq;fs;
 Nfhs tbtk; - jhtu nry; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,ilg;gl;l tbtk; - jhtu  FNshNuhgpsh];l; - gRik
nry; epwk;
 cl;gFjp - Nkl;hpf;]; vd;W ngah;;.  FNuhNkhgpsh];l; - (G+> gok;
epwj;jpw;F fhuzk;.) gRik
epwk; my;yhj Vida
epwkpfs;.
 ypA+Nfhgpsh];l; - epwkpfs;
,y;iy> czit Nrfhpf;Fk;.
%d;W tifg;gLk;.
 mikNyh gpsh];l;
fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;
Nrfhpf;Fk;.

Page 12
 jhtutpay;;

 vyhNah gpsh];l; -  ijyfha;L rt;Tfspy; gr;ira

nfhOg;G Nrfhpf;Fk;. epwkpfs;> nehjpfs;
 mY}A+Nuh gpsh];l; - fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Gujk; Nrfhpf;Fk;.  gr;ira epwkpfs; cUthf
 %d;W tif fzpfq;fSk; fhuzk; Mg madpfs;
xd;Wf;F xd;W njhlh;GilaJ. gzpfs; :
 ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpahtpy; ATP
cUthFk; tpjj;jpy;
FNshNuhgpsh];l; : gRq;fzpfj;jpYk; ATP
 jhtuq;fspy; gy;NtW cUthfpd;wJ.
tbtq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Ez; Fkpo;fs; (m) thf;fpNahy;fs;
 Nfhg;ig tbtk; : thy;thf;];  irl;Nlh gpshrj;jpy; cs;s Fkpo;
 H tbtk; : fpshkpNlh Nghd;w mikg;G
Nkhdh];  Rw;W ciw - NlhNdh gpsh];l;
 RUs; tbtk; : ];igNuhifuh vdg;gLk;.
 tiy tbtk; : ClNfhdpak;  nry; rhW epuk;gp cs;sJ.
 miuf;fr;ir tbtk; :  nry; cs; mOj;jj;ij
A+Nyhjphpf;]; epiyepWj;JfpwJ.
 tpz;kPd; tbtk; :
rpf;ek
P h
 nyd;R tbtk; : kw;w
jhtuq;fs;
 Vwj;jho 10 ikf;uhd; ePsk;
kw;Wk; 2 ikf;uhd; jbkd;
nfhz;lit.
 cl;gFjp - Nkl;hpf;]; jputk;
vdg;gLk;. Nrkpg;G Jfs;fs; :
 xt;nthU gRq;fzpfj;jpYk; 40-  czthdJ nry;fspy; gy
100 fpuhdh fhzg;gLk;. tpjkhW Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 mjpy; xU fpuhzj;jpy; 20-50  vz;nza; Jsp
ijyfha;Lfs; ehzak; Nghd;W  fUTzT Jfs;
mLf;fp fhzg;gLk;.  Ruf;fg;gl;l Jfs;
 ,it ];l;Nuhkh vd;w  fpisNfh[d; Jfs;
jsg;nghUspy; gjpe;J cl;fU (epa+f;spa];)
fhzg;gLk;.  fz;lwpe;jth; : uhgh;l; gpuTd;
 ,it xd;Wnfhd;W KO ePsk; (1871)
tsh;r;rp mile;j Nynky;yh  cl;fU nry;ypd; Kf;fpa Jiz
ePl;rpfs; %yk; Ez; cWg;G
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Page 13
 jhtutpay;;

 A+NfhpNahl;L nry;fspy; kl;Lk; %yk; nry;ypd; midj;J

fhzg;gLk;. tsh;rpij khw;wq;fisAk;
 ,uz;L rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;lJ. fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 4 gFjpfshf fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.  ngw;Nwhh;fsplkpUe;J Nra;
 cl;fU glyk; jiyKiwf;F kuGg; gz;Gfs;
 cl;fU gpshrk; flj;jg;gLtij epA+f;spa];
fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 cl;fU kzp
 nry; gFg;ig fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; .
 FNuhkhl;bd;
tiygpd;dy;
cl;fU rt;T :
FNuhNkhNrhk;
 ,U mLf;Ffshy; Md cl;fU
 cl;fUtpy; mlh;j;jpahf
ciw nfhz;lJ.
epwNkw;wpf; nfhs;Sk; mikg;G
 Ez; Jis cz;L.
 Kjypy; epA+f;spd; vd
 ,jd; %yk; NtjpnghUs;fs;
ngahpl;lth; : Meischer
cl;fUtpw;Fk;
 epA+f;spf; mkpyk; vd
irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpw;Fk;
flj;jg;gLfpwJ. ngahpl;lth; : Altman
 FNuhNkhNrhk; vd ngahpl;lth;
 90A jbkd; nfhz;lJ. mjd;
: thy;Nlah; (1888)
,ilntsp 100 A nfhz;lJ.
 [Pd; vd ngahpl;lth; :
 cl;fUit ghJfhf;fpwJ.
tpy;n`y;k; [h`hd;rd; (1909)
 rpf;fyhd %yf;$W mikg;G
cl;fU gpshrk; :
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd; ,aw;gpay; myF
 cl;fU cs;Ns fhzg;gLk;
: FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;;
jputk; ( epA+f;spNah gpshrk;)
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd; Ntjpapay; myF
 ,j;jputj;jpy; FNuhNkl;bd;
: DNA
tiyg;gpd;dy;, epa+f;spNahy];
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd;; mbg;gil myF
cs;sJ.
: [Pd;fs;
 vdNt nry; fl;Lghl;L ikak;
 [Pd;fspd; xU KO njhFjp :
vd miof;fg;gLk;.
[PNdhk;.
 kuG gz;Gfis flj;JfpwJ.
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy; [Pd;fs;
thpirahf mike;Js;sd vd
cl;fUkzp (epA+f;spNahy];)
nrhd;dth; : gphpl;[]; (1916)
 cl;fU jputj;jpy; cs;s Nfhs
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy;
tbt ghfk;
fhzg;gLgit
 vy;iy rt;T ,y;iy
 Gujj;ijr; Nrkpf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
 DNA
cl;fU gzpfs;
 `p];Nlhd; Gujk; : H1,
 Njitahd nehjpfspd;
cw;gj;jpia fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; H2A, H2B , H3 , H4

Page 14
 jhtutpay;;

 `p];lNlhd; mw;w Gujk; : (Signals) ngWtjw;Fk;

3 tif RNA (m RNA, T nfhLg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpwJ.
RNA, r RNA)  17.5 rjtPjk; [PNdhk; nry;ypd;
 Mg++ nghJthd nray;ghLfspy;
 Ca++ <LgLfpwJ.

 [Pd;fs; gz;Gfis xU Xw;iw

caphpdj;jpd; ngah;
re;jjpapypUe;J kw;nwhU kak;
re;jjpf;F flj;JfpwJ. muhgpNlhgp]; jhypahdh 5
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; nry; gphpjypd;
Njhl;lg;gl;lhzp 7
NghJ njspthf njhpAk;.
 [Pd;fSk; nehjpfSf;Fk; ney; 12
,ilNa cs;s njhlh;ig l;hpl;bfk; V];btk; 21
$wpath; gPby; & lhl;lk; ,ij N`hNkh nrg;gpad;]; 23
epA+Nuh];Nghuh jhtuj;jpy;
rpk;ghd;rp 24
fz;lwpe;jhh;.
 ,th;fspd; fz;Lgpbg;G Md fUk;G 40
xU [Pd; xU nehjp XgpNahrpshrk; 631
Nfhl;ghl;Lf;F Nehgy; ghpR
toq;fg;gl;lJ 1958 .  [Pd;fspd; ehd;F gFjpfisg; gw;wp
 ,Jtiu kdpjdpy; 30000 To tpthpj;jth; : ngd;rh;
40000 [Pd;fs;
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sd. rp];l;uhd; nray;ghl;L ghypngl;ilL
 kdpj [PNdhk; Vwf;Fiwa 3.2 x myF rq;fpyp
109 epAf;spNahilLfis
cw;gj;jp
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 kdpj ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah nra;Ak;
[PNdhk; 37 [Pd;fisAk; 16>569 kpA+l;lhd; jpBh; khw;w kpA+l;Nln[d;
fhu ,izfisAk; myF Vw;gLk; gFjp
nfhz;Ls;sJ. hPfhd; kWNrh;fi
; f FWf;Nf
 kdpj [PNdhkpy; 38.2 rjtPjk;
myF fyf;Fk; gFjp
caph;Ntjp nray;fspy; mjhtJ
Ez;Zaph; vjph;g;G kw;Wk; cly; XNgud;; [Pd;fspd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
mikg;G Gujq;fisf; fl;Ltjpy; njhFg;G gzpia
<LgLfpwJ. Kbf;Fk;.
 23.2 rjtPjk; [PNdhikg;
guhkhpf;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 XNgud;; gw;wp tpthpj;jth; :
 21.1 rjtPjk; nry;
N[f;fg; & NkhdhL
nray;ghLfSf;fhd Fwpfisg;

Page 15
 jhtutpay;;

 [Pd;fspd; ,izg;G kw;Wk;  Kjd;ik RUf;fk; nrd;Nuhkpah;

tpyfy; epfo;itg; gw;wp Ma;T kw;Wk; ifdl;NlhNfhh;
nra;jth;fs; : Ngl;rd; & Gd;dl; vd;gtdtw;why; MdJ.
,th;fs; gad;gLj;jpa jhtuk; :  ,uz;L FNuhNkbLfSk;
,dpg;G gl;lhzp (yhj;ju]; nrd;l;Nuhkpah; gFjpfs;
XNlhNul;l];) ,ize;Js;sd.
 FNuhNkhNrhkpy; [Pd;fs;  nrd;ll;Nuhkpah; $l;L
gpize;J ,Ug;gij (Linkage) ,iofshyhd ifdl;Nlh Nfhh;
gw;wp Ma;T nra;jth; : T.H. vd;w mikg;ig nfhz;Ls;sJ.
khh;fd;.  xt;nthU nrd;l;Nuh kpahpYk;
 Fjpf;Fk; [Pd; (m) ,U ifdl;NlhNfhh;;fs;
buhd;];Nghrhd; fz;lwpe;jth; : cs;sd. ,it FNuhNkhNrhkpd;
ghh;guh kf;spd;lhf; fuq;fspy; ePs;thf;fpy;
 jhtu FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;> tpyq;F mike;Js;sd.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fis tpl  ifdl;NlhNfhh; Guj ,iofs;
mstpy; nghpaJ. kw;Wk; Ez; Foy;fshy; MdJ.
 N`hNkh Nyhf;f]; - xj;j  Kjd;ik RUf;fj;ij jtpu
,iz FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;. FNuhNkhNrkpYs;s gpw
 n`l;bNuh Nyhf;f]; - RUf;fq;fs; midj;Jk;
NtWgl;l ,iz ,uz;lhk; epiy RUf;fq;fs;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; vdg;gLk;.

F.Nrhk;
NfhpNahilg; nghJngah; caphpay; ngah; nkhj;j
 FNuhNkhNrhk; ,izia vz;zpf;if
l;NuhNrhgpyh
mtw;wpd; rpwg;G gz;Gfis go <
nkyndhfpsh];lh; 8
nfhz;L Fwpg;gJ MFk;. Nfhop
Nfy]; nlhnk];bf] 78
vyp
 Xt;nthU FNuhNkNrhKk; xNu k];K]; Fy]; 40
Fuq;F
nfhhpyh nfhhpyh 48
khjphpahd ,U mikg;Gfisf; kdpjd;
N`hNkh Nrg;gpd;]; 46
ntq;fhak;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,it mhprp
Mypak; Nrgh 16
FNuhNkbLfs; vdg;gLk;. Xiurh riltk; 24
kf;fhNrhsk;
rpah ikg;]; 20
 mikg;gpy; xNu khjphpahf fhgp
fhgpah muhgpfh 44
cUis
,Ug;gjhy;> ,it rNfhjhp fpoq;F
nrNyhdk; 48
bA+gNuhrk;
FNuhNkbLfs; vdg;gLk;.
 KOikahd mikg;igf;
 epA+fpspNahy];fs; ,uz;lhk;
nfhz;l FNuhNkhNrhkpy;
epiy RUf;fq;fspypUe;J
FWfpa gFjpfs; cs;sd. mit
cUthfpd;wd. ,it
RUf;fq;fs; vdg;gLk;.
epA+fpspNahy];fs;
 RUf;fq;fs; ,U tifgLk;.
cUthf;fpfs; vdg;gLk;.
(Kjd;ik RUf;fk; kw;Wk;
 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; Kjd;ikahd
,uz;lhk; epiy RUf;fk; )
gFjpapypUe;J
Page 16
 jhtutpay;;

BNyhnrd;l;hpf; mf;Nuh nrd;l;hpf; rg;nkl;lhnrd;l;hpf; nkl;lh

nrd;l;hpf;

Nfhy; tbtk; J tbtk;

nrdl;Nuhkpah; kdpjd; 17tJ nrdl;Nuhkpah; V tbtk;
xUKidapy; FNuhNkhNrhk; fpl;ljl;l eLtpy; nrdl;Nuhkpah;
xNu xU if Nfhy; tbtk; NtWgl;l eLtpy;
nrdl;Nuhkpah; xU ,Uiffs; rkkhd
Kidapy; ,Uiffs;
xUFl;ilif xU
ePz;l if
 jdpikg;gLj;Jg;gl;Ls;s
FNuhNkhNrhkpd; rpwpa II. gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy;
Edpg;gFjp rhl;biyl;; vdg;gLk;. N`hNkh n`l;bNuh
,J rhl; FNuhNkhNrhk; Nfkpbf; Nfkpbf;
tif
vdg;gLk;. Xj;j NtWgl;l
 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; Edpg;gFjp gz;G gz;G
BNyhkpah; vdg;gLk;. ,J kdpjd; ngz; XX Mz; XY
epiyg;Gj;jd;ikf;F G+r;rp ngz; XX Mz; XO
mtrpakhdJ. gwit Mz; ZZ ngz; ZW

 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; tbtk; III. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; mike;Js;s

gpd;tUk; fhuzpfshy; khWgLk; ,lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
1. vz;zpf;if
2. msT IV. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; vz;zpf;if
3. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; ,lk; mbg;gilapy;
4. if ePsk; 1. NkhNdh nrd;l;hpf; - xNu xU
5. 2k; epiy xLf;fk; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;
6. rhl;biyl;L 2. N`hNyh nrd;l;hpf; - njsptw;w
nrd;l;Nuhkpah; v.fh : My;fh>
FNuhNkhNrhk; tiffs;
m];fhhp];
I. gzpfspd; mbg;gilapy; :
Ml;NlhNrhk;fs; : 3. Vnrd;l;hpf; - ,y;iy
 cly; gz;Gfis fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; 4. il nrd;l;hpf; -2
 ghy; eph;zapj;jypy; gq;F ,y;iy nrdl;Nuhkpah; FiwghL cs;s
 vz;zpf;if 44 FNuhNkhNrhk;(epiyahdJ my;y)
V . rpwg;G tif FNuhNkhNrhk;
my;NyhNrhk;fs; :  rpy tpyq;Ffspd; Muk;g tsh;r;rp
 ghy; eph;zapj;jypy; Kf;fpa gq;F. fhyj;jpy; kpf nghpa G+j
 vz;zpf;if 2 FNuhNkhNrhk;; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

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1. ghypBd; FNuhNkhNrhk; (gy ehz; tisTfs; gf;fthl;bapy;

FNuhNkhNrhk; ) : ePl;rpAw;W fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

 fz;lwpe;jth; : ghy;gpahdp 1881 3. B FNuhNkhNrhk; / #g;gh; epA+kuhp

 bNuhNrhgpy;yh- ckpo;ePh; Rug;Gfspy; FNuhNkhNrhk;/; Jiz
Kjd;Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jhh;. FNuhNkhNrhk;
 kf;fhNrhsj;jpy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ
 ,J Jiz gaph;
jhtuj;jpd;
tho;ehisf;
 ,q;F DNA njhlh;rr
; pahf Fiwf;Fk;.
,ul;bg;ghfp Nra; DNAf;fs;
gphpahky; Xl;bNa ,Ug;ghjy; gl;il 4. lGs; kpdpl;]; FNuhNkhNrhk;
kw;Wk; ,ilgl;il cUtk;  Gw;WNeha; nry;fspy;
Njhd;Wfpd;wJ. fhzg;gLk;.
 ,e;j Gw;Wnry;fs; kUe;Jfis
 ghypBd; FNuhNkhNrhkpy; nghpa vjph;f;Fk;.
Gilg;ghd gFjp cs;sJ. ,jw;F  nrd;l;Nuhkpah; kw;Wk; BNyhkpah;
ghy;gpahdp tisak; vd;W ngah;. ,y;iy.

FNuhNkhNrhk; gpwl;rpfs;
 Xh; caphpdj;jpd; ,Uka
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; vz;zpf;if
my;yJ mikg;gpy; Gyg;glf;$ba
,ay;Gf;F khwhd khw;wk;
2. tpsf;FJ}hpif FNuhNkhNrhk; FNuhNkhNrhk; gpwl;rp vdg;gLk;.
(Lamp Brush Chromosomes)  ehd;F tifg;gLk;
 fz;lwpe;jth; : gpskpq; 1882
 mrplhGNyhpah My;fhtpy; 1. ePf;fk;
fz;lwpe;jhh;.  xU FNuhNkhNrhkpypUe;J xU
 Fd;wy; gFg;gpd; GNuhNg];rpd; Fwpg;gpl;l gFjp ,of;fg;gLjy;
bg;NshBd; epiyapy; ePf;fk; MFk;. ,J EdpapNyh
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. my;yJ ,ilapNyh Vw;glyhk;.
 FNuhNkhNrhk; kpfTk; RUq;fp  FNuhNkhNrhKila Edp
jbg;Gw;W FNuhNkhNrhk; mr;rhf ,of;fg;gl;lhy; mJ Edp ePf;fk;
khWfpwJ. vdg;gLk;.
 mjpf msT RNA  v.fh : LNuhNrhgpy;yh kw;Wk;
cUthf;fg;gLtjhy; DNA kf;fhNrhsk;.

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 xU FNuhNkhNrhKila ika  xd;W nghpnrd;l;hpf; kw;nwhd;W

gFjpapy; ,og;G Vw;gl;lhy; mJ ghuhnrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;jpUg;g
,ilePf;fk; vdg;gLk;. jpBh;khw;wk; MFk;.
 ngUk;ghyhd ePf;fk;ngWjy; jpBh;  nghpnrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;jpUg;g
khw;wq;fshy; caphpdk; ,we;J jpBh; khw;wj;jpd; NghJ
tpLfpwJ. jiyfPohf jpUk;gpa gFjp nrd;l;
Nuhkpahiuf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
2. ,ul;bg;ghjy;  rpy rkaq;fspy; ,J rpw;wpdj;
 xU FNuhNkhNrhk; gFjpahdJ jpDila ghpzhkj;jpw;F
,UKiw ,Uf;Fkhdhy; mJ fhuzkhf cs;sJ. vLj;J
,ul;bg;ghjy; vdg;gLk;. fhl;lhf> kdpjDila 17tJ
 v.fh xU FNuhkNrhKila FNuhNkhNrhk; mf;Nuhnrd;l;hpf;
[Pd;fs; a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h ,jpy; mNj Ntisapy; rpk;gd;rp
twl;rp fhuzkhf [Pd;fs; g Fuq;fpy; mjw;F ,izahd
kw;Wk h ,ul;bg;ghdhy; FNuhNkhNrhk; nkl;lh
mg;NghJ [Pd;fSila thpir nrd;l;hpf;fhf cs;sJ.
Kiw a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,g,h, vd;W  ghuh nrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;
,Uf;Fk;. jpUg;gj;jpy;> jiyfPohd jpUk;gpa
 LNuhNrhgpy;yh> kf;fhr;Nrhsk; FNuhNkhNrhk; gFjpfs; nrd;l;
kw;Wk; gl;lhzp Mfpatw;wpy; Nuhkpah; ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
,ul;bg;ghjy; jpBh; khw;wq;fs;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. 4. ,lk;ngah;jy;
 caphpdj;jpDila ghpzhk  ,j;jifa FNuhNkhNrhk;
tsh;r;rpf;F rpy ,ul;bg;ghjy; gpwl;rpapy; FNuhNkhNrhk;
jpBh; khw;wq;fs; cjTfpd;wd. gFjpfs; ghpkhw;wk; nra;j
nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ,U
3. jiyfPo; jpUg;gk;; ,izNruh NtWgl;l
 ,jd; fhuzkhf FNuhNkh FNuhNkhNrhk; fSf;fpilNa
Nrhkpy; cs;s [Pd;fspd; ghpkhw;wk; eilngw;why; gu];gu
thpir Kiw 180 jiyfPohf ,lk; ngah;jy; my;yJ
khwptpLfpwJ. Kiwaw;w FWf;Nfw;wk; vd;W
ngah;.
 vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf xU FNuhNkh
 ,J n`l;bNuhirf]; ,lk;
Nrhkpy; a b c d e f g h vd;w
ngah;jy; kw;Wk; n`hNkhir];
thpriapy; [Pd;fs; ,Uf;Fk;
,lk; ngah;jy; vd ,U
NghJ> gpwl;rp Vw;gl;lhy;
tifg;gLk;.
[Pd;fspy; thpirKiw a b c d g
h e h khWfpwJ.
 ,uz;L tifahd jiyfPo;
jpUg;g jpBh; khw;wq;fs; cs;sd.

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FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;ifapy;
gpwl;rpfs;
 Xt;nthU
caphpdj;jpd;
rpw;wpdq;fspy;
cly; nry;fspy;
Fwpg;gpl;l
vz;zpf;ifapy;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
cs;sd.
 ,Uka FNuhNkh Nrhk;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifapy; khw;wk; Vw;gby;>
 n`l;bNuhirf]; ,lk;
mJ FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if
ngah;jypy; ,U ,iz FNuhk
gpwl;rp my;yJ gpsha;b
Nrhk;fspy; xd;W ,ay;ghfTk;
vdg;gLk;.
kw;nwhd;w ghkhw;wk; nra;J
 ,Utifahd gpsha;bfs;
nfhs;sg;gl;l gFjpAld;
Njhd;W fpd;wd. mit
fhzg;gLk;.
A+gpsha;b kw;Wk; md;A+gpsha;b
vd;gdthFk;.

 Mdhy; N`hNkhirf]; ,lk;

ngah;jypy; ,uz;L ,izfspd;
,U FNuhNkhNrhk;fspYk; ,lk;
khw;wk; ngw;w gFjpfs;
fhzg;gLk;.

 ,lk; ngah;jy; jpBh; khw;wk;

rpw;wpdq;fspd; NtWghl;bw;F
fhuzkhf cs;sJ. ,j;jifa
,lk; ngah;jy; guk;giu
Neha;fis Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.

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gpsha;bd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;  A+gpsha;b kw;Wk; md;A+g;gpsha;b

 jhtug;gaph; ngUf;fk; kw;Wk; %ykhf kdpjh;fSf;F
Njhl;lf;fiyapy; ghypgpsha;b gpwg;gpNyNa cz;lhFk; Neha;fs;
Kf;fpa gq;fhw;WfpwJ. Vw;gLfpd;wd.
 ,Ukaj;ij tpl gd;ka  Mg;gps;> Nghp> jpuhl;ir kw;Wk;
epiyapYs;s jhtuq;fs; mjpf jh;G+rzp Mfpatw;wpd;
Ntfkhd tsh;r;rpAld; nghpa ghypgpsha;b ufq;fs; nghpasT
mstpyhd kyh;fs;> fdpfs; fdpia cw;gj;jpnra;fpd;wd.
Mfpatw;iw Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.
vdNt ,it nghUshjhu gpsha;bia J}z;Lgit:
hPjpahf Kf;fpaj;Jtk;  cah; ntg;gepiy Kiw
ngw;wjhFk;.  X –ray Kiw
 ,J Gjpa rpw;wdq;fspd;  Nfy]; cUthf;Fk; Kiw
Njhw;wj;jpy; Kf;fpa gq;fhw;W  fyg;G,dngUf;f Kiw
fpwJ.  Ntjpapay; Kiw
 kyh;fs; kw;Wk; fdpfs; Njhd;Wk; o FNshNuhghh;k;
gUtfhyj;jpy; khw;wj;ij o FNshnuy; i`l;Nul;
Vwg;Lj;JfpwJ. o fhy;rpirapd;
 Gjpa tho; ,lq;fspy; ghyp o Mf;rpd; (IAA, NAA)
gpsha;bj; jhtuq;fs; ed;whf o [pg;nuy;ypd;
Cd;wp tsh;fpd;wd o epf;Nfhl;bd; ry;Ngl;
 ghypgpsha;b tpisthf Neha;
vjph;g;Gj; jpwDld; mjpf epA+f;spf; mkpyq;fs;
kf#y;fis juty;y ufq;fs; DNA - BMf;]p hpNgh epA+f;spf;
cz;lhfpd;wd. mkpyk;
 nll;uhgpsha;b Nfh];> kw;Wk;  Kjypy; epA+f;spd; vd
jf;fhsp Mfpatw;wpy; mjpf ngahpl;lth; : Meischer
msT m];fhh;gpf; mkpyk;  epA+f;spf; mkpyk; vd
cs;sJ. nll;uhgpsha;b kf;fh
ngahpl;lth; : Altman
Nrhsj;jpy; mjpf msptpy;
 DNA vd ngahpl;lth; : Zacharis
tpl;lkpd; A cs;sJ.
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 DNA %yf;$iw Kjypy; Fthidd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B

gbj;jth;fs; : Wilkins and Mf;rp FthNdhird;+ gh];Ngl; = B
Franklin (X- Raycrystallography) Mf;rp Fthidypf; mkpyk;
 DNA %yf;$iw Kjypy; irl;Nlhrpd; + hpNgh]; = irl;bild;;
tpthpj;jth;fs; : Watson and + gh];Ngl; = irl;bilypf; mkpyk;
Crick (1953) Nobel prize in 1962 irl;Nlhrpd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B
 gpa+hpd;> gphpkpbd; tpthpj;jth; : Mf;rp irl;bild; + gh];Ngl; = B
Kossel, 1910 Mf;rp irl;bilypf; mkpyk;
 caphpfspy; kuG nghUs; MFk; A+uhrpy; + hpNgh]; = A+hpild;
 kdpjdpy; nkhj;j ePsk; - 2 kP + gh];Ngl; = A+hpilypf; mkpyk;
MFk;. ijakpd;; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B
 xU %yf;$wpapy; Mf;]p hpNgh]; Mf;rp ijakpbd;; + gh];Ngl; = B
rh;f;fiu> ehd;F tpjkhd Mf;rp ijakpilypf; mkpyk;
iel;u[d; fhuq;fs; fhzg;gLk;. DNA tiffs;
 mit : mbidd;> jakpd;>  ,ul;il ,iofs; nfhz;l DNA
Fthidd;> irl;Nlhird; Ie;J tpjkhd tbtq;fspy;
 4.3 kpy;ypad; epA+f;spNlhilL fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
fshy; MdJ.  tyJ ifthl;lj;jpy; Roy;git :
 epA+f;spNahilLfs;> epA+f;spNah
DNA RUs; ,ul;il ,ilg;gl;l tpl;lk;
irLfshy;; MdJ. ePsk; gpizg;G J}uk;
vz;zpf;if
epA+f;spNah irL = Mf;]phpNgh]; 28 11 23
A 2.56 A
rh;f;fiu + iel;u[d; fhuk;
A A
epA+f;spNah ilL = epA+f;spNahirL 34 10 20
B 3.4 A
+ gh];Ngl; njhFjp A A
C 31 9.33 3.32 A 19
iel;u[d; fhuk; ,U tifg;gLk; A A
mbddd; A D 24.2 8 3.03 A 19
Fthddd; G A A
gpa+hpd;
gphpkpbd; irl;Nlhrpd; C  ,lJ ifthl;lj;jpy; Roy;git :
ijakpd; T
o Z- DNA
o fz;lwpe;jth; : Rich
epA+f;spNahilLfspd; tiffs; :
mbidd; + hpNgh]; = mbNdhird; o RUs; ePsk; : 45.6 A
+ gh];Ngl; = mbidypf; mkpyk; o tpl;lk ; : 18.4 A
mbidd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B o gpizg;G vz;zpf;if : 12
Mf;rp mbNdhird; + gh];Ngl; = B  Palindromic DNA
Mf;rp mbidypf; mkpyk; o xd;Wf;nfhd;W Neh; vjpuhd
Fthidd; +hpNgh]; = FthNdhird; [Pd; thpirfisf; nfhz;lJ.
+ gh];Ngl; = Fthidypf; mkpyk; o tpthpj;jth;: Wilson &
Thomas

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 A = T N[hbAk; C G N[hbAk;
T A G A C G C G T C T A rkvz;zpf;ifapy; ,Uf;f
           
Njitapy;iy
A T C T G C G C A G A T
 tpl;lk; 20 A
thl;rd; & fphpf; - B - DNA khjphp :  mLj;jLj;j ,U RUs;
 ,uz;L ghyp epA+f;spNahilL ,ilntsp - 34A
rq;fpyp nfhz;lJ.  ,U RUs; ,ilNa [Pd;
 ,uz;L rq;fpypfSk; xd;W vz;zpf;if - 10
nfhd;W Neh; vjpuhdJ.  ,U [Pd; ,ilJ}uk; 3.4 A
 ,ul;il ,iofshy; Md Xh;  thl;rd; & fphpf; DNA khjphpia
mikg;G> ,ul;il jpUF RUs; Kjd; Kjypy; Ecoli
mikg;G cUthf;fpwJ. ghf;Bhpaj;jpy; ep&gpj;jth;:
 ,it gh];Ngh - il - v];lh; kPry;]r; d;
,izg;Gfshy; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. DNA ,ul;bg;ghjy;
 xU ,ioapy; 3’–5’’,izg;ghfTk;  DNA ngUf;fj;jpd; NghJ
kw;nwhU ,ioapy; 5’–3’’ cUthFk; mjpRUf;f
,izg;ghfTk; ,izf;fg; RUs;fis tpLtpg;gJ (m)
gl;Ls;sJ. gphpg;gJ : NlhNgh INrhkNu];
 ,uz;L ,iofSf;F ,ilNa  DNA ,uz;L ,iofisAk;
i`l;u[d; gpizg;Gfs; fhzg; gphpf;Fk; nehjp : n`ypf;Nf];
gLfpd;wJ. (Helicase)
 ,it iel;u[d; fhuq;fSf;F  ghjp DNA (m) ngw;Nwhh; DNA
,ilNa cs;sJ. ghJfhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 mbidd; ijakpd; cld;  Gjpa ,iofs; DNA ghypkNu];
,izAk; (,ul;il i`l;u[d; (I,II,III) %yk; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gpizg;G)
 irl;Nlhrpd; Fthidd; cld;  ,e;j DNA ghypkNuh]; nray;gl
,izAk; (%d;W i`l;u[d;
Template DNA NjitgLk;
gpizg;G)
(2 ,iofs;)
 ,ij tpthpj;jth; : Chargaff
(A = T), (C G )

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nfhz;lJ. (xw;iw ,io

mikg;G)

 iel;u[d; fhuk; :
 gpa+hpd; mbddd; A
Fthddd; G
 gphpkpbd; irl;Nlhrpd; C
ijakpd; U

 mbddd; msT A+uhrpy; msT

rkk; ,y;iy.

 Fthddd; msT irl;Nlhrpd;

msT rkk; ,y;iy.

RNA tpd; tiffs; :
 ,jd; %yk; Gjpa DNA ,io
1. kuG RNA (m) ituy; RNA
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
o DNA fhzg;glhj epiyapy;
Ntiyfs; : RNA kugpay; flj;jy;
Ntiyfis nra;Ak;.
 nry;ypd; vy;yh nraiyAk;
fl;LgLj;JfpwJ. o v.L : hpNah itu];> TMV,
 gz;Gfis jiyKiwf;F QB ghf;BhpNah Ng[;
flj;JfpwJ. 2. kuG my;yhj RNA
 DNA xU mRNA it o hpNghNrhky; RNA - r RNA
cUthf;fpwJ. mJ Gujk; o khw;Wk; RNA - t RNA
cUthfpd;wJ. o J}Jth; RNA - m RNA
 ,e;j epiykhw;wj;ij r-RNA (iuNghNrhk; RNA /
fz;lwpe;jth; : gpulhpf; fphpg;gpj; Ribosomal RNA) :
RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid)  nkhj;j RNA mstpy; 80
 RNA tbtk; DNAit xj;Jf; rjtPjk; cs;sJ.
fhzg;gl;lhYk; xU rpy  ,it hpNghNrhkpy; xl;b
fhuzq;fshy; khWgLfpd;wJ. fhzg;gLk;
 75 Kjy; rpy Mapuk; nfhz;l  kpfTk; epiyahdit.
epA+f;spNahilLfshy; MdJ.  GNuhNfhpNahl; 3 tif - 16S,
mit : 23S, 5S
 B Mf;]p hpNgh];  A+NfhpNahl; 4 tif - 18S,
rh;f;fiuf;F gjpy; hpNgh]; 28S, 5.8S, 5S
rh;f;fiu fhzg;gLk;.  Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ m RNA
 ijkDf;F gjpyhf it cg;G ,izg;Gfs; %yk; t
A+Nuhrpy; fhzg;gLk;. RNA Tld; xl;b nfhs;s
 xNu xU ghyp nra;fpwJ.
epA+f;spNahilL rq;fpyp

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 t RNA hpNghNrhkpd; nghpa o epidT tisak;

myFlDk; mRNa rpwpa  NfhlhDf;F vjph;gjk; myF
myFlDk; ,izfpd;wJ. Md;bNfhlhd; vdg;gLk;.

t-RNA (Transfer RNA / Soluble RNA

/ Adapter RNA ) Ntiy
 RNA nkhj;j mstpy; 10 - 15%  Fwpg;gpl;l mkpNdh
cs;sJ. mkpyj;Jld; ,ize;J
 fz;lwpe;jth; : Hogland , mitfis Guj cw;gj;jp
Zemecknike and Stephenson elf;Fk; ,lj;jpw;F ,lkhw;wk;
 fpshth; ,iyaikg;G nra;fpd;wd.
ntspaPl;lth; : R.W .N`hyp m-RNA (J}Jth; RNA / Messenger
 Kg;ghpkhz mikg;ig RNA)
ntspaPl;lth; : Kim ( L Shape)  RNA mstpy; 1 - 5% cs;sJ.
 ,J epa+f;spa]; cs;Ns  fz;lwpe;jth; : Huxley , Volkin &
fhzg;gLk; DNA tpdhy; Astrachan
cw;gj;jpnra;gLfpd;wd.  ngahpl;lth; : Jacob & Monad
 kpfTk; rpwpa RNA ,q;F  Gujj;jpy; cs;s mkpNdh
mkpyq;fspd; thpiria
fhzg;gLfpwJ: 4S
(nkhj;jk; 20) eph;zak; nra;Ak;
 xw;iw rq;fpyp mikg;igf;
kuG jfty;fis Rke;J nry;;Yk;.
nfhz;lJ.
(mbg;gil myF : Nfhlhd;)
 75-85 epA+f;spNahilLfs;
 DNA Nghd;w mikg;G nfhz;lJ.
cs;sJ.
 DNA apd; ,U ,iofspy;
 3’ - Kidapy; %d;W
VjhtJ xd;why; cUthf;fg;gLk;.
epA+f;spNahilLfs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.  epA+f;spa]hy;; cUthf;fg;gl;L
irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpw;F
 5’ - Kidapy; vg;nghOJk;
mDg;gg;gLfpwJ.
Fthidd;; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 mq;F Fwpg;gpl;l Gujkhf nkhop
 tRNA %yf;$whdJ
ngah;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjpfg;gbahd iel;u[d;
 Guj;jj;jpd; msT mRNA tpd;
fhuq;fshy; i`l;u[d;
%yf;$W ePsk;> mJ FwpaPL
gpizg;Gfshy; gpizf;fgLk;
nra;Ak; Gujj;ijg;; nghWj;J
nghOJ gy kbg;Gfshf
khWgLk;.
fhzgLfpwJ.
Nfhlhd;
 i`l;u[d; gpizg;G ,y;yhj
 kuG nra;jp myFfs; vdg;gLk;
,lq;fspy; tisaq;fshf
fhzg;gLk;.  4 Guj %yf;$WfSk; 3
fhuq;fSk; Nrh;e;J nkhj;jk; 64
o DHU tisak;
Nfhlhd; nfhLf;Fk; (43 =
o TUC tisak;
4x4x4 = 64)

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 64 Nfhld;fs; nkhj;jk; 20
mkpNdh mkpyk; FwpaPL
nra;Ak;.
 bhpg;nyl; Nfhlhd; : xt;nthU
NfhlhDk; 3 epA+f;spNahilL
nfhz;lJ.
 Guj nra;jpapd; Kjy; Nfhlhd; /
Muk;g Nfhlhd; / Starting
Codon : AUG
 KbT Nfhlhd; / mh;j;j kw;w
Nfhlhd; / Non sense Codon
: UAA, UAG, UGA .
 ,it ve;j mkpNdh mkpy
cw;gj;jpapYk; <LgLtjpy;iy.

nry; gphpjy;
 nry; gFg;G xU rpf;fyhd epfo;r;rp  v.L : ghf;Bhpah > mkPgh
 ,jpy; nry; nghUs;fs; Nra;  FNuhNkhl;bd; tiyg;gpd;dy;
nry;fSf;F rkkhf gfph;eJ
; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,Uf;fhJ.
mspf;fg;gLfpwJ. ikl;lhrp];
 3 tifgLk;  jhtu> tpyq;F cly; nry;fspy;
o Vikl;lhrp]; - Neub elf;fpwJ. tsh;r;rpf;F
nry;gphpjy; fhuzkhf mikfpd;wJ.
o ikl;lhrp]; - kiwKf  Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth; :
nry;gphpjy; W. ‡g;ngsk;kpq;; 1882
o kpahrp]; - Fd;wy; gphpT  NkYk; tpthpj;jth; :
 fhhpNahifdrp]; - cl;fU gphpT ];l;uh];gh;fh; 1882
 irl;Nlhifdrp]; -  ikl;lahrp]; gphpT 2 epiy
irl;Nlhgpshr gphpT nfhz;lJ.
Vikl;lhrp]; 1) ,ilepiy / xa;Tepiy / Interface
 xU nry; caphpfspy; kl;Lk;  ,U mLj;jLj;j nry;gFg;gpw;F
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,ilg;gl;l fhyk; epiy

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 jhtutpay;;

o G1 epiy, S epiy> G2  ,U FNuhNkhbl;fSf;F

epiy eLtpy; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;
G1 epiy : ,Uf;Fk;.
 nry; gphpjYf;F gpd; Jtq;Fk;  2 nrd;bhpNahy; gphpe;J
 Kjy; epiy - nry; tsh;r;rp vjph;vjph; JUtj;ij milAk;.
miljy; .  fjph;,io ehh;fis cw;gj;jpr;
 Njitahd Gujk;> RNA nra;Ak;.
cw;gj;jp Mjy; 2. Metophase ika epiy :
Sepiy :  ehd;F FNuhNkhbl; nfhz;l
 DNA mstpy; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. FNuhNkhNrhk; nry;ypd;
(,ul;bj;jy;) ikag;gFjpf;F te;jilAk;.
G2 epiy :  nrd;l;hpNahy;fspd; ];gpd;by;
 ];gpd;by; ehhpio cw;gj;jpf;F fjph;fs; FNuhNkhNrhkpd;
Njitahd Gujk; cw;gj;jp nrd;lNuhkpah; cld; ed;F
MfpwJ. ,izAk;.
2) ikl;lhrp]; epiy  FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; njspthf
 FNuhNkhNrhk; ,izahf njhpAk;.
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;L jha; nry;ypy; 3. Anaphase / gphpepiy / gpd;diljy;
,Ue;J Nra; nry;Yf;F rkkhf epiy :
gq;fPL nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  gphptile;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if vjph; JUtq;fis Nehf;fp
khwhJ mikg;gpy; khWgLk;. efUk;.
vdNt ,J rkd;ghl;L nry;  ];gpd;by; fjph; ePsj;jpy;
gphpjy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Fiwe;J gpd;G kiwAk;
 ,J ehd;F epiyfspy;  FNuhNkhNrhk; Rw;wp cl;fU
elf;fpd;wJ. ciw Njhd;w Muk;gpf;Fk;.
o Prophase - njhlf;f 4. Telephase KbT epiy :
epiy  cl;fU rt;T kw;Wk; cl;fU
o Metaphase - ika epiy kzp Njhd;Wk;.
o Ana phase - gpd;diljy;  fjph; ,io ehh;fs; kiwAk;
epiy  FNuhNkhNrhk; ePz;L
o Tels phase - KbT epiy tiygpd;dy; mikg;G
Njhd;Wk;.
ikl;lhrp]; epiy :
1. Prophase (m) njhlf;f epiy
 Kjypy; cl;fU rt;T kw;Wk;
cl;fU kzp kiwAk;.
 FNuhkhl;bd; tiygpd;dy;
RUq;fp Fl;ilahd jbkhdhd
FNuhNkhNrhk; cUthFk;.

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 jhtutpay;;

 irl;Nlhgpshrk; gphpe;J eLtpy; tpyq;F nry; :

Rth; Njhd;Wk;  gpsT> ntspapy; Muk;gpj;J
 ,U Nra; nry; cz;lhFk;. cs;Nehf;fp tsUk;.
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; :
jhtu nry;  ikl;lh]p]pd; tpisthf
 gpsT> ikaj;jpy; Muk;gpj;J xd;Wf;nfhd;W xj;jpUf;Fk;
ntspNehf;fp tsUk;
 ,uz;L Nra; nry;fs;  FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,it ghjpahf FiwAk;.
jha;r;nry;iyAk; xj;jpUf;fpd;wd.  kugpay; NtWghL Njhd;Wk;
 ikl;lh]p]; nry; gFg;gpd;  jhtuj;jpy; kpahrp]; epfo;T Vw;gLk;
fhuzkhf Nra; nry;fs; kugpay; ,lq;fs; :
xw;Wikfis mstpYk; gz;gpYk; o kfue;j igapy; kfue;j J}s;
ngw;Ws;sd. cz;lhFk; NghJ
 caphpdq;fspd; njhlh;r;rp o fhkpl;Lfspy; cUthf;fj;jpd;
ikl;lh]p]; %yNk NghJ
rhj;jpakhfpwJ. o irNfhl;L Kisf;Fk; NghJ
 cah; jhtuq;fspy; xl;Lg; NghLjy;  ,UngUk; epfo;Tfisf;
kw;Wk; jpR tsh;g;G Nghd;w cly; nfhz;lJ.
,dg;ngUf;f KiwfSk; 1. kpahrp]; I 2. kpahrp]; II
ikl;lh]p]pd; tpisthfNt Prophase - I Prophase -II
epfo;fpd;wd. Metophase - I Metophase -II
 nry;fs; ngUf;fkile;J mjd; Anaphase - I Anaphase - II
fhuzkhf tsh;r;rpAk; cUj; Telephase - I Telephase - II
Njhw;wKk; gy nry; caphpfspy;
ikl;lh]p]; %yNk epfo;fpwJ. Prophase I
 mope;j nry;fisg; GJg;gpg;gjw;Fk;  5 Jiz epiyfisf; nfhz;lJ
Nrjk; mile;j nry;fis nyg;Nlhl;Bd; :
caph;g;gpg;gjw;Fk; fhaq;fis  nyg;Nlhl;Bd; vd;w thh;j;ij
Mw;WtjpYk; ikl;lh]p];
nky;ypa E}y; vd;W nghUs;
cjTfpwJ.
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; gphpe;j ePz;L>
 Xt;nthU rpw;wpdj;jpYk;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; vz;zpf;if nky;ypadthf khWfpd;wd.
epiyahf ,Uf;f ikl;lh]p];  Xt;nthU FNuhNkhNrhKk;
cjTfpwJ. ,uz;L FNuhNkl;bfis
cilaJ.
kpahrp]; / Fd;wy; gFg;G irNfhl;bd;
 ,dngUf;fr; nry;fspy; elf;Fk;.  xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
 xU nry; ehd;fhf Mf gphpAk; mtw;wpd; KO ePsj;jpw;Fk;

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 jhtutpay;;

xd;Wf;nfhd;W mUfhikapy;  ,jd; fhuzkhf ,tw;wpd;

te;j mkh;fpd;wd. ,ul;ilj; jd;ik ed;F
 ,jw;F N[hb Nrh;jy; my;yJ Gyg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhNyNa
rpdhg;rp]; vd;W ngah;. ,e;epiy bg;Nshl;bd;
 ,e;j FNuhNkhNrhk; vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
N[hbfSf;F ,ul;ilfs; ilahifd]p];
(bivalents) vd;W ngah;.  FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; njhlh;e;J
 N[hb Nrh;ej
; xj;j RUq;Ffpd;wd.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; mUfUNf  fah];khf;fs; KOtJkhf
mikAk; rNfhjhp my;yhj tpyFthjy; N[hb Nrh;ej
;
FNuhNkl;bLfs; (non – sister FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; gphpf;fpd;wd.
chromatids) fah];khf;fs; vd;w  ,t;tpyFjy; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;fsp
rpy Gs;spfspy; ,ize;J ypUe;j njhlq;fp FNuhNkh
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Nrhk;fspd; Edp Nehf;fp
ghf;fpBd; nry;tjhy; ,jid Edp
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; NkYk; RUq;fp miljy; vd;fpNwhk;.
jbj;J Fl;ilahfpd;wd. ,it  epA+f;spNahy]pk; epA+f;spahh;
,g;NghJ kpfj; njspthff; ciwAk; kiwa Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.  fjph;fs; Njhd;w
 Xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk; N[hbfspd; Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
rNfhjhp FNuhNkl;bLfs;  ,jd; gpwF kpahrp]; I-d;
,g;NghJ njspthfj; Kbtpy; FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
njhpfpd;wd. xUq;fpize;J xw;iwka
 Xt;nthU ,ul;ilAk; ,g;NghJ epA+f;spai]j;
ehd;F FNuhNkl;bfisf; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.
nfhz;bUg;gjhy; ,it nll;uL  ,uz;lhtJ kpahrp]; gFg;G
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. vy;yh tpjj;jpYk; ikl;lhrp];
 fah];kh gFjpfspy; xj;j gFg;ig xj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; mUfUNf  ,jd; Kbtpy; ehd;F xw;iwka
cs;s FNuhkhl;bLfspilNa Nra; nry;fs; cUthfpd;wd.
rpW gFjpfs; ghpkhw;wk;
milfpd;wd. ,e;epfo;r;rp
FWf;Nf fyj;jy; (crossing
over)vd;W ngah;.
bg;Nshl;Bd;
 xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; NkYk;
RUq;f Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
fah];kh Gs;spfisj;jtpu kw;w
gFjpfspy; ,it tpyf
Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.

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 jhtutpay;;

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; :
1. ,dg;ngUf;f nry;fs; cUthf;fk;
2. FWf;Nf fyj;jy; %yk; [Pd;fspd;
kWNrh;f;if elf;fpd;wJ.
3. kugpay; NtWghLfSf;F
fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
4. Gjpa ghpzkj;jpw;F
toptFf;fpd;wJ.

Page 30