CHAPTER 28
RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING
LOAD CALCULATIONS
Residential Features ...............................................................
COOLING LOAD ...................................................................
Load Components ...................................................................
Load Calculation ....................................................................
HEATING LOAD ....................................................................
General Procedure ..................................................................
T HIS CHAPTER covers the engineering basis of modified
residential load calculation procedures for the nonengineer.
The procedures described in Chapter 29 may be used to calculate a
heating or cooling load for residential buildings.
RESIDENTIAL FEATURES
With respect to heating and cooling load calculation and equip-
ment sizing, the unique features distinguishing residences from
other types of buildings are the following:
Unlike many other structures, residences are usually occupied
and conditioned 24 h per day, virtually every day of the cooling and
heating seasons.
• Residential system loads are primarily imposed by heat loss or
gain through structural components and by air leakage or
ventilation. Internal loads, particularly those from occupants and
lights, are small in comparison to those in commercial or
industrial structures.
• Most residences are conditioned as a single zone. Unit capacity
cannot be redistributed from one area to another as loads change
from hour to hour; however, exceptions do occur.
• Most residential cooling systems use units of relatively small
capacity (about 18,000 to 60,000 Btu/h cooling, 60,000 to
110,000 Btu/h heating). Because loads are largely affected by
outside conditions, and few days each season are design days, the
unit operates at only partial load during most of the season; thus,
an oversized unit is detrimental to good system performance,
especially for cooling in areas of high wet-bulb temperature.
• Dehumidification occurs during cooling unit operation only, and
space condition control is usually limited to use of room
thermostats (sensible heat-actuated devices).
• Multifamily living units are similar to single-family detached
houses, but the living units may not all have surfaces exposed in
all directions. This affects load calculation.
Categories of Residences
Single-Family Detached. A house in this category usually has
exposed walls in four directions, often more than one story, and a
roof. The cooling system is a single-zone, unitary system with a sin-
gle thermostat. Two-story houses may have a separate cooling sys-
tem for each floor. The rooms are reasonably open and generally
have a centralized air return. In this configuration, both air and load
from rooms are mixed, and a load-leveling effect, which requires a
distribution of air to each room that is different from a pure com-
mercial system, results. Because the amount of air supplied to each
room is based on the load for that room, proper load calculation pro-
cedures must be used.
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 4.1, Load Calculation
Data and Procedures.
28.1 Selecting Heating Design Conditions ..................................... 28.7
28.1 Estimating Temperatures in Adjacent Unheated Spaces ........ 28.8
28.1 Calculating Heat Loss from Crawl Spaces ............................. 28.9
28.5 Calculating Transmission Heat Loss .................................... 28.10
28.6 Calculating Infiltration Heat Loss ........................................ 28.12
28.7 PICKUP LOAD ..................................................................... 28.14
Multifamily Buildings. Unlike single-family detached units,
multifamily units by definition do not have exposed surfaces facing
in all directions. Rather, each unit has only one or two exposed sur-
faces and possibly a roof. Two exposed walls will be at right angles,
and both east and west walls will not be exposed in a given living
unit. Each living unit has a single unitary cooling system or a single
fan-coil unit, and the rooms are relatively open to one another. This
configuration does not have the same load-leveling effect as a sin-
gle-family detached house, but it is not a commercial building.
Therefore, a specific load calculation procedure is required.
Other Categories. Many buildings do not fall into either of the
above categories. Critical to the designation of a single-family de-
tached building is the exposure of both east and west walls. There-
fore, some multifamily structures should be treated as single-family
detached when the exposed surfaces are oriented in a particular way.
Examples include duplexes or apartments with either exposed east,
west, and south walls or exposed east, west, and north walls, with or
without a roof; and apartments, town houses, or condominiums with
only east and west or north and south exposed walls.
COOLING LOAD
LOAD COMPONENTS
A cooling load calculation determines total sensible cooling load
due to heat gain (1) through structural components (walls, floors,
and ceilings); (2) through windows; (3) caused by infiltration and
ventilation; and (4) due to occupancy. The latent portion of the cool-
ing load is evaluated separately. While the entire structure may be
considered a single zone, equipment selection and system design
should be based on a room-by-room calculation. For proper design
of the distribution system, the amount of conditioned air required by
each room must be known.
Peak Load Computation
To select a properly sized cooling unit, the peak or maximum
load (block load) for each zone must be computed. Because this
procedure may vary considerably for different types of buildings,
each building type has to be considered; the block load for a single-
family detached house with one central system is the sum of all the
room loads. If the house has a separate system for each zone, each
zone block load (i.e., the sum of the loads for all rooms in each zone)
is required. When a house is zoned with one central cooling system,
the block load must be computed for the complete house as if it were
one zone. In multifamily structures, each living unit has a zone load
that equals the sum of the room loads. For apartments with separate
systems, the block load for each unit establishes the system size.
Apartment buildings with a central cooling system (i.e., a hydronic
system with fan-coils in each apartment) require a block load calcu-
lation for the complete structure to size the central system; each unit
28.1
28.2 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

load establishes the size of the fan-coil and air distribution system In application, the area of each window is multiplied by the
for each apartment. One of the methods discussed in Chapter 29 appropriate GLF. The effects of permanent outside shading devices
may be used to calculate the block load. should be considered separately in determining the cooling load.
Shaded glass is considered the same as north-facing glass. The
Indoor Temperature Swing shade line factor (SLF) is the ratio of the distance a shadow falls
For hour-by-hour load calculations, allowing for a swing in beneath the edge of an overhang to the width of the overhang (Table
indoor temperature results in lower peak loads. Because the indoor 6). Therefore, assuming the overhang is at the top of the window, the
temperature does swing, such an allowance gives a more reasonable shade line equals the SLF times the overhang width. The shaded and
equipment capacity. The tables in this section are based on an sunlit glass areas may then be computed separately. The tabulated
assumed indoor temperature swing of no more than 3°F on a design values are the average of the shade line values for 5 h of maximum
day, when the residence is conditioned 24 h per day and the thermo- solar intensity on each wall orientation shown. Northeast- and
stat is set at 75°F. northwest-facing windows are not effectively protected by roof
overhangs; in most cases, they should not be considered shaded.
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Structure
Infiltration
The sensible cooling load due to heat gains through the walls,
floor, and ceiling of each room is calculated using appropriate Natural air leakage in residential structures is less in summer
cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) (Tables 1 and 2) than in winter, largely because wind velocities are lower in most
and U-factors for summer conditions. For ceilings under naturally localities. The data in Tables 7 and 8 showing space air changes per
vented attics or beneath vented flat roofs, the combined U-factor hour (ACH) apply to both single- and multifamily housing,
for the roof, vented space, and ceiling should be used. The mass of
the walls is a variable in Table 2 and is important in calculating Table 2 CLTD Values for Multifamily Residencesa
energy use, but it is not used in Table 1 because of the averaging Design Temperature, °F
technique required to develop the CLTDs. Values in Tables 1 and 2 85 90 95 100 105 110
assume a dark color because color is an unpredictable variable in Daily Temperature
Rangeb L M L M H L M H M H M H
any residence.
Daily range (outdoor temperature swing on a design day) signif- Walls and doorsc
icantly affects the equivalent temperature difference. Tables 1 and 2 Light 14 11 19 16 12 24 21 17 26 22 27 32
list daily temperature ranges classified as high, medium, and low. N Medium 13 10 18 15 11 23 20 16 25 21 26 31
Tables 1, 2, and 3 in Chapter 27 list outdoor daily ranges of dry-bulb Heavy 9 6 15 11 7 20 16 12 21 17 22 27
temperature for different locations. Light 23 17 28 22 17 33 27 22 32 26 31 36
NE Medium 20 15 25 20 16 30 25 21 29 25 29 34
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Windows Heavy 16 12 21 17 13 26 22 18 26 22 26 31
Light 32 27 37 32 27 43 38 32 42 37 42 47
Direct application of procedures for calculating cooling load due E Medium 30 24 34 29 24 40 34 29 39 33 39 44
to heat gain for flat glass (discussed in Chapters 29 and 30) results Heavy 23 18 28 23 18 34 29 23 33 28 33 38
in unrealistically high cooling loads for residential installations.
Light 31 27 35 31 26 41 37 31 42 37 42 47
Window glass load factors (GLFs), modified for single- and mul-
SE Medium 28 22 32 27 22 37 32 27 37 33 38 43
tifamily residential cooling load calculations and including solar
Heavy 21 16 26 22 17 32 27 22 31 27 32 37
heat load plus air-to-air conduction, are given in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 5 lists the shading coefficients (SCs) and U-factors used to Light 25 22 29 26 22 35 31 26 36 32 37 43
compile Tables 3 and 4. S Medium 22 18 26 22 18 31 26 22 31 27 32 38
Heavy 16 11 20 16 12 26 21 17 26 21 27 33
Table 1 CLTD Values for Single-Family Detached Residencesa Light 39 36 44 40 35 50 46 40 51 47 52 58
SW Medium 33 29 37 34 29 44 40 35 45 40 46 52
Design Temperature, °F Heavy 23 18 28 24 19 36 31 25 35 30 36 42
Daily Temperature 85 90 95 100 105 110 Light 44 41 48 45 40 54 51 46 56 52 57 63
Rangeb L M L M H L M H M H M H W Medium 37 33 41 38 33 46 42 38 48 43 49 55
All walls and doors Heavy 26 22 31 27 23 37 32 27 37 32 38 44
North 8 3 13 8 3 18 13 8 18 13 18 23 Light 33 30 37 34 30 43 39 34 44 40 45 50
NW Medium 28 25 32 29 24 37 33 29 39 35 40 45
NE and NW 14 9 19 14 9 24 19 14 24 19 24 29
Heavy 20 16 25 20 16 31 26 21 31 26 32 37
East and West 18 13 23 18 13 28 23 18 28 23 28 33
Roof and ceiling
SE and SW 16 11 21 16 11 26 21 16 26 21 26 31
Attic or Light 58 53 65 60 55 70 65 60 70 65 72 77
South 11 6 16 11 6 21 16 11 21 16 21 26 flat built-up
Roofs and ceilings Flat built-up Medium 21 18 23 21 18 25 23 21 25 23 25 28
Attic or flat built-up 42 37 47 42 37 51 47 42 51 47 51 56 or heavy
Floors and ceiling
Floors and ceilings
Under or over 9 4 12 9 4 14 12 9 14 12 14 19
Under conditioned 9 4 12 9 4 14 12 9 14 12 14 19 unconditioned space,
space, over unconditioned crawl space
room, or over crawl space
Partitions
Partitions
Inside or shaded 9 4 12 9 4 14 12 9 14 12 14 19
Inside or shaded 9 4 12 9 4 14 12 9 14 12 14 19 a Cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) for multifamily low-rise or single-
a Cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) for single-family detached houses, family detached if zoned with separate temperature control for each zone, °F.
duplexes, or multifamily, with both east and west exposed walls or only north and b L denotes low daily range, less than 16 °F; M denotes medium daily range, 16 to 25 °F;

south exposed walls, °F. and H denotes high daily range, greater than 25 °F.
b L denotes low daily range, less than 16 °F; M denotes medium daily range, 16 to 25 °F; cLight denotes lightweight; medium denotes medium-weight; and heavy denotes

and H denotes high daily range, greater than 25°F. heavyweight construction.
Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.3

Table 3 Window Glass Load Factors (GLFs) for Single-Family Detached Residencesa
Regular Regular Heat-Absorbing Clear Triple
Single Glass Double Glass Double Glass Glass
Design
Temperature, °F 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95
No inside shading
North 34 36 41 47 48 50 30 30 34 37 38 41 20 20 23 25 26 28 27 27 30
NE and NW 63 65 70 75 77 83 55 56 59 62 63 66 36 37 39 42 44 44 50 50 53
East and West 88 90 95 100 102 107 77 78 81 84 85 88 51 51 54 56 59 59 70 70 73
SE and SWb 79 81 86 91 92 98 69 70 73 76 77 80 45 46 49 51 54 54 62 63 65
South b 53 55 60 65 67 72 46 47 50 53 54 57 31 31 34 36 39 39 42 42 45
Horizontal skylight 156 156 161 166 167 171 137 138 140 143 144 147 90 91 93 95 96 98 124 125 127
Draperies, venetian blinds, translucent roller shades, fully drawn
North 18 19 23 27 29 33 16 16 19 22 23 26 13 14 16 18 19 21 15 16 18
NE and NW 32 33 38 42 43 47 29 30 32 35 36 39 24 24 27 29 29 32 28 28 30
East and West 45 46 50 54 55 59 40 41 44 46 47 50 33 33 36 38 38 41 39 39 41
SE and SWb 40 41 46 49 51 55 36 37 39 42 43 46 29 30 32 34 35 37 35 36 38
Southb 27 28 33 37 38 42 24 25 28 31 31 34 20 21 23 25 26 28 23 24 26
Horizontal skylight 78 79 83 86 87 90 71 71 74 76 77 79 58 59 61 63 63 65 69 69 71
Opaque roller shades, fully drawn
North 14 15 20 23 25 29 13 14 17 19 20 23 12 12 15 17 17 20 13 13 15
NE and NW 25 26 31 34 36 40 23 24 27 30 30 33 21 22 24 26 27 29 23 23 26
East and West 34 36 40 44 45 49 32 33 36 38 39 42 29 30 32 34 35 37 32 32 35
SE and SWb 31 32 36 40 42 46 29 30 33 35 36 39 26 27 29 31 32 34 29 29 31
Southb 21 22 27 30 32 36 20 20 23 26 27 30 18 19 21 23 24 26 19 20 22
Horizontal skylight 60 61 64 68 69 72 57 57 60 62 63 65 52 52 55 57 57 59 56 57 59
aGlass load factors (GLFs) for single-family detached houses, duplexes, or multifam- To obtain GLF for other combinations of glass and/or inside shading: GLFa =
ily residences, with both east and west exposed walls or only north and south (SCa/SCt)(GLFt − UtDt) + UaDt , where the subscripts a and t refer to the alternate
exposed walls, Btu/h·ft2. and table values, respectively. SCt and Ut are given in Table 5. Dt = (ta − 75),
bCorrect by +30% for latitude of 48 ° and by −30% for latitude of 32°. Use linear where ta = to − (DR/2); to is the outdoor design temperature and DR is the daily
interpolation for latitude from 40 to 48 and from 40 to 32°. range.

Table 4 Window Glass Load Factors (GLFs) for Multifamily Residencesa

Regular Regular Heat-Absorbing Clear Triple
Design Single Glass Double Glass Double Glass Glass
Temperature, °F 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95
No inside shading
North 40 44 49 54 58 64 34 36 39 42 44 47 23 24 26 29 30 33 30 32 34
NE 88 89 91 95 97 100 78 79 80 83 84 85 52 52 53 55 55 57 71 71 73
East 136 137 139 142 144 147 120 121 122 125 126 127 79 79 81 83 83 84 109 109 111
SE 129 130 134 139 141 144 109 113 116 119 120 122 72 75 77 79 79 81 99 103 105
Southb 88 91 96 101 105 110 76 78 81 84 86 89 50 52 54 56 58 60 68 70 72
SW 154 159 164 169 174 179 134 137 140 143 145 148 89 91 93 95 97 99 121 123 125
West 174 178 183 188 192 197 151 154 157 160 162 165 100 102 104 106 108 110 137 139 141
NW 123 127 132 137 141 147 107 109 112 115 117 121 71 72 75 77 79 81 96 98 100
Horizontal 249 252 256 261 264 268 218 220 223 226 228 230 144 146 148 150 152 154 198 200 202
Draperies, venetian blinds, translucent roller shades, fully drawn
North 21 25 29 33 36 40 18 21 23 26 28 31 15 17 19 21 23 25 17 19 21
NE 43 44 46 50 51 52 39 40 41 44 45 46 33 33 34 36 36 37 39 39 40
East 67 68 70 74 75 76 61 62 63 65 66 67 50 50 51 54 54 55 60 60 61
SE 64 65 69 73 74 77 58 59 61 63 64 66 48 48 50 52 52 54 57 57 59
Southb 45 48 52 56 59 63 40 42 44 47 49 52 33 34 36 39 40 42 38 40 42
SW 79 83 87 91 94 98 70 72 75 78 80 83 57 59 62 64 66 68 68 69 71
West 89 92 96 100 103 107 79 81 84 86 88 91 65 66 69 71 72 75 76 78 80
NW 63 66 70 74 77 81 56 58 61 63 66 68 46 48 50 52 54 56 54 55 57
Horizontal 126 128 132 135 137 141 113 115 117 120 121 124 93 94 96 98 100 102 110 111 113
Opaque roller shades, fully drawn
North 17 21 25 29 32 36 15 17 20 23 25 28 14 15 18 20 22 24 15 16 18
NE 33 34 35 39 40 42 31 32 33 36 35 37 29 28 30 32 32 34 32 31 33
East 51 52 53 57 61 65 48 49 50 53 52 55 45 45 46 48 48 49 49 49 50
SE 49 50 53 57 58 61 46 47 49 52 52 55 42 43 45 47 47 49 46 46 48
Southb 35 38 42 46 49 53 32 34 37 40 42 42 29 31 33 35 37 39 32 33 35
SW 61 65 69 73 77 81 57 59 62 65 67 70 52 54 56 58 60 62 56 58 60
West 68 71 75 80 83 87 64 66 68 71 73 76 58 60 62 64 66 68 63 64 66
NW 49 52 56 60 63 67 45 47 50 53 55 58 41 43 45 47 49 51 45 46 48
Horizontal 97 99 102 106 108 111 91 93 95 97 99 102 83 85 87 89 90 92 90 92 93
a Glassload factors (GLFs) for multifamily low-rise or single-family detached resi- To obtain GLF for other combinations of glass and/or inside shading: GLFa
dences if zoned with separate temperature control for each zone, Btu/h·ft2. = (SCa/SCt)(GLFt − UtDt) + UaDt , where the subscripts a and t refer to the alternate
bCorrect by +30% for latitude of 48 ° and by −30% for latitude of 32 °. Use linear and table values, respectively. SCt and Ut are given in Table 5. Dt = (ta − 75), where
interpolation for latitude from 40 to 48 and from 40 to 32 °. ta = to − (DR/2); to is the outdoor design temperature and DR is the daily range.
28.4 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

although most of the raw data were for single-family structures Household Appliances
(McQuiston 1984). Construction may be defined as follows:
Appliance loads are concentrated mainly in the kitchen and laundry
Tight. Good multifamily construction with close-fitting doors, areas. Based on contemporary living conditions in single-family
windows, and framing is considered tight. New houses with full houses, a sensible load of 1600 Btu/h should be divided between the
vapor retarder, no fireplace, well-fitted windows, weather- kitchen and/or laundry and the adjoining room or rooms. A sensible
stripped doors, one story, and less than 1500 ft2 floor area fall into utility load of 1600 Btu/h may be added if the laundry room contains
this category. continuously operating appliances such as refrigerators and/or freez-
Medium. Medium structures include new, two-story frame ers. For multifamily units, the sensible heat gain values should be about
houses or one-story houses more than 10 years old with average 1200 Btu/h. These values assume that the cooking range and clothes
maintenance, a floor area greater than 1500 ft2, average fit windows dryer are vented. Further allowances should be considered when
and doors, and a fireplace with damper and glass closure. Below- unusual lighting intensities, computers, or other equipment is present.
average multifamily construction falls in this category.
Loose. Loose structures are poorly constructed single- and mul- Air Distribution System—Heat Loss/Gain
tifamily residences with poorly fitted windows and doors. Examples Whenever the air distribution system is outside the conditioned
include houses more than 20 years old, of average maintenance, space (i.e., in attics, crawl spaces, or other unconditioned spaces)
having a fireplace without damper or glass closure, or having more heat loss or gains to the ducts or pipes must be included in the cal-
than an average number of vented appliances. Average manufac- culated load and should be considered in equipment selection.
tured homes are in this category.
Latent Heat Sources
Ventilation
The latent cooling load has three main sources: outdoor air, occu-
Residential air-conditioning systems may introduce outdoor pants, and miscellaneous sources, such as cooking, laundry, and
air, although it is not a code requirement in most localities. Posi-
tive ventilation should be considered, however, if the anticipated Table 7 Winter Air Exchange Rates (ACH) as
infiltration is less than about 0.5 ACH. When positive means of
Function of Airtightness
introducing outdoor air are used, controls, either manual or auto-
matic, should be provided, and an energy recovery device should Outdoor Design Temperature, °F
be considered. Class 50 40 30 20 10 0 −10 −20 −30 −40
Tight 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.59
Occupancy
Medium 0.69 0.73 0.77 0.81 0.85 0.89 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.05
Even though occupant density is low, occupancy loads should be Loose 1.11 1.15 1.20 1.23 1.27 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.43 1.47
estimated. Sensible heat gain per sedentary occupant is assumed to Note: Values are for 15 mph wind and indoor temperature of 68°F.
be 230 Btu/h. To prevent gross oversizing, the number of occupants
should not be overestimated. Recent census studies recommend that Table 8 Summer Air Exchange Rates (ACH) as
the total number of occupants be based on two persons for the first Function of Airtightness
bedroom, plus one person for each additional bedroom. The occu-
Outdoor Design Temperature, °F
pancy load should then be distributed equally among the living
areas because the maximum load occurs when most of the residents Class 85 90 95 100 105 110
occupy these areas. Tight 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38
Medium 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56
Table 5 Shading Coefficients and U-Factors Loose 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78
for Residential Windows Note: Values are for 7.5 mph wind and indoor temperature of 75 °F.

Inside Shade
Drapery, Venetian
Blind, or Translucent Opaque Roller
None Roller Shade Shade
Glass Type SC U SC U SC U
Single 1.00 1.04 0.50 0.81 0.38 0.81
Double 0.88 0.61 0.45 0.55 0.36 0.55
Heat-absorbing 0.58 0.45 0.37 0.44 0.33 0.44
Triple 0.80 0.44 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.40
Note: U is in Btu/h·ft2 · °F.

Table 6 Shade Line Factors (SLFs)

Direction
Latitude, Degrees N
Window
Faces 24 32 36 40 44 48 52
East 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
SE 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
South 9.2 5.0 3.4 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.5
SW 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
West 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Note: Shadow length below the overhang equals the shade line factor times the over-
hang width. Values are averages for the 5 h of greatest solar intensity on August 1. Fig. 1 Effect of Infiltration on Latent Load Factor
Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.5

bathing. The miscellaneous latent loads are largely covered by out-
door air because most residences have exhaust fans and clothes dry-
ers that vent most of the moisture from these sources. This vent air is
accounted for in the infiltration calculation. McQuiston (1984) esti-
mated latent load factors for typical houses located in geographic
regions ranging from very dry to very wet using the transfer function
method (Figure 1). A latent factor LF (LF = 1/SHF) of 1.3 or a sen-
sible heat factor SHF (SHF = sensible load/total load) of 0.77
matches the performance of typical residential vapor compression
cooling systems. Homes in almost all other regions of North America
have cooling loads with an SHF greater than 0.77 and latent factors
less than 1.3. Figure 1 may be used to estimate the total cooling load
by reading LF as a function of the design humidity ratio and airtight-
ness. Then qtotal = (LF)qsensible. If the humidity ratio is less than 0.01,
set LF = 1.0.
Doors. Solid core flush with all-glass storm doors (U = 0.32
Btu/h·ft2 ·°F).
Outdoor design conditions. Temperature of 96°F dry bulb with a
24°F daily range and a humidity ratio of 0.0136 lb vapor/lb dry air
(74.6°F wet bulb).
U-factors for all external surfaces are based on a 7.5 mph wind
velocity.
Indoor design conditions. Temperature of 75°F dry bulb and 50% rh.
Occupancy. Four persons, based on two for the master bedroom and
one for each additional bedroom. Assign to the living room.
Appliances and lights. Assume 1600 Btu/h for the kitchen, and
assign 50% to the living room. Assume 1600 Btu/h for the utility room,
and assign 25% to the kitchen and 25% to the storage room.
The conditioning equipment is located in the garage, and the con-
struction of the house is considered medium.
Find the sensible, latent, and total cooling load; size the cooling
unit; and compute the air quantity for each room.

LOAD CALCULATION
The cooling load calculation procedures are summarized in
Table 9.

Example 1. A single-family detached house (Figure 2) is located in the

south central United States at 36°N latitude.
Roof construction. Conventional roof-attic-ceiling combination,
vented to remove moisture with 6 in. of fibrous batt insulation and
vapor retarder (U = 0.05 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F).
Wall construction. Frame with 4 in. face brick, 3.5 in. fibrous batt
insulation, 0.75 in. polystyrene sheathing, and 0.5 in. gypsum wall-
board (U = 0.06 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F). Ceiling height is 8 ft throughout.
Floor construction. 4 in. concrete slab on grade.
Fenestration. Clear double glass, 0.125 in. thick, in and out.
Assume closed, medium-color venetian blinds. The window glass has a
2 ft overhang at the top. Fig. 2 Floor Plan of Single-Family Detached House

Table 9 Summary of Procedures for Residential Cooling Load Calculations

Load Source Equation Tables and Notes
Glass and window areas q = (GLF)A Glass load factors may be found in Tables 3 and 4 according to window
orientation, type of glass, type of interior shading, and outdoor design
temperature. The GLF includes effects of both transmission and solar radiation.
Glass shaded by overhangs is treated as north glass. Table 6 gives shade line
factors.

Doors q = Ud A(CLTD) Door CLTD values are in Tables 1 and 2 according to orientation, outdoor
design temperature, and design daily temperature range.

Above-grade exterior walls q = Uw A(CLTD) Wall CLTD values are in Tables 1 and 2 based on the outdoor design
temperature, daily range, and orientation.

Partitions to unconditioned space q = Up A∆t Where ∆t is the temperature difference across the partition.

Ceilings and roofs q = Ur A(CLTD) Tables 1 and 2 for CLTD, based on outdoor design temperature and daily range.

Exposed floors q = Uf A(CLTD) Tables 1 and 2 for CLTD, based on outdoor design temperature and daily range.

Infiltration q = 1.1Q∆t Air exchange rates are given in Tables 7 and 8.

Q = ACH × (room volume)/60

Internal loads— Plan 230 Btu/h per person. Divide occupants evenly among rooms not used as bedrooms. If number of
People, appliances, lights occupants is not known, assume two people for first bedroom and one person
for each additional bedroom.

The appliance and light load of 1600 Btu/h is divided between the kitchen and
adjoining room and the laundry and adjoining room. Use 1200 Btu/h for
multifamily units.

Total loads Total cooling load = LF × Load factors are from Figure 1 according to outdoor design humidity ratio and
(Sum of individual sensible airtightness classification.
cooling load components)
q = sensible cooling load, Btu/h Q = volumetric airflow rate, cfm
∆t = design temperature difference between outside and inside ACH = air changes per hour, 1/h
air, °F GLF = glass load factor, Btu/h·ft2
A = area of applicable surface, ft2 CLTD = cooling load temperature difference, °F
U = U-factors for appropriate construction, Btu/h·ft2 · °F LF = latent load multiplier
28.6 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Solution: The cooling load must be made on a room-by-room basis to For the total sensible cooling load for these two rooms and the
determine the proper distribution of air. The calculations follow the cooling load for the remaining rooms, see Table 11. At this point, the
procedure outlined in the section on Load Components. sensible cooling load for the house is 19,679 Btu/h. Depending on the
Walls, roof, windows, and doors. The calculations for the living design of the air distribution system, heat losses from the supply and
room and the kitchen, where q = UA(CLTD) for the walls, roof, and return ducts may add to the cooling load. These may be more accu-
door and q = A(GLF) for the windows, are outlined in Table 10. The rately estimated after designing the system; however, to size the cool-
glass shaded by the overhang is treated as north-facing glass, with the ing unit, duct losses should be included initially. If all ducts are in the
shaded area computed using Table 6. attic space, a duct loss of l0% of the space sensible cooling load is rea-
Internal and infiltration sensible cooling loads. Compute as follows. sonable. For a counterflow system, with ducts below the slab, a 5%
For the living room: loss is more reasonable.
Infiltration. Using Table 8, An infiltration rate of 0.5 ACH may not be adequate for good indoor
Q = ACH (room volume)/60 air quality, so some outdoor air should be introduced. This additional
cooling load may be estimated in the same way as the infiltration load.
Q = 0.5 × 3840/60 = 32
Assume that the entire duct system is in the attic; that is, the total
q = 1.1Q(to − ti) = 1.1Q∆t
sensible cooling load with a 10% duct loss is 1.1 × 19,679 = 21,647
q = 1.1 × 32(96 − 75) = 740 Btu/h
Btu/h. Also, assume that additional outdoor air is needed to assure good
Occupants. Assuming 230 Btu/h per person,
indoor air quality, so the total infiltration and outdoor ventilation air is
q = 230 × (persons)
0.75 ACH. This increases the infiltration rate by 50%, or about 1600
q = 230 × 4 = 920 Btu/h Btu/h. The total sensible cooling load is then increased to 23,247 Btu/h
Appliances. Assuming that 50% of the kitchen appliance load is (Table 11).
picked up in the living room, The total cooling load (sensible plus latent) may be estimated by
q = 0.5 × (kitchen appliance load) applying the latent factor (LF) from Figure 1. For a design humidity
q = 0.5 × 1600 = 800 Btu/h ratio of 0.0136 lb vapor per lb dry air, LF = 1.15 for a house of medium
For the kitchen: construction. Hence, the total cooling load equals 1.15 × 23,247 =
Infiltration. 26,734 Btu/h.
Q = 0.5 × 1920/60 = 16 The load raises the temperature of the cooling air 18 to 21°F as it
q = 1.1 × 16(96 − 75) = 370 Btu/h leaves the rooms. The total design flow from the air conditioner can be
No occupants. estimated by the following equation:
q =0
Appliances. Assuming that 25% of the utility appliance load is q
Q tot = ------------- (1)
picked up in the kitchen, 1.1∆t
q = (1600/2) + (1600/4) = 1200 Btu/h where
Qtot = total airflow, cfm
Table 10 Transmission Cooling Load for Example 1 q = total sensible load, Btu/h
1.1 = density times specific heat of cooling air times 60 min/h
Net Cooling ∆t = temperature difference of air entering and leaving room, °F
Area, GLF, U-Factor, CLTD, Load,
Item ft 2 2 2
Btu/h·ft Btu/h·ft ·°F °F Btu/h Reference For a temperature difference of 18°F, the total airflow is estimated
from Equation (1) as
Living Room
West wall 91 0.06 24 131 Table 1 19,679
Q tot = ------------------- = 994 cfm
Partition 1.1 × 18
(garage) 192 0.07 12 161 Table 1 The exact design flow can be determined only after the cooling unit
Roof 480 0.05 48 1152 Table 1 has been selected. Then, the supply air quantities can be computed. Air
West door 21 0.32 24 161 Table 1 should be supplied to each room on the basis of the room sensible cool-
West glass 35 44 1540 Table 3 ing load:
Shaded glass 13 19 247 Table 3 Q rm = Q tot ( q rm ⁄ q )
Kitchen where
East wall 135 0.06 24 194 Table 1 Qrm = airflow to each room, cfm
Roof 240 0.05 48 576 Table 1 qrm = room sensible cooling load, Btu/h
East glass 14 44 616 Table 3 Thus, for the example,
Shaded glass 11 19 209 Table 3
Q rm = ( 994 ⁄ 19,679 )q rm
Table 11 Summary of Sensible Cooling Load Estimate If the living space in Example 1 were a multifamily unit (assume
for Example 1 that the north, south, and east walls are not exposed surfaces), the
Total Room calculation procedure would be the same, except that Table 2 would
Roof, Walls, Appli- Infil- Btu/h cfm have been used for the CLTDs and Table 4 for the GLFs. Assump-
Room and Doors Glass People ances tration (qrm) (Qrm) tions regarding infiltration, ventilation, and appliance loads are dif-
Living room 1,605 1,787 920 800 740 5,852 296 ferent for smaller multifamily units.
Kitchen 770 825 1,200 370 3,165 160
Utility and 1,404 1,200 443 3,047 154 HEATING LOAD
storage
Bedroom No. 1 559 544 278 1,381 70 Calculating a residential heating load involves estimating the
Bedroom No. 2 686 848 278 1,812 91 maximum (block) heat loss of each room or space to be heated and
Master bedroom 1,682 816 813 3,311 167 the simultaneous maximum (block) heat loss for the building, while
and bath maintaining a selected indoor air temperature during periods of
Bath 540 276 295 1,111 56 design outdoor weather conditions. Heat losses are mainly
Total 7,246 5,096 920 3,200 3,217 19,679 994 • Transmission losses or heat transferred through the confining
Duct loss (10%) 1,968 walls, glass, ceiling, floor, or other surfaces
Outdoor ventilation air 1,600 • Infiltration losses or energy required to warm outdoor air leaking
Total 23,247 Btu/h in through cracks and crevices around doors and windows,
Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.7

through open doors and windows, and through porous building Table 12 Summary of Loads, Equations, and References for
materials Calculating Design Heating Loads
Heating Load Equation Reference, Table, Description
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Roofs, ceilings, ➤ Chapter 25, Tables 1, 2, and 4
To calculate a design heating load, prepare the following infor- walls, glass q = U A ∆t ➤ Temperature difference between
mation about building design and weather data at design conditions. inside and outside design dry bulbs,
1. Select outdoor design weather conditions: temperature, wind Chapter 27. For temperatures in
unheated spaces, see Equation (2); for
direction, and wind speed. Winter climatic data can be found in
attic temperatures, see Equation (3).
Chapter 27, or selected weather conditions and temperatures
appropriate for the application may be used. Weather station ➤ Area calculated from plans
data may differ significantly from values in Chapter 27. Walls below ➤ See Table 14.
2. Select the indoor air temperature to be maintained in each grade q = U A ∆t ➤ Use Figure 6 to assist in determining
space during design weather conditions. ∆t.
3. Temperatures in adjacent unheated spaces, attached garages, Floors ➤ For crawl space temperatures, see
and attics can be estimated at the outdoor ambient temperature. Above grade q = U A ∆t Equation (4).
4. Select or compute heat transfer coefficients for outside walls ➤ See Table 16.
and glass; for inside walls, nonbasement floors, and ceilings if On grade q = F2 P ∆t ➤ See Equation (6).
these are next to unheated spaces; and for the roof if it is next to
➤ Perimeter of slab
heated spaces.
5. Determine the net area of outside wall, glass, and roof next to Below grade q = U A ∆t ➤ Use Figure 6 to assist in determining
∆t.
heated spaces, as well as any cold walls, floors, or ceilings next to
➤ See Table 15.
unheated spaces. These determinations can be made from
building plans or from the actual building, using inside Infiltration and ➤ Volume of outdoor air entering
ventilation air building. See Chapter 26 for
dimensions.
estimating methods for infiltration.
6. Compute transmission heat losses for each kind of wall, glass, Sensible qs = 0.018 Q ∆t
floor, ceiling, and roof in the building by multiplying the heat ➤ Humidity ratio difference, if
transfer coefficient in each case by the area of the surface and Latent qt = 80.7 Q ∆W humidification is to be added
the temperature difference between indoor air and outdoor air
or adjacent lower temperature spaces. this solution is usually uneconomical. Weather records show that
7. Compute heat losses from basement or grade-level slab floors severe weather conditions do not repeat annually. If heating sys-
using the methods in this chapter. tems were designed for maximum weather conditions, excess
8. Select unit values, and compute the energy associated with capacity would exist during most of the system’s operating life. In
infiltration of cold air around outside doors, windows, porous many cases, an occasional failure of a heating plant to maintain a
building materials, and other openings. These unit values preselected indoor design temperature during brief periods of
depend on the kind or width of crack, wind speed, and the severe weather is not critical.
temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air. An
alternative method is to use air changes (see Chapter 26). Outdoor Design Temperature
9. When positive ventilation using outdoor air is provided by an
air-heating or air-conditioning unit, the energy required to Before selecting an outdoor design temperature from Chapter 27,
warm the outdoor air to the space temperature must be the designer should consider the following for residential buildings:
provided by the unit. The principle for calculation of this load
component is identical to that for infiltration. If mechanical • Is the structure heavy, medium, or light?
exhaust from the space is provided in an amount equal to the • Is the structure insulated?
outdoor air drawn in by the unit, the unit must also provide for • Is the structure exposed to high wind?
natural infiltration losses. If no mechanical exhaust is used and • Is the load from infiltration or ventilation high?
the outdoor air supply equals or exceeds the amount of natural
• Is there more glass area than normal?
infiltration that can occur without ventilation, some reduction
in infiltration may occur. • During what part of the day will the structure be used?
10. The sum of the coincidental transmission losses or heat • What is the nature of occupancy?
transmitted through the confining walls, floor, ceiling, glass, • Will there be long periods of operation at reduced indoor
and other surfaces, plus the energy associated with cold air temperature?
entering by infiltration or the ventilation air required to replace • What is the amplitude between local maximum and minimum
mechanical exhaust, represents the total heating load. daily temperatures?
11. Include the pickup loads that may be required in intermittently
• Are there local conditions that cause significant variation from
heated buildings using night thermostat setback. Pickup loads
temperatures reported by the weather service?
frequently require an increase in heating equipment capacity to
bring the temperature of structure, air, and material contents to • What auxiliary heating devices will be in the building?
the specified temperature. See Figure 9. Before selecting an outdoor design temperature, the designer
12. Use materials and data in Chapters 25, 26, 27, and others as must keep in mind that, if the outdoor to indoor design temperature
appropriate to the calculations. See Table 12. difference is exceeded, the indoor temperature may fall, depending
on (1) the thermal mass of the structure and its contents, (2) whether
SELECTING HEATING DESIGN CONDITIONS the internal load was included in calculations, (3) the duration of the
The ideal solution to a basic heating system design is a plant cold period, and (4) internal heat generated by appliances, etc.
with a maximum output capacity equal to the heating load that The effect of wind on the heating requirements of any building
develops with the most severe local weather conditions. However, should be considered because
28.8
• Wind movement increases the heat transmission of walls, glass,
and roof, affecting poorly insulated walls to a much greater extent
than well-insulated walls.
• Wind materially increases the infiltration of cold air through
cracks around doors and windows and even through building
materials themselves (see Chapter 26).
Theoretically, on a design basis, the most unfavorable combina-
tion of temperature and wind speed should be chosen. A building
may require more heat on a windy day with a moderately low out-
door temperature than on a quiet day with a much lower outdoor
temperature. The worst combination of wind and temperature varies
by building because wind speed has a greater effect on buildings
with relatively high infiltration rates. The building heating load may
be calculated for several combinations of temperature and wind
speed on record, and the worst combination may be selected; how-
ever, except for critical applications, designers generally find such
a degree of refinement unnecessary. No correlation has been shown
between the design temperatures in Chapter 27 and the simulta-
neous maximum wind speed. If a designer prefers the air change
method for computing infiltration rates, such correlation is not
important. Designers who use the crack method can use a leakage
rate at a wind speed of 15 mph, unless local experience has estab-
lished that another speed is more appropriate. Abnormally high
wind speeds may have an effect on infiltration and the U-factor of
the building components (see Chapter 23).
Indoor Design Temperature
The indoor temperature for comfort heating may vary depending
on building use, type of occupancy, or code requirements. Chapter
8 and ASHRAE Standards 55 and 55a define the relationship
between temperature and comfort.
ESTIMATING TEMPERATURES IN
ADJACENT UNHEATED SPACES
Heat loss from heated rooms to unheated rooms or spaces must
be based on the estimated or assumed temperature in such
unheated spaces. This temperature will be in between the indoor
and outdoor temperatures. If the surface area adjacent to the heated
room and that exposed to the outdoors are equal and if the heat
transfer coefficients are equal, the temperature in the unheated
space may be assumed equal to the mean of the indoor and outdoor
design temperatures. If, however, the surface areas and coefficients
are unequal, the temperature in the unheated space should be esti-
mated by
t u = [t i ( A 1 U 1 + A2 U 2 + A3 U 3 + etc. )
+ t o (60ρc p Q o + A a U a + A b U b + Ac U c + etc.)]
÷ (A 1 U 1 + A 2 U2 + A 3 U 3 + etc.
+ 60ρc p Q o + A a U a + A b U b + A c U c + etc.) (2)
where
ρcp = density times specific heat of air = 0.018 Btu/ft3 · °F for
standard air
tu = temperature in unheated space, °F
ti = indoor design temperature of heated room, °F
to = outdoor design temperature, °F
A1, A2, A3, etc. = areas of surfaces of unheated space adjacent to heated
spaces, ft2
Aa, Ab, Ac, etc. = areas of surfaces of unheated space exposed to outdoors, ft2
U1, U2, U3, etc. = heat transfer coefficients of surfaces of A1, A2, A3, etc.,
Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Ua, Ub, Uc, etc. = heat transfer coefficients of surfaces of Aa, Ab, Ac, etc.,
Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Qo = rate of introduction of outside air into unheated space by
infiltration and/or ventilation, cfm
2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
Example 2. Calculate the temperature in an unheated space adjacent to a
heated room with surface areas (A1, A2, and A3) of 100, 120, and 140 ft2
and overall heat transfer coefficients (U1, U2, and U3) of 0.15, 0.20, and
0.25 Btu/h·ft2 · °F, respectively. The surface areas of the unheated space
exposed to the outdoors (Aa and Ab) are 100 and 140 ft2, respectively,
and the corresponding overall heat transfer coefficients are 0.10 and
0.30 Btu/h·ft2 · °F. The sixth surface is on the ground and can be
neglected for this example, as can the effect of introduction of outdoor
air into the unheated space. Assume ti = 70°F and to = −10°F.
Solution: Substituting into Equation (2),
t u = [70 ( 100 × 0.15 + 120 × 0.20 + 140 × 0.25 )
+ ( – 10 )(100 × 0.10 + 140 × 0.30 )]
÷ (100 × 0.15 + 120 × 0.20 + 140 × 0.25
+ 100 × 0.10 + 140 × 0.30)
t u = 4660 ⁄ 126 = 37°F
Temperatures in unheated spaces with large glass areas and two
or more surfaces exposed to the outdoors (e.g., sleeping porches and
sun parlors) are generally assumed to be the same as that of the out-
doors.
Attic Temperature
An attic is a space having an average distance of 1 ft or more
between a ceiling and the underside of the roof. Estimating attic
temperature is a special case of estimating temperature in an adja-
cent unheated space and can be done using
Ac Uc tc + t o ( 60ρc p A c Vc + A r U r + A w U w + A g U g )
t a = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
Ac ( U c + 60ρc p Vc ) + A r U r + A w U w + A g U g
where
ρcp = air density times specific heat = 0.018 Btu/ft3 · °F for standard air
ta = attic temperature, °F
tc = indoor temperature near top floor ceiling, °F
to = outdoor temperature, °F
Ac = area of ceiling, ft2
Ar = area of roof, ft2
Aw = area of net vertical attic wall surface, ft2
Ag = area of attic glass, ft2
Uc = heat transfer coefficient of ceiling, Btu/h·ft2 · °F, based on
surface conductance of 2.2 Btu/h·ft2 · °F (upper surface, see
Table 2 in Chapter 25); 2.2 = reciprocal of one-half the air space
resistance
Ur = heat transfer coefficient of roof, Btu/h ·ft2 · °F, based on surface
conductance of 2.2 Btu/h·ft2 · °F (upper surface, see Table 2 in
Chapter 25); 2.2 = reciprocal of one-half the air space resistance
Uw = heat transfer coefficient of vertical wall surface, Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Ug = heat transfer coefficient of glass, Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Vc = rate of introduction of outside air into the attic space by
ventilation per square foot of ceiling area, cfm/ft2
Example 3. Calculate the temperature in an unheated attic assuming tc =
70°F; to = 10°F; Ac = 1000 ft2; Ar = 1200 ft2; Aw = 100 ft2; Ag = 10 ft2;
Ur = 0.50 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F; Uc = 0.40 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F; Uw = 0.30
Btu/h·ft2 ·°F; Ug = 1.13 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F; and Vc = 0.5 cfm/ft2.
Solution: Substituting these values into Equation (3),
t a = [ ( 1000 × 0.40 × 70 ) + 10 (60 × 0.018 × 1000 × 0.5 + 1200 × 0.50
+ 100 × 0.30 + 10 × 1.13 )]
÷ [1000(0.40 + 60 × 0.018 × 0.5 ) + 1200 × 0.50 + 100 × 0.30
+ 10 × 1.13 ]
t a = 39,813 ⁄ 1581 = 25.2°F
Equation (3) includes the effect of air interchange that would
take place through attic vents or louvers intended to preclude attic
condensation. Test data from Joy et al. (1956), Joy (1958), and
Rowley et al. (1940) indicate that a reduction in the temperature
Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.9

difference between attic air and outside air is linear as attic ventila-
tion rates increase from 0 to 0.5 cfm/ft2 of the ceiling area. When
attic ventilation meets the requirements in Chapter 24, 0.5 cfm/ft2
is the approximate ventilation rate for design conditions. This
reduction in temperature difference affects the overall heat loss of
a residence with an insulated ceiling by only 1 or 2%.
Equation (3) does not consider factors such as heat exchange
between chimney and attic or solar radiation to and from the roof.
Because of these effects, attic temperatures are frequently higher
than values calculated using Equation (3). However, Equation (3) can
be used to calculate attic temperature because the resulting error is
generally less than that introduced by neglecting the roof and assum-
ing that the attic temperature is equal to the outdoor air temperature.
When relatively large louvers are installed (customary in southern
regions of the United States), the attic temperature is often assumed
to be the average of the indoor and outdoor air temperatures.
For an approximate method of calculating heat losses through
attics, the combined ceiling and roof coefficient may be used (see
Table 5 in Chapter 25).
CALCULATING HEAT LOSS FROM
CRAWL SPACES
A crawl space can be considered a half basement. To prevent
ground moisture from evaporating and causing a condensation
problem, sheets of vapor retarder (e.g., polyethylene film) are used
to cover the ground surface (see Chapter 24). Most codes require
crawl spaces to be adequately vented all year round. However, vent-
ing the crawl space in the heating season causes substantial heat loss
through the floor.
The space may be insulated in several ways: the crawl space ceil-
ing (floor above the crawl space) can be insulated, or the perimeter
wall can be insulated either on the outside or on the inside. If the
floor above is insulated, the crawl space vents should be kept open
because the temperature of the crawl space is likely to be below the
dew point of the indoor space. If the perimeter wall is insulated, the
vents should be kept closed in the heating season and open the
remainder of the year.
where
ti = indoor air temperature (i.e., air above ceiling of crawl space), °F
to = outdoor air temperature, °F
tg = ground temperature (constant), °F
tc = crawl space temperature, °F
Af = area of floor above, ft2
Ap = area of perimeter, exposed foundation wall plus sill box, ft2
Ag = area of ground below (Af = Ag), ft2
Uf = average heat transfer coefficient through floor, Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Ug = average heat transfer coefficient through ground (horizontal air
film and 10 ft of soil), Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Up = combined heat transfer coefficient of sill box and foundation
wall (both above and below grade), Btu/h·ft2 · °F
Vc = volume of crawl space, ft3
ρcp = volumetric heat capacity of air = 0.018 Btu/ft3 · °F
0.67 = assumed air exchange rate, volumes/hour
Example 4. A crawl space of 1200 ft2 with a 140 ft perimeter is consid-
ered. The construction of the perimeter wall is shown in Figure 3. The
indoor, outdoor, and the deep-down ground temperatures are 70, 10,
and 50°F, respectively. Estimate the heat loss and crawl space tempera-
ture with and without insulation. The heat transmission coefficient
(U-factor) for each component is indicated in Table 13.
Solution: Three cases are examined.
Case A. This base case is a vented and uninsulated crawl space. The
crawl space temperature approaches that of the outdoors, 10°F, and the
heat loss is 0.25 × 1200(70 − 10) = 18,000 Btu/h.
Case B. The crawl space is vented. The floor above is insulated
with an R-11 blanket; no insulation on the perimeter. The temperature
of the crawl space approaches that of the outdoors, 10°F. The heat loss
is calculated as
q f = 1200 × 0.076 ( 70 – 10 ) = 5470 Btu/h
Case C. The crawl space is not vented during the heating season.
The floor above is not insulated, but the perimeter wall is insulated with
R-5.4 down to 3 ft below grade.

Crawl Space Temperature

The crawl space temperature depends on such factors as venting,
heating ducts, and the heating plant. When the crawl space is well
ventilated, its temperature is close to that of the ambient air temper-
ature. When the crawl space vent is closed for the heating season, or
if the space is used as a plenum (i.e., part of the forced-air heating
system), the crawl space temperature approaches that of the indoor
conditioned space. In the former case, the floor above the crawl
space, the heating ductwork, and the utility pipes should be insu-
lated similarly to the walls and ceiling of a house.
The following steady-state equation can be used to estimate the
temperature of a crawl space.
qf = qp + qg + qa
where
qf = heat loss through floor into crawl space, Btu/h
qp = heat loss from crawl space through foundation walls and sill box,
Btu/h
qg = heat loss into ground, Btu/h
qa = heat loss due to ventilation of crawl space, Btu/h
Latta and Boileau (1969) estimated the air exchange rate for an
uninsulated basement at 0.67 ACH under winter conditions. In more
detail, the above equation can be repeated as
Uf Af ( ti – t c ) = Up Ap ( t c – to ) + Ug Ag ( t c – tg )
+ 0.67ρc p V c ( t c – to ) (4) Fig. 3 Uninsulated Crawl Space
28.10 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Table 13 Estimated U-Factors for Insulated and Through Ceiling and Roof
Uninsulated Crawl Spaces
Transmission heat loss through top floor ceilings, attics, and
Uninsulated Insulateda roofs may be estimated by either of two methods:
Btu/h· °F per ft Btu/h· °F per ft
Component of Perimeter of Perimeter 1. Substitute in Equation (5) the ceiling area A, the indoor/outdoor
temperature difference (ti − to), and the proper U-factor:
16 in. exposed concrete blocks 0.7 0.18
7.5 in. sill box 0.188 0.071 Flat roofs. Use appropriate coefficients in Equation (3) if side
walls extend appreciably above the ceiling or the floor below.
1st 12 in. block wall below grade 0.355 0.127
2nd 12 in. block wall below grade 0.22 0.14 Pitched roofs. Calculate the combined roof and ceiling coeffi-
3rd 12 in. block wall below grade 0.133 0.1
cient as outlined in Chapter 25.
Total for perimeter wall 1.6 0.62 2. For pitched roofs, estimate the attic temperature (based on the
indoor and outdoor design temperatures) using Equation (3),
Btu/h·ft2 · °F Btu/h·ft2 · °F
and substitute for to in Equation (5), obtaining the value of ta,
Ground 0.077 0.077 together with the ceiling area A and the ceiling U-factor. Attic
Floor above crawl space 0.25 0.076a temperatures do not need to be calculated for flat roofs, as the
a Perimeter walls are insulated with R-5.4; the floor is insulated with R-11 blanket or ceiling-roof heat loss can be determined as suggested in
batts. Method 1 above.

q f = 1200 × 0.25 ( 70 – t c ) From the Basement

q p = 140 × 0.62 ( t c – 10 ) The basement interior is considered conditioned space if a min-
q g = 1200 × 0.077 ( t c – 50 ) imum temperature of 10°F below indoor design air temperature is
maintained over the heating season. In many instances, the house
q a = 1200 × 3 × 0.67 × 0.018 ( t c – 10 ) heating plant, water heater, and heating ducts are in the basement, so
it remains at or above 50°F.
The crawl space temperature is solved using Equation (4): tc =
51.5°F. The heat loss is 5550 Btu/h.
Heat transmission from the below-grade portion of the basement
wall to the ambient air cannot be estimated by simple, one-dimen-
The results show that base case A can potentially lose the most
heat. However, when the floor above is insulated, the crawl space must
sional heat conduction. In fact, field measurement of an uninsulated
be vented to eliminate any condensation potential, and the heating duct- basement by Latta and Boileau (1969) showed that the isotherms
work and utility pipeline in the crawl space must be adequately insu- near the wall are not parallel lines but closer to radial lines centered
lated. When the perimeter is insulated, the vents must be closed during at the intersection of the grade line and the wall. Therefore, heat flow
the heating season and opened for the rest of the year; the heating duct- paths approximately follow a concentric circular pattern (Figure 4).
work and utility pipeline do not need insulation. Such heat flow paths are altered when insulation is added to the
wall or floor. An extreme case would be no heat loss from the base-
Heat Loss Temperature
ment wall and floor (i.e., infinite insulation applied to the wall and
Through Floor of Crawl
Case Venting Insulation Above, Btu/h Space, °F floor). In this case, the isotherms would be horizontal lines parallel
to the grade line, and the heat flow would be vertical. When finite
A Yes None 18,000 10 insulation or partial insulation is applied to the wall and floor, the
B Yes R-11 on floor above 5,470 10 heat flow paths take shapes somewhere between the circular and
C No R-5.4 on perimeter wall 5,550 51.5 vertical lines (Figure 5).
Ground Temperature. Ground temperatures assumed for esti-
mating basement heat losses will differ for basement floors and
CALCULATING TRANSMISSION HEAT LOSS walls. The temperatures under floors are generally higher than those
Steady-state heat loss by conduction and convection heat transfer adjacent to walls. This is discussed further in the section on Base-
through any surface is ment Design Temperatures.

q = UA ( t i – to ) (5)

where
q = heat transfer through wall, glass, roof, ceiling, floor, or other
exposed surface, Btu/h
A = area of surface, ft2
U = air-to-air heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h·ft2 · °F
ti = indoor air temperature near surface involved, °F
to = outdoor air temperature or temperature of adjacent unheated
space, °F

Example 5. Calculate the transmission loss through an 8 in. brick wall hav-
ing an area of 150 ft2, if the indoor temperature ti is 70°F, and the out-
door temperature to is −10°F.
Solution: The overall heat transfer coefficient U of a plain 8 in. brick
wall is 0.41 Btu/h·ft2 · °F. Substituting into Equation (5),

q = 150 × 0.41 [ 70 – ( – 10 ) ] = 4920 Btu/h Fig. 4 Heat Flow from Basement

Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.11

be found by summing the thermal resistances along each heat flow

path. Based on these resistances, the heat loss at each depth incre-
ment can be estimated for a unit temperature difference between the
basement and the average mean winter temperature. Table 14 lists
such heat loss values at different depths for an uninsulated and an
insulated concrete wall (Latta and Boileau 1969). Also listed are the
lengths of the heat flow path through the soil (circular path).

Through Basement Floors

The same steady-state design used for the basement wall can be
applied to the basement floor, except that the length of the heat flow
path is longer (see Figure 4). Thus, the heat loss through the base-
ment floor is much smaller than that through the wall. An average
value for the heat loss through the basement floor can be multiplied
by the floor area to give total heat loss from the floor. Table 15 lists
typical values.

Basement Design Temperatures

Although internal design temperature is given by basement air
temperature, none of the usual external design air temperatures
apply because of the heat capacity of the soil. However, ground sur-
face temperature fluctuates about a mean value by an amplitude A,
which varies with geographic location and surface cover. Therefore,
Fig. 5 Heat Flow Path for Partially Insulated suitable external design temperatures can be obtained by subtract-
Basement Wall ing A for the location from the mean winter air temperature ta. Val-
ues for ta can be obtained from meteorological records, and A can be
Through Basement Walls estimated from the map in Figure 6. This map is part of one prepared
by Chang (1958) giving annual ranges in ground temperature at a
Houghten et al. (1942) observed nonuniform heat flux across the depth of 4 in.
basement wall with respect to the depth of the wall because each
heat flow path contains a different thermal resistance. For a base- Example 6. Consider a basement 28 ft wide by 30 ft long sunk 6 ft below
ment wall that has its top portion exposed to ambient air, heat may grade, with R-8.34 insulation applied to the top 2 ft of the wall below
be conducted vertically through the concrete wall and dissipated to grade. Assume an internal air temperature of 70°F and an external
the ambient from the top portion of the wall (Wang 1979, Bligh design temperature (ta − A) of 20°F.
et al. 1978). Under certain conditions, this vertical heat flux be- Solution:
comes significant and should not be ignored. Wall (using Table 14)
Once the heat paths are known or assumed, a steady-state analysis
First foot below grade ................................ 0.093 Btu/h·ft· °F
can calculate the overall heat transmission coefficient for each seg-
Second foot below grade ............................ 0.079 Btu/h·ft· °F
ment of the basement wall. Referring to Figures 4 and 5, the total
Third foot below grade ............................... 0.155 Btu/h·ft· °F
thermal resistance for each depth increment of the basement wall can
Fourth foot below grade ............................. 0.119 Btu/h·ft· °F
Fifth foot below grade ................................ 0.096 Btu/h·ft· °F
Table 14 Heat Loss Below Grade in Basement Walls
Sixth foot below grade ............................... 0.079 Btu/h·ft· °F
Path Total per foot length of wall ....................... 0.621 Btu/h·ft· °F
Length
Depth, Through Heat Loss Coefficient, Btu/h·ft2 · °Fa
Basement perimeter.................................... 2(28+30) = 116 ft
ft Soil, ft Uninsulated R-4.17 R-8.34 R-12.5
Total wall heat loss .......................... 0.62 × 116 = 72 Btu/h · °F
0 to 1 0.68 0.410 Σb 0.152 Σb 0.093 Σb 0.067 Σb Floor (using Table 15)
1 to 2 2.27 0.222 0.632 0.116 0.268 0.079 0.172 0.059 0.126
Average heat loss per ft2 ............................. 0.025 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F
2 to 3 3.88 0.155 0.787 0.094 0.362 0.068 0.240 0.053 0.179 Floor area 28 × 30 ......................................................... 840 ft2
3 to 4 5.52 0.119 0.906 0.079 0.441 0.060 0.300 0.048 0.227 Total floor heat loss ........................0.025 × 840 = 21 Btu/h· °F
4 to 5 7.05 0.096 1.002 0.069 0.510 0.053 0.353 0.044 0.271
Total
5 to 6 8.65 0.079 1.081 0.060 0.570 0.048 0.401 0.040 0.311
6 to 7 10.28 0.069 1.150 0.054 0.624 0.044 0.445 0.037 0.348 Total basement heat loss below grade ... 72 + 21 = 93 Btu/h· °F
Source: Latta and Boileau (1969). Design temperature difference ..........................70 − 20 = 50°F
a Soil conductivity was assumed to be 9.6 Btu·in/h·ft2 · °F. Maximum rate of heat loss from
Σ
b = heat loss to current depth.
below-grade basement............................ 93 × 50 = 4650 Btu/h

Table 15 Heat Loss Through Basement Floors If a basement is completely below grade and unheated, its tem-
perature ranges between that in the rooms above and that of the
Heat Loss Coefficient, Btu/h·ft2 · °F
ground. Basement windows lower the basement temperature when
Depth of Foundation Shortest Width of House, ft it is cold outdoors, and heat given off by the heating plant increases
Wall below Grade, ft 20 24 28 32 the basement temperature. The exact basement temperature is inde-
5 0.032 0.029 0.026 0.023 terminate if the basement is not heated. In general, heat from the
6 0.030 0.027 0.025 0.022 heating plant sufficiently warms the air near the basement ceiling to
7 0.029 0.026 0.023 0.021 make unnecessary an allowance for floor heat loss from rooms
Note: ∆t = (ta − A) located over the basement.
28.12
Fig. 6 Lines of Constant Amplitude
Transient Calculations for Basement Walls
The heat loss from basement walls can be estimated more accu-
rately with a finite element or finite difference computer program by
transient simulations (Wang 1979, Bligh et al. 1978). The solution is
in the form of heat loss over time, which can be converted to an
average U-factor. This approach also offers the possibility for esti-
mating the depth below grade to which insulation is economical.
Direct and indirect evidence of hollow concrete block walls shows
that a convective path exists within the blocks vertically along the
wall (Harrje et al. 1979). Therefore, insulation should be arranged to
reduce this convective heat transfer.
Peony et al. (1979) showed that the dynamic thermal perfor-
mance of a masonry wall is better when insulation is placed on the
exterior. Moreover, transient simulation showed that insulation is
more effective when it is placed on the exterior side of the basement
wall. Depending on the exposed portion of the block wall and the
temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air, exterior
application can be 10 to 20% more efficient than a corresponding
interior application. However, such exterior insulation must be
installed properly to maintain its integrity.
Calculating Transmission Heat Loss from Floor Slabs
Concrete slab floors may be (1) unheated, relying for warmth on
heat delivered above floor level by the heating system, or (2) heated,
containing heated pipes or ducts that constitute a radiant slab or por-
tion of it for complete or partial heating of the house.
The perimeter insulation of a slab-on-grade floor is quite impor-
tant for comfort and energy conservation. In unheated slab floors, the
floor edge must be insulated in order to keep the floor warm. Down-
drafts from windows or exposed walls can create pools of chilly air
over considerable areas of the floor. In heated slab floors, the floor
edge must be insulated to prevent excessive heat loss from the heat-
ing pipe or duct embedded in the floor or from the baseboard heater.
Wang (1979) and Bligh et al. (1978) found that heat loss from an
unheated concrete slab floor is mostly through the perimeter rather
than through the floor and into the ground. Total heat loss is more
nearly proportional to the length of the perimeter than to the area of
the floor, and it can be estimated by the following equation for both
unheated and heated slab floors:
q = F2 P ( t i – to ) (6)
where
q = heat loss through perimeter, Btu/h
2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
Fig. 7 “I”-Shaped or Vertical Insulation System
F2 = heat loss coefficient per foot of perimeter (see Table 16),
Btu/h·ft· °F
P = perimeter or exposed edge of floor, ft
ti = indoor temperature, °F (For the heated slab, ti is the weighted
average heating duct or pipe temperature.)
to = outdoor temperature, °F
Vertical “I”-shaped systems are used to insulate slab floor perim-
eters. In the “I” system, the insulation is placed vertically next to the
exposed slab edge, extending downward below grade, as shown in
Figure 7.
Breaks or joints must be avoided when the insulation is installed;
otherwise, local thermal bridges can be formed, and the overall effi-
ciency of the insulation is reduced.
Transient Calculations for Floor Slabs
Figure 8 shows four basic slab-on-grade constructions analyzed
with a finite element computer program by Wang (1979). Figures
8A-C represent unheated slabs; Figure 8D can be considered a
heated slab. Each was investigated with and without insulation of
R-5.4 under three climatic conditions (7433, 5350, and 2950 degree-
days). Table 16 lists the results in terms of heat loss coefficient F2,
based on degree-days.
Table 16 shows that the heat loss coefficient F2 is sensitive to
both construction and insulation. The reverse loss, or heat loss into
the ground and outward through the edges of the slab and founda-
tion wall, is significant when heating pipes, heating ducts, or base-
board heaters are placed near the slab perimeters. To prevent reverse
loss, the designer may find it advantageous to use perimeter insula-
tion even in warmer climates. For severe winter regions (above
6000 degree-days), the insulation value should be increased to
R >10 ft2 ·°F·h/Btu.
Figure 8A shows that this construction benefits from the wall
insulation between block and brick; the insulation is extended
roughly 16 in. below the slab floor. Without this wall insulation, the
heat loss coefficient F2 would be close to that of the 4 in. block wall
construction (Figure 8B). Table 16 can be used to estimate F2 under
different degree-days of heating season weather.
CALCULATING INFILTRATION HEAT LOSS
Infiltration of outside air causes both sensible and latent heat
loss. The energy required to raise the temperature of outdoor infil-
trating air to indoor air temperature is the sensible component. The
energy associated with net loss of moisture from the space is the
latent component. Infiltration is discussed in detail in Chapter 26.
Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 28.13

Table 16 Heat Loss Coefficient F2 of Slab Floor Construction,

Btu/h· °F per ft of Perimeter
Degree-Days (65°F Base)
Construction Insulation 2950 5350 7433
8 in. block wall, Uninsulated 0.62 0.68 0.72
brick facing R-5.4 from
0.48 0.50 0.56
edge to footer
4 in. block wall, Uninsulated 0.80 0.84 0.93
brick facing R-5.4 from
0.47 0.49 0.54
edge to footer
Metal stud wall, Uninsulated 1.15 1.20 1.34
stucco R-5.4 from
0.51 0.53 0.58
edge to footer
Poured concrete wall Uninsulated 1.84 2.12 2.73
with duct near R-5.4 from
0.64 0.72 0.90
perimetera edge to footer,
3 ft under floor
a Weighted average temperature of the heating duct was assumed at 110°F during the
heating season (outdoor air temperature less than 65°F).

as well as any other factors affecting infiltration, may need to be

considered.

Latent Heat Loss

When moisture must be added to the indoor air to maintain win-
ter comfort conditions, the energy needed to evaporate an amount of
water equivalent to what is lost by infiltration (latent component of
infiltration heat loss) must be determined. This energy may be cal-
culated by
q l = Qρ ( W i – W o )h fg (9)

where
ql = heat flow required to increase moisture content of air leakage
into building from Wo to Wi, Btu/h
Q = volumetric flow of outdoor air entering building, ft3/h
ρ = density of air at temperature ti, lb/ft3
Wi = humidity ratio of indoor air, lb/lbdry air
Fig. 8 Slab-on-Grade Foundation Insulation Wo = humidity ratio of outdoor air, lb/lbdry air
hfg = latent heat of vapor at ti , Btu/lb
Sensible Heat Loss If the latent heat of vapor hfg is 1076 Btu/lb, and the air density
is 0.075 lb/ft3, Equation (7) reduces to
The energy required to warm outdoor air entering by infiltration
to the temperature of the room is given by q l = 80.7Q ( W i – W o ) (10)

q s = c p Qρ ( t i – t o ) (7) Crack Length Method

where
qs = heat flow required to raise temperature of air leaking into
building from to to ti , Btu/h
cp = specific heat of air, Btu/lb· °F
Q = volumetric flow of outdoor air entering building, ft3/h
ρ = density of air at temperature to, lb/ft3
Using standard air (ρ = 0.075 lb/ft3 and cp = 0.24 Btu/lb·°F),
Equation (7) reduces to
q s = 0.018Q ( t i – t o )
The volumetric flow Q of outdoor air entering depends on wind
speed and direction, width of cracks or size of openings, type of
openings, and other factors explained in Chapter 26. Two methods
used to obtain the quantity of infiltration air are the crack length
and the air change. Louvers and doors and the direction they face,
The basis of calculation for the crack method is that the
amount of crack used for computing the infiltration heat loss
should not be less than one-half the total length of crack in the
outside walls of the room. In a building without partitions, air
entering through cracks on the windward side must leave through
cracks on the leeward side. Therefore, one-half the total crack for
each side and end of the building is used for calculation. In a room
with one exposed wall, all the crack is used. With two, three, or
four exposed walls, either the wall with the crack that will result
in the greatest air leakage or at least one-half the total crack is
used, whichever is greater.
(8) In residences, total infiltration loss of the house is generally con-
sidered equal to the sum of infiltration losses of the various rooms.
But, at any given time, infiltration takes place only on the windward
side or sides and not on the leeward. Therefore, for determining total
heat requirements of larger buildings, it is more accurate to base
total infiltration loss on the wall with the most total crack or on at
least half the total crack in the building, whichever is greater. When
28.14
the crack method rather than Equations (8) and (10) is used for esti-
mating leakage, the heat loss in terms of the crack length may be
expressed as
q s = 0.018BL ( ti – t o ) (11)
and
q l = 80.7BL ( W i – W o ) (12)
where
B = air leakage for wind velocity and type of window or door crack
involved, ft3/h per foot of crack
L = length of window or door crack to be considered, ft
Air Change Method
Some designers base infiltration on an estimated number of air
changes rather than the length of window cracks. The number of air
changes given in Chapter 26 should be considered only as a guide.
When calculating infiltration losses by the air change method,
Equations (8) and (10) can be used by substituting for Q the volume
of the room multiplied by the number of air changes.
Exposure Factors
Some designers use empirical exposure factors to increase cal-
culated heat loss of rooms or spaces on the side(s) of the building
exposed to prevailing winds. However, exposure factors are not
needed with the method of calculating heat loss described in this
chapter. Instead, they may be (1) regarded as safety factors to allow
for additional capacity for rooms or spaces exposed to prevailing
winds or (2) used to account for the effects of radiation loss, partic-
ularly in the case of multistory buildings. Tall buildings may have
severe infiltration heat losses induced by stack effect that require
special analysis. Although a 15% exposure allowance is often
assumed, the actual allowance, if any, is largely a matter of experi-
ence and judgment; no test data are available from which to develop
rules for the many conditions encountered.
PICKUP LOAD
For intermittently heated buildings and night thermostat set-
back, additional heat is required to raise the temperature of air,
building materials, and material contents of a building to the speci-
fied temperature. The pickup load, which is the rate at which this
additional heat must be supplied, depends on the heat capacity of
the structure, its material contents, and the time in which these are
to be heated.
Relatively little information on pickup load exists; however,
Smith (1941, 1942) addressed pickup loads for buildings heated
only occasionally, such as auditoriums and churches. Nelson and
MacArthur (1978) studied the relationship between thermostat set-
back, furnace capacity, and recovery time. Based on this limited
information, the following design guidelines are offered.
Because design outdoor temperatures generally provide a sub-
stantial margin for outdoor temperatures typically experienced
during operating hours, many engineers make no allowance for
this additional heat in most buildings. However, the additional
heat should be computed and allowed for, as conditions require.
In the case of intermittently heated buildings, an additional 10%
capacity should be provided.
In buildings with setback-type thermostats, the furnace must
be oversized to reestablish the space temperature in an acceptable
time. The amount of oversizing depends on such factors as the
amount of setback, inside-to-outside temperature difference,
building construction, and acceptable pickup time. Figure 9
shows this relationship for a particular residence. As a rule for
residences, a 10°F night setback requires 40% oversizing for
acceptable pickup time and minimum energy requirements (Nel-
2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
Fig. 9 Furnace Operating Times Required to Pick Up Space
Temperature Following 5 and 10°F Night Setback
son and MacArthur 1978). For smaller setback, the oversizing
can be proportionally less. If daytime as well as night setback is
practiced, oversizing of up to 60% is warranted.
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ASHRAE. 1992. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992.
ASHRAE. 1995. Addendum to ANSI/ASHRAE 55-1992. ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 55a-1995.
Bligh, T.P., P. Shipp, and G. Meixel. 1978. Energy comparisons and where to
insulate earth sheltered buildings and basements. Earth covered settle-
ments, U.S. Department of Energy Conference, Fort Worth, TX.
Chang, J.H. 1958. Ground temperature. Bluehill Meteorological Observa-
tory, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Harrje, D.T., G.S. Dutt, and J. Beyea. 1979. Locating and eliminating
obscure but major energy losses in residential housing. ASHRAE Trans-
actions 85(2).
Houghten, F.C., S.I. Taimuty, C. Gutberlet, and C.J. Brown. 1942. Heat loss
through basement walls and floors. ASHVE Transactions 48:369.
Joy, F.A. 1958. Improving attic space insulating values. Heating, Piping and
Air Conditioning 30(1):223.
Joy, F.A., J.J. Zabrony, and S. Bhaduri. 1956. Insulating value of reflective
elements in an attic under winter conditions. Pennsylvania State Univer-
sity, University Park, PA.
Latta, J.K. and G.G. Boileau. 1969. Heat losses from house basements.
Canadian Building 19(10):39.
McQuiston, F.C. 1984. A study and review of existing data to develop a stan-
dard methodology for residential heating and cooling load calculations.
ASHRAE Transactions 90(2A):102-36.
McQuiston, F.C. and J.D. Spitler. 1992. Cooling and heating load calcula-
tion manual, 2nd ed. ASHRAE, Atlanta.
Nelson, L.W. and J.W. MacArthur. 1978. Energy savings through thermostat
setback. ASHRAE Transactions 84(2):3l9-34.
Peony, B.A., F.J. Powell, and D.M. Burch. 1979. Dynamic thermal perfor-
mance of an experimental masonry building. NBS Report 10 664,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Rowley, F.B., A.B. Algren, and C.E. Lund. 1940. Methods of moisture con-
trol and their application to building construction. Bulletin No. 17
XLIII(4):28. University of Minnesota Engineering Experiment Station.
Smith, E.G. 1941. Heat requirement of intermittently heated buildings.
Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station Series No. 62 (November).
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Smith, E.G. 1942. A method of compiling tables for intermittent heating.
Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning 14(6):386.
Wang, F.S. 1979. Mathematical modeling and computer simulation of insu-
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on Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings,
Orlando, FL.