Sensors: Different Types of Sensors

Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to
electrical or optical signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example:
temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be
measured electrically. Let’s explain the example of temperature. The mercury in the
glass thermometer expands and contracts the liquid to convert the measured
temperature which can be read by a viewer on the calibrated glass tube.

Fig. 1: An Image Of Commonly Used Sensors

Criteria to choose a Sensor

There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor.

They are as given below:

1. Accuracy

2. Environmental condition – usually has limits for temperature/ humidity

3. Range – Measurement limit of sensor

4. Calibration – Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes

with time
5. Resolution – Smallest increment detected by the sensor

6. Cost

7. Repeatability – The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same

environment

Classification of Sensors

The sensors are classified into the following criteria:

1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)

2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)

3. Material and Technology

4. Property

5. Application

Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient

approach. Usually, material and technology criteria are chosen by the development

engineering group.

Classification based on property is as given below:

· Temperature – Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, IC and many more.

· Pressure – Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT, electronic.

· Flow – Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal

mass, etc.

· Level Sensors – Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal

displacement, etc.

· Proximity and displacement – LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.

· Biosensors – Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light

addressable potentio-metric.

· Image – Charge coupled devices, CMOS

· Gas and chemical – Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.

· Acceleration – Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.

· Others – Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force,

viscosity.

Classification based on Application is as given below:

· Industrial process control, measurement and automation

· Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer electronics,

other type of sensors.

Type: Temperature
Types of Sensors

Some commonly used sensors alongwith their principle and applications are explained

as follows:

1. Temperature Sensors

This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a

form that is understandable by other device or person. The best illustration of a

temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer. The mercury in the glass expands

and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The outside temperature is

the source element for the temperature measurement. The position of the mercury is

observed by the viewer to measure the temperature. There are two basic types of

temperature sensors:
· Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the

object or media that is being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids, liquids

and gases over a wide range of temperatures.

· Non contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact

with the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective solids and

liquids but are not useful for gases due to natural transparency. These sensors use

Plank’s Law to measure temperature. This law deals with the heat radiated from the

source of heat to measure the temperature.

Working of different types of Temperature Sensors along with examples

(i) Thermocouple – They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous
alloy or metal) which form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring
junction is open to the elements being measured. The other end of the wire is
terminated to a measuring device where a reference junction is formed. The current
flows through the circuit since the temperature of the two junctions are different. The
resulted milli-voltage is measured to determine the temperature at the junction. The
diagram of thermocouple is shown below.

Fig. 2: An Image Showing Thermocouple Temperature Sensor

(ii) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) – These are types of thermal resistors
that are fabricated to alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in temperature.
They are very expensive than any other temperature detection devices. The diagram of
Resistance Temperature Detectors is shown below.
(iii) Thermistors – They are another kind of thermal resistor where a large change in
resistance is proportional to small change in temperature.
 Type: IR Sensors
2. IR Sensor

Fig. 3: An Image Of typical IR Sensors

This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the

environment. Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared

spectrum. The infrared sensor detects this type of radiation which is not visible to

human eye.

Advantages

· Easy for interfacing

· Readily available in market

Disadvantages

· Disturbed by noises in the surrounding such as radiations, ambient light etc.

Working

The basic idea is to make use of IR LEDs to send the infrared waves to the object.

Another IR diode of the same type is to be used to detect the reflected wave from the

object. The diagram is shown below.

 Fig. 4: Simple Diagram Explaining Working Of IR Led Sensor

When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced across

the leads. Less voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence

operational amplifiers (Op-amps) are used to detect the low voltages accurately.

Measuring the distance of the object from the receiver sensor: The electrical property of

IR sensor components can be used to measure the distance of an object. The fact when

IR receiver is subjected to light, a potential difference is produced across the leads.

Applications

· Thermography – According to the black body radiation law, it is possible to view the

environment with or without visible illumination using thermography

· Heating – Infrared can be used to cook and heat food items. They can take away ice

from the wings of an aircraft. They are popular in industrial field such as, print dying,

forming plastics, and plastic welding.

· Spectroscopy – This technique is used to identify the molecules by analysing the

constituent bonds. This technique uses light radiation to study organic compounds.

· Meteorology – Cloud heights, calculate land and surface temperature is possible

when weather satellites are equipped with scanning radiometers.

· Photobiomodulation – This is used for chemotherapy in cancer patients. This is used

to treat anti herpes virus.

· Climatology – Monitoring the energy exchange between the atmosphere and earth.

· Communications – Infra red laser provide light for optical fibre communication. These

radiations are also used for short range communications among mobiles and computer

peripherals.

Type: UV Sensors
3. UV Sensor

These sensors measure the intensity or power of the incident ultraviolet radiation. This

form of electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths longer than x-rays but is still shorter

than visible radiation. An active material known as polycrystalline diamond is being used

for reliable ultraviolet sensing. UV sensors can discover the exposure of environment to

ultraviolet radiation.

Criteria to select a UV Sensor

· Wavelength ranges in nanometres (nm) that can be detected by the UV sensors.

· Operating temperature

· Accuracy

· Weight
· Power range

Working

The UV sensor accepts one type of energy signal and transmits different type of energy

signals.

To observe and record these output signals they are directed to an electrical meter. To

create graphs and reports, the output signals are transmitted to an analog-to-digital

converter (ADC), and then to a computer with software.

Examples include:

· UV phototubes are radiation-sensitive sensors supervise UV air treatments, UV

water treatments, and solar irradiance.

· Light sensors measure the intensity of incident light.

· UV spectrum sensors are charged coupled devices (CCD) utilized in scientific

photography.

· Ultraviolet light detectors.

· Germicidal UV detectors.

· Photo stability sensors.

Applications

· Measures the portion of the UV spectrum which sunburns human skin

· Pharmacy

· Automobiles

· Robotics

· Printing industry for solvent handling and dyeing processes

· Chemical industry for the production, storage, and transportation of chemicals

Read more about UV sensors and their working.

Type :Proximity Sensor

5. Proximity Sensor

A proximity sensor detects the presence of objects that are nearly placed without any

point of contact. Since there is no contact between the sensors and sensed object and

lack of mechanical parts, these sensors have long functional life and high reliability.

The different types of proximity sensors are Inductive Proximity sensors, Capacitive

Proximity sensors, Ultrasonic proximity sensors, photoelectric sensors, Hall-effect

sensors, etc.

Working

A proximity sensor emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field or a beam

of electromagnetic radiation (such as infrared), and waits for the return signal or

changes in the field. The object which is being sensed is known as the proximity

sensor’s target.

Inductive Proximity sensors – They have an oscillator as input to change the loss

resistance by the proximity of an electrically conductive medium. These sensors are

preferred for metal targets.

Capacitive Proximity sensors – They convert the electrostatic capacitance variation

flanked by the detecting electrode and the ground electrode. This occurs by

approaching the nearby object with a variation in an oscillation frequency. To detect the
nearby object, the oscillation frequency is transformed into a direct current voltage

which is compared with a predetermined threshold value. These sensors are preferred

for plastic targets.

Applications

· Used in automation engineering to define operating states in process engineering

plants, production systems and automating plants

· Used in windows, and the alarm is activated when the window opens

· Used in machine vibration monitoring to calculate the difference in distance between

a shaft and its support bearing

Applications

Sensors are used in many kinds of applications such as:

· Shock Detection

· Machine monitoring applications

· Vehicle dynamics

· Low power applications

· Structural Dynamics

· Medical Aerospace

· Nuclear Instrumentation

· As pressure sensor in Mobiles ‘touch key pad’

· Lamps which brighten or dim on touching its base

· Touch sensitive buttons in elevators

Potentiometer Sensors
A potentiometer sensor measures the distance or displacement of an
object in a linear or rotary motion and converts it into an electrical
signal. TE Connectivity (TE) manufactures various types of potentiometers
including linear potentiometers, rotary sensors and encoders, and cable
actuated position sensors called string pots. The depth of our portfolio helps
solve various application solutions with a variety of customizable variables
including measurement range, output signal, and electrical connections.
Hall Effect Sensor Definition
Hall-effect sensors are the linear transducers that are used to measure the
magnitude of the magnetic field. Working on the principle of Hall Effect, these
sensors generate a Hall voltage when a magnetic field is detected, which is
used to measure the magnetic flux density.
Linear sensors can measure the wide range of magnetic fields. Besides
magnetic fields, these sensors are also used for detecting proximity, position,
speed. For these sensors output voltage is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the magnetic field.

Working Principle of Hall Effect Sensor

The principle of Hall voltage is used as a working principle of the Hall Effect
sensor. On a thin strip of a conductor, electrons flow in a straight line when
electricity is applied. When this charged conductor comes in contact with the
magnetic field which is in a perpendicular direction to the motion of electrons,
the electrons get deflected.

Some electrons get collected on one side while some on another side. Due to
this, one of the conductor’s plane behaves as negatively charged while the
other behaves as positively charged. This creates potential difference and
voltage is generated. This voltage is called the Hall voltage.

The electrons continue to move from one side of the plane to other till a
balance is achieved between the force applied on charged particles due to an
electric field and the force that caused magnetic flux that caused this change.
When this separation stops, the hall voltage value at that instant gives the
measure of magnetic flux density.

Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or displacement
produced due to a force into its corresponding change in resistance R, inductance L, or
capacitance C. A strain gauge is basically used to measure the strain in a work piece. If a metal
piece is subjected to a tensile stress, the metal length will increase and thus will increase the
electrical resistance of the material. Similarly, if the metal is subjected to compressive stress,
the length will decrease, but the breadth will increase. This will also change the electrical
resistance of the conductor. If both these stresses are limited within its elastic limit (the
maximum limit beyond which the body fails to regain its elasticity), the metal conductor can be
used to measure the amount of force given to produce the stress, through its change in
resistance.
Strain Gauge Transducer
The device finds its wide application as a strain gauge transducer/sensor as it is very accurate
in measuring the change in displacement occurred and converting it into its corresponding value
 of resistance, inductance or capacitance. It must be noted that the metal conductor which is
subjected to an unknown force should be of finite length.

Types
Strain gauge transducers are broadly classified into two. They are

1. Electrical Resistance Type Strain Gauge

In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible
paper tissue and is attached to a variety of materials to measure the strain of the material. In
application, the strain gauge will be attached to a structural member with the help of special
cement. The gauge position will be in such a manner that the gauge wires are aligned across
the direction of the strain to be measured. The wire used for the purpose will have a diameter
between 0.009 to 0.0025 centimeters. When a force is applied on the wire, there occurs a strain
(consider tensile, within the elastic limit) that increases the length and decreases its area. Thus,
the resistance of the wire changes. This change in resistance is proportional to the strain and is
measured using a Wheatstone bridge.

A simple Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure below. It can be set in three different
ways such as – full bridge, half bridge or quarter bridge. A full bridge will have all four of its
gauges active. The half bridge will have two of its gauges active and thus uses two precise
value resistors. The quarter bridge will have only one gauge and the rest of the resistors will be
precise in value.
 Wheatstone Bridge

A full bridge circuit is used in applications where complimentary pair of strain gauges is to be
bounded to the test specimen. In practice, a half bridge and full bridge circuit has more
sensitivity than the quarter bridge circuit. But since, the bonding is difficult, a quarter bridge
circuits are mostly used for strain gauge measurements. A full bridge circuit is said to be more
linear than other circuits.

An external supply is given to the bridge as shown in the diagram. Initially, when there is no
application of strain, the output measurement will be zero. Thus, the bridge is said to be
balanced. With the application of a stress to the device, the bridge will become unbalanced and
produces an output voltage that is proportional to the input stress.

The application of a full bridge and quarter bridge strain gauge circuit is shown in the figure
below.

Quarter And Full Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit

.
 Quarter Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit-Working

The wire strain gauge can be further divided into two. They are bonded and unbonded strain
gauge.

 Uniaxial/Wire Strain Gauge

The figure of such a strain gauge is shown above. It mostly uses long and narrow sensing
elements so as to maximize the length of the strain sensing material in the desired direction.
Gauge length is chosen according to the strain to be calculated.
 Gauge Configurations

 Biaxial Strain Gauges

When the measurement of strain is to be done in two directions (mostly at right angles), this
method is used. The basic structure for this is the two element 90 planar rosette or the 90 planar
shear/stacked foil rosette. The gauges are wired in a Wheatstone bridge circuit to provide
maximum output. For stress analysis, the axial and transfers elements have different
resistances which can be selected that the combined output is proportional to the stress while
the output of the axial element alone is proportional to the strain. The figure is given below.

 Three Element Rosettes

It is divided into two types – three element 60delta rosette strain gauge and three element
45planar rectangular rosette. They are used in applications where both the magnitude and
direction of the applied strains are to be found out. Both the figures are shown below. The 60
rosette is used when the direction of the principal strain is unknown. The 45 rosette is used to
determine a high angular resolution, and when the principal strains are known.
2. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
This is the most commonly used strain gauge as a sensor, although the bonded type may also
be used in stress analysis purposes. The bonded type is usually made in wafers of about 0.02
centimeters in thickness with length and resistance values nearly equal to the wire gauge. It
uses either germanium or silicon base materials to be made available in both n-type or p-type.
The p-type gauges have a positive gauge factor while the n-type gauges have a negative gauge
factor. Temperature dependence of gauge factor is governed by the resistivity of the material.
The large value of the gauge factor in semiconductor gauges is attributed to the piezoresistance
effect in such materials.

Strain gauge load cell

Basic Principle of Strain gauge load cell
When steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it tends to change in dimension. On this
cylinder, if the strain gauges are bonded, the strain gauge also is stretched or
compressed, causing a change in its length and diameter. This change in dimension
of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. This change in resistance or
output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.

Construction of strain gauge Load cell

The main parts of the strain gauge load cell are as follows. They are a cylinder made
up of steel on which four identical strain gauge are mounted and out of four strain
gauges, two of them (R1 and R4) are mounted along the direction of the applied
load(vertical gauges). The other two strain gauges (R2 and R3 Horizontal gauges)
are mounted circumferentially at right angles to gauges R1 and R4.

Operation of strain gauge Load cell

Let study the operation in two cases

Case 1
When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauges will have the
same resistance. As the terminals N and P are at the same potential, the wheat
stone bridge is balanced and hence the output voltage will be zero.

Case 2
Now the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel
cylinder. Due to this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will under go compression and
hence there will be a decrease in resistance. At the same time, the horizontal
gauges R2 and R3 will under go tension and there will be an increase in resistance.
Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges change.
Now the terminal N and P will be at different potential and the change in output
voltage due to the applied load (force) becomes a measure of the applied load force
when calibrated.

Uses of Strain Gauge Load Cell.

Strain gauge load cells are used when the load is not steady.
Strain gauge load cells are used in vehicle weigh bridges, and tool force
dynamometers.