1.3 Reservoir Concepts PDF

1.
3 Reservoir Engineering Concepts
1 Copyright ©2012 NExT. All rights reserved

Reservoirs

Reservoir
Productive unit commercially exploitable that consists of a set of
rock and fluids. Reservoirs are classified as:
• Conventional Reservoirs: Natural accumulations of
hydrocarbons underground, which are contained in rock
porous or fractures and trapped by overlying rock formations
with lower permeability.
• Unconventional Reservoirs: Natural accumulations of
hydrocarbons underground, which are contained in rocks
with high porosity and low permeability which keeps the
hydrocarbons trapped in place, therefore not requiring a cap
of impermeable rock.
In both cases, the monetary market value of the reserves must be
greater than the investment and operating costs required for its
development and operation. When this is proved declares its
commerciality.

RESERVOIR ROCK
PROPERTIES

The Rocks
CONCEPT OF ROCK
An aggregate of minerals and/or volcanic glass (obsidian), which forms a
solid substance, which is not considered a mineral because of its
amorphous, non-crystalline nature.
TYPES OF ROCKS
─ Igneous, like granite and basalt
─ Sedimentary, like sandstone and limestone
─ Metamorphic, like quartz and marble

Rock Cores and Core Analysis
A core sample is a cylindrical section of (usually)
rocks. Most core samples are obtained by drilling with
special tools into the rock column with a hollow steel
tube called a core catcher.
Most common information from cores:

• Types of rock
• Minerals
• Sedimentary environment
• Density
• Porosity and porosity types
• Permeability & relative permeability
• Mechanical properties
Rock Properties
Porosity
Determines the storage capacity of rocks and allows the estimation of reserves
• Framework
Sand and silt size detrital grains
• Matrix
Silt and clay size detrital material
• Cement
Material precipitated post-deposition of frame
and matrix elements, during burial, replacing
framework grains.
• Pores
Void space among the rest of the components

Rock Properties
Porosity
 Ratio of the pore void volume to the total rock volume
 A measure of the ability of rocks to store fluids
 Is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume
Total Porosity
 Ratio of the total pore void volume to the total rock volume
Effective Porosity
 Ratio of the interconnected pore void volume to the total rock volume
 Total porosity less the space filled by shale and clay
 In very clean sands, effective porosity is equal to total porosity

Rock Properties
Types of Porosity
Primary porosity Secondary porosity (vugs) Secondary porosity (fractures)

Is the porosity developed by Is developed by a diagenetic Is developed by a stress process
the original sedimentation process subsequent to the subsequent to the deposition.
process by which the rock deposition.
was created.

Rock Properties
Applications of Porosity Data
One of the primary rock property data used in most reservoir evaluation is porosity data. Consequently, it is important
that accurate values of porosity data for the reservoir rocks are measured and validated by other independent methods.
Porosity data are used in these basic reservoir evaluations:
1.Volumetric calculation of fluids in the reservoir

2.Calculation of fluid saturations
3. Geologic characterization of the reservoir
Calculation of water saturation by the Archie Equation
Sw = [ (a / f m)*(Rw / Rt) ](1/n)
Where:
Sw = water saturation
f = porosity
Rw = formation water resistivity
Rt = observed bulk resistivity
a = a constant (often taken to be 1)
m = cementation factor (varies around 2)
n = saturation exponent (generally 2)

Rock Properties
Permeability (k)
Darcy’s Law
water
cQL
K=
A dh
Where:
K = permeability, (m2)
c = a constant, (dimensionless)
Q = flow rate, (m3/s)
L = the length over which the pressure drop
occurs (m)
A = the cross-sectional area to flow (m2)
(dh) = total pressure drop (m)

Rock Properties
Permeability (k)
Permeability
Is a measure of the ability of a porous material (often, a rock or an
unconsolidated material) to allow fluids to pass through it.
(1)
P1 P2
Q m Where:
K = permeability, (milidarcys)
A c = a constant, (dimensionless)
Q = flow rate, (barrels per day)
L m = viscosity, (centipoises)
L = the length over which the pressure drop
Reservoir rocks are usually characterized in
occurs (feet)
milidarcies (md), a unit that is 1/1000 of a
A = the cross-sectional area to flow (ft2)
darcy. Darcy and milidarcies are area measures.
(P1 – P2) = total pressure drop (psi)
The conversion factors is:
1 md = 0.9869×10 -11 cm2 (1) Morris Muskat refined equation

Rock Properties
Vb
Vp

RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES

FLUID PROPERTIES AFFECTING THE PRESSURE
DROP IN THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
GAS
CRUDE OIL
+ WATER
• MULTIPHASE FLOW CONTAINING LIQUIDS AND GASES
LIQUIDS: CRUDE OIL, CONDENSATES OR WATER

GASES: HYDROCARBON GASES OR STEAM
• LIQUID PROPERTIES: VISCOSITY AND DENSITY
• GAS PROPERTIES: DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY AND SOLUBILITY

IN CRUDE OIL
• INTERFACIAL AND SURFACE TENSIONS

ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION PROCESS OF
A BLACK CRUDE OIL
P1 P2 P3 P4
GAS GAS
LIQUID
GAS
LIQUID LIQUID
PISTON
PISTON
PISTON
LIQUID
PISTON
BUBBLE POINT
DEW POINT
LIQUID
P1
P2
TWO
P1>P2>P3>P4 y T = Constant PHASES
P P3
P4 GAS
16 Copyright ©2012 NExT. All rights reserved T

The Phase Behavior Diagram
P1>P2>P3>P4 and T = Constant
LIQUID
P1 LIQUID
P2
P TWO PHASES P
P3
TWO PHASES
P4
GAS GAS
T1 T2 T3 Tn
T
T

The Reservoir Fluid Type
– Black Oil
– Volatile Oil
– Retrograde Gas
– Wet Gas
– Dry Gas

Phase Diagram – Typical Black Oil
Pressure path
in reservoir
Critical
point Dewpoint line
Pressure, psia
Black Oil
% Liquid
Separator
Temperature, °F
Phase Diagram of a Typical Volatile Oil
Pressure path Critical

1 point
in reservoir
2
Volatile oil
Pressure
% Liquid
Separator
Temperature, °F
Phase Diagram of a Typical Retrograde Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas
2
Pressure
Critical point
% Liquid
Separator

Temperature
Phase Diagram of Typical Wet Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Pressure
Wet gas
Critical % Liquid
point
2
Separator
Temperature
Phase Diagram of Typical Dry Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Pressure
Dry gas
% Liquid
2
Separator
Temperature
The Five Reservoir Fluids
Black Oil Volatile Oil
Pressure path Critical
The Five
in reservoir 1 point
Pressure path 2
in reservoir Volatile oil
Critical Dewpoint line
point
Reservoir
Pressure, psia
Pressure
Black Oil % Liquid
% Liquid
3
Fluids
Separator
Separator
Temperature
Temperature, °F
Pressure path
in reservoir Pressure path
Pressure path
in reservoir in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas 1 1
2
Pressure
Wet gas
Pressure
Pressure
Dry gas
Critical
point
% Liquid
Critical % Liquid
% Liquid
point
3 2
2
Separator Separator
Separator
Temperature Temperature Temperature
24
Retrograde Gas
Copyright ©2012 NExT. All rights reserved Wet Gas Dry Gas
Hydrocarbon PVT Properties
• GAS SOLUBILITY IN CRUDE OIL (Rs)
• CRUDE OIL VOLUMETRIC FACTOR (Bo)
• VISCOSITY (µ)
• DENSITY (ρ)
• INTERFACIAL AND SURFACE TENSION (σ )

BASIC DEFINITIONS
Stock Tank Oil: Liquid obtained as a result of

hydrocarbon production from a reservoir, after a
gas - liquid separation process. The stock tank
oil is reported under standard conditions.
Standard Conditions: worldwide standard

conditions are known as pressure of 14.7 psi
and temperature of 60°F.
14.7 psi aprox. = 100 kPa

60°F aprox. = 15.6 °C

Fluid Expansion
(P,T) (14.7 psi, 60o F)
LIQUID GAS
VoP,T Two phase
Bo region Single phase
PISTON VgS.C VRC/VSC region
LIQUID Bubble pressure

VoSC
PISTON Pb
Pressure, psi
R.C. S.C.
CRUDE OIL VOLUMETRIC FACTOR (Bo)
Volume ratio of liquid at reservoir condition (R.C.) or at pipe flow

condition and liquid at stock tank or standard conditions.
Crude oil volume (including dissolved gas) at R.C.

Bo = > 1.0
Crude Oil volume at S.C.
Gas Solubility
(P,T) (14.7 psi, 60o F)
LIQUID GAS
VoP,T Single phase region
Two phase
Rs region
PISTON VgS.C SCF/STB
LIQUID Bubble pressure

VoSC
PISTON Pb
Pressure, psi
R.C. S.C.
GAS SOLUBILITY (Rs)
Amount of gas dissolved in crude oil at a given condition of

pressure and temperature. It is general expressed in standard
cubic feet of gas (SCF) dissolved in a stock tank barrel of crude oil
(STB) or in standard m3 of oil dissolved in a stock tank m3 of oil-
Rs = Vg(SCF or SCM) / Vo(STB or STCM)
Effect of Separator Pressure on Bo, Rs and °API
°API
Oil del
CrudeAPI petróleo °API
40.0
Gravedad
39.0
Volumetric
1.54 800
(VRBY/BN
Gas-Petróleo
Oil Ratio
/VS)
PCN/BN
Rs
valumétric
1.52
(SCF/STB)
petróleo,
en solución,
1.50 700
factor
Gas-Crude
Factoroil
Relación
Bo
Crude
1.48
o del
1.46 600
Separator
Presión delPressure, psi
Separador, Lpcm

Gas volumetric factor (Bg)

Volume of gas at reservoir condition occupied by a cubic feet of gas at standard
conditions. Bg ≤ 1.0
Compressibility Factor (z)

Factor which is introduced in the ideal gas law, to take into consideration
deviations from a real gas (PV=znRT).
Relative Density or Specific Gravity of a Gas (g)

Gas density divided by air density or gas molecular weight divided by air
molecular weight.
(air molecular weight = 28.97 lb-mol and air density = 0.0764 lb/ft3).

HOW TO DETERMINE FREE GAS AND CRUDE OIL VOLUME AT A GIVEN PRESURE
AND TEMPERATURE CONDITION
RESERVOIR BUBBLE CONDITION AT A GIVEN STANDARD
CONDITION PRESSURE POINT IN THE PIPE CONDITIONS
Pr, Tr Pb P, T 14.7 psi, 60oF
GAS GAS
LIQUID 1 GAS LIQUID LIQUID Vg P,T
Vg
2
SC
PISTON
PISTON LIQUID
P 3 Vo P,T
TWO PHASES LIQUID Vo
4 PISTON SC
14.7 psi
PISTON
60o F T
1 2 3 4
Vo (P,T)= Bo x VoSC
GOR = Vg SC / Vo SC
Vg (P,T)= Bg X (GOR - Rs) x VoSC
Density
STANDING´S CORRELATION
P 10 0.0125 oAPI 1.205
Rs = g x when P ≤ Pb
18 10 0.00091 T
141.5
o =
131.5 + o API Rs: Gas in solution, SCF/STB;
Bo: Oil volumetric factor , Bbl/STB;
g 0.6 P: Pressure, psi;
F = Rs + 1.25 T
T: Temperature °F;
o
g: Gas Specific gravity (air = 1);
Bo = 0.972 + 0.00014 F 1.175 o: Oil Specific gravity (water = 1) ;
o API: Oil API Gravity
62.4 o + 0.0764 g Rs / 5.615 ρo: Oil density, lb/ft3
ρo =
Bo

Compressibility
UNDERSATURATED CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES (above bubble point pressure)
Compressibility Bo = Bob e-Cob (P-Pb)

Co
psi-1
ρo = ρob eCob (P-Pb)
µo = µob + α (P-Pb)/1000
Pb
where α is obtained with Beal´s correlation
Pressure, psi
α = 0.54797424 x 10-5 x °API – 0.80487628 x 10-3

GAS VOLUMETRIC FACTOR, Bg
The gas volumetric factor, Bg, can be determined using following equation, which is
derived from state equation (PV = znRT)
zT
Bg = 0.028269 (vol./vol.)
P
P: pressure, psia, T: temperature oR (= oF + 460)
and z: supercompressibility factor.
The Z factor can be obtained from compressibility factor plot using the reduced pressure ,
Pr and reduced temperature, Tr, both are obtained as follow:
P T
Pr = and Tr =
701 – 47 g 175 + 307g
g: gas specific gravity (air = 1)
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z

Gas density at P and T
ρg = ρgSC / Bg
where ρgSC = 0.0764 g

EXERCISE #4
APPLICATION OF FLUID PROPERTIES CALCULATIONS
A well is producing 35 oAPI oil at a rate of 1000 STB/day, with a GOR of 500
SCF/STB.
Gas specific gravity is 0.65 (air = 1).
1) Calculate the oil and gas flow rates in ft3/sec. in a point of the tubing where the
pressure is 800 psi and the temperature is 140 oF.
2) Calculate the oil and gas densities for the same conditions.
Qo(800psi, 140 F) = Bo x Qo(STB/day)
Qg(800psi, 140 F) = Bg x Qo(STB/day)x(GOR – Rs)
1 bbl = 5.615 ft3 y 1day=86400 sec
sol
Components of naturally
occurring petroleum fluids
Component Composition,
mole percent
Hydrogen sulfide 4.91
Carbon dioxide 11.01
Nitrogen 0.51
Methane 57.70
Ethane 7.22
Propane 4.45
i-Butane 0.96
n-Butane 1.95
i-Pentane 0.78
n-Pentane 0.71
Hexanes 1.45
Heptanes plus 8.35
100.00
Properties of heptanes plus
Specific Gravity 0.807
Molecular Weight 142 lb/lb mole

Initial producing GLR
correlates with C7+
Dry Wet Retrograde Volatile Black
gas gas gas oil oil
100000
gas/liquid ratio, scf/STB
80000
Initial producing
60000
40000
Dewpoint gas
Bubblepoint oil
20000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Heptanes plus in reservoir fluid, mole %

Field Identification
Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry
Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Initial Producing 1750
Gas/Liquid Ratio, < 1750 to > 3200 > 15,000* 100,000*
scf/STB 3200
Initial Stock-
Tank Liquid < 45 > 40 > 40 Up to 70 No Liquid
Gravity, API
Color of Stock- Lightly
Tank Liquid Dark Colored Colored Water White No Liquid
*For Engineering Purposes

Laboratory Analysis

Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Phase No
Change in Bubblepoint Bubblepoint Dewpoint No Phase Phase
Reservoir Change Change
Heptanes
Plus, Mole > 20% 20 to 12.5 < 12.5 < 4* < 0.8*
Percent
Oil Formation
Volume
Factor at < 2.0 > 2.0 - - -
Bubblepoint
*For Engineering Purposes

Primary Production Trends

Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
GOR
GOR
GOR
GOR
GOR
No
liquid
Time Time Time Time Time

 API
 API
 API
 API
 API
No
liquid
Time Time Time Time Time

Exercise 1
One of the wells in the Merit field, completed in December 1967 in the North Rodessa
formation. Originally produced 54API stock-tank liquid at a gas/oil ratio of about
23,000 scf/STB. During July 1969, the well produced 1987 STB of 58API liquid and
78,946 Mscf of gas. By May 1972, the well was producing liquid at a rate of about 30
STB/d of 59API liquid and gas at about 2,000 Mscf/d.
What type of reservoir fluid is this well producing?

Plot of exercise 1 data
100000 60
90000 59
gas/oil ratio, scf/STB
80000 58
liquid gravity, API

70000 57
Stock-tank
Producing
60000 56
50000 55
40000 54
30000 53
20000 52
10000 51
0 50
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Months since start of 1967

Exercise 1, solution
Retrograde Gas Condensate

Exercise 2
A field in north Louisiana discovered in 1953 and
developed by 1956 had an initial producing gas/oil ratio
of 2,000 scf/STB. The stock-tank liquid was “medium
orange” and had a gravity of 51.2API. Classify this
reservoir fluid.
During the producing history of this field the stock-tank
liquid gravity steadily increased to 63API, and the
producing gas/oil ratio increased to a maximum of
29,000 scf/STB.
Laboratory analysis of a sample from this reservoir
yielded a heptanes plus 14.91 mole percent.
The formation volume factor at the bubblepoint was
about 2.6 res bbl/STB. Does this information confirm
your classification? Why or why not?
Exercise 2 solution
•Volatile oil

Exercise 3
The reported producing gas-oil ratio from

the discovery well of the Nancy (Norphlet)
field is given in the following slide. How
would you classify this reservoir fluid?
Why?

500
400
Producing
300
200
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Months since start of production

Plot of exercise 3 data Three –
month running average
500
400
Producing
300
200
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Exercise 3 solution
Black Oil

Exercise 4
The Crown Zellerbach No. 1 was the

discovery well in the Hooker (Rodessa)
field.
The reported producing gas-oil ratio is
plotted in the next slide. How would you
classify this reservoir fluid? Why?

Three – Month running average
37000
Producing
28000
0 13
Exercise 4 solution
Retrograde Gas Condensate

Conventional Reservoir
Rock & Fluids
ROCKS OIL
• Black Oil
• Sandstone • Volatile Oil
NATURAL GAS
• Carbonate • Dry Gas
• Wet gas
• Retrograde Gas
WATER

Fluid flow – Darcy’s Law
p
q
A
q
L
k : permeability
• Core samples
k p • Well testing
q= A m: viscosity
m L
• Fluid samples

Primary Drive Mechanisms
Natural forces in the reservoir that displace hydrocarbons out of the reservoir into
the wellbore and up to surface.
Gas Drive
Solution Gas Drive
Water Drive

Reservoir drive mechanisms
Type Original condition

Solution gas drive
(or depletion drive)
Undersaturated oil
(no gascap, with only small aquifer)
Gas Cap drive Saturated oil with a gas cap
Water drive Saturated or

(with a large aquifer) undersaturated oil

Solution gas drive (or Depletion drive)
•Main characteristics:
• Rock and Oil compressibility is the main drive
energy until bubble point is reached
• Because compressibility is low, pressure drops
rapidly until it reaches the bubble point
• Once bubble point is reached, solution gas is
liberated.
• Since liberated gas has high compressibility, the
rate of pressure decline per unit of production
reduces.
• Once critical gas saturation is exceeded, produced
GOR increases unless the conditions are given for
a Secondary Gas Cap to be formed
Solution - Gas Drive
in Oil Reservoirs
Oil producing wells
Oil
A. Original Conditions
Oil producing wells
B. 50% Depleted

Cross Section
Solution - Gas Drive in
Oil Reservoirs
Wellbore
Secondary
gas cap

Solution Gas (Depletion) Drive
pi
Bubble Gas/Oil
Point Ratio
Reservoir
Pressure
R si
Oil Production
Rate
Water cut
Time
• Abandon Due To - Low pressure
- Low oil rate
- High GOR
• Recovery Factor - 5 to 20% (Low)
• Supplement With - Water injection
62 Copyright ©2012 NExT. All rights reserved - Gas injection
Gas Cap Drive
– Initial condition: primary gas cap is present
– High gas compressibility provides drive

energy
– The larger the gas cap the greater the

energy
– Locate wells as far away from GOC as

possible.
– But Wells too near to OWC ------> Coning
Gas – cap drive in oil reservoirs
Oil producing well
Oil Oil
zone zone
Gas cap
Cross Section

Gas-Cap-Drive Reservoir
High Angle of Dip
Limits of oil production
Gas cap
Spacing, irregular pattern
GOC
Map view
Wells Wells
Gas GOC
Oil OWC
Limited aquifer

Gas Cap Drive – Performance
Characteristics
Pi
Reservoir
Pressure
GOR
(controlled)
Rsi
Oil Production
Rate
Water
Time
• Abandon Due To - Low oil rate
- High GOR
• Recovery Factor - 20-30%
• Supplement With - Gas (re-) injection
Gas - Oil Ratio (GOR) Control
Reservoir GOR (uncontrolled)

Pressure
GOR (controlled)
UR UR
(uncontrolled) (controlled)
Cumulative Oil Production

• Control GOR By:
- Reducing Production Rate
- Recompleting Down Dip
- Re-drilling Down Dip
Water Drive
• Initial condition:
• Large underlying aquifer (at least 10 times oil
volume)
• Aquifer should have good permeability and

communicates with the oil sand.
• Wells position high up-structure

Water drive in oil Reservoirs
Edgewater drive
Oil producing well
Oil Zone
Water Water
Cross Section

Water drive in oil reservoirs
Bottom-water drive
Oil producing well
Oil Zone
Water
Cross Section

Water - drive reservoir
low angle of dip, thick sand
Oil zone
Spacing, regular pattern
Limited gas cap
Oil
Water
Completions, high

Water Drive
pi Reservoir
Pressure
Rsi GOR
Water
Oil Production
Rate
Time
• Abandon due To - Low oil rate
- High water rate
• Recovery factor - 35 to 65 %
• Supplement with - Water (re-injection)
Summary
BP DEPLETION
GOR (SOLUTION GAS
DRIVE)
Pressure
Oil
Water Cut
Pressure GAS CAP DRIVE

GOR
Oil
Water Cut
WATER DRIVE
Pressure
GOR
Oil
Water Cut
Reserve Assessment

Reserve Assessment
Porosity is essential to calculate how much oil is in the reservoir…
Area (A)
Height (h)
Original Oil in Place (OOIP) = 7758 x A x h x Porosity x (1-Sw) / Boi

N = OOIP (STB)
7758 = conversion factor from acre-ft to bbl
A = area of reservoir (acres) from map data
h = height or thickness of pay zone (ft) from log and/or core data
ø = porosity (decimal) from log and/or core data
Sw = connate water saturation (decimal) from log and/or core data
Boi = formation volume factor for oil at initial conditions (reservoir bbl/STB)

Recovery Factor
RESERVOIR NATURAL MECHANISMS OF PRODUCTION
100
Reservoir Pressure - % of Original
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Produced crude oil - % of Original Oil in Place
Rock & Fluid Expan.. Gas Drive Gas Cap Water Drive
Source: Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs – SPE 1969, N. J. Clark

Reserve Assessment
Oil Reserves = OOIP x Fr
Recovery Factor (Fr) = % of OOIP recoverable
Associated Gas Reserves = Oil Reserves x Rs

Maximum volume of hydrocarbons that can be economically produced from a
reservoir with the technology available at the time of the calculation.

Combination drive in oil reservoirs
Gas cap
Oil zone
Water
Estimate the drive indices of the

individual mechanisms

Reserve Classification
• Proved reserves
– The reserves that have been quantified by means of wells, equipment and
specific technical methods that guarantee their existence
• Probable Reserves
– The reserves which have not been certified through production testing, but
because it is within the known geological boundaries of a site, are likely to
be tested drilling additional wells and doing production testing
• Possible Reserves
– Those of possible existence, but that due to lack of reliable information, not
be guaranteed with accuracy
• Resources
– Those amounts estimated, not associated with known accumulations,
whose existence is presumed on the basis of information of surface
geology. Classified as hypothetical and speculative, taking the first more
certainty than the second

Water Coning in Oil Well
rw re
well
oil : m o ,  w Pwf hp
Oil inflow
h
k oh
P k ov
i
A
Water
water :  w
The critical rate for coning is the maximum

oil rate at which production can be Critical Oil rate without water coning
maintained without producing water
ko h (  w   o ) g 2
qoc = C ( h  h 2
p ) Schools formula for a partially perforated well
Bo mo ln( rw )
re

Gas Coning in Oil Well
Qo + Qg
gas
gas
oil
oil

Water Coning in Gas Well
Qg + Qw
Well
Gas Gas
water water

Irregular water encroachment and premature water
breakthrough in high-permeability layers of reservoir
Fingering Wellbore
Low permeability
High permeability
Intermediate permeability
Low permeability

High gas-oil ratio production caused by early encroachment of
gas through high-permeability zones of stratified reservoir
Wellbore Fingering
Original oil-gas contact
Intermediate
permeability
Low
permeability
High
permeability
Low
permeability
Intermediate
permeability

Control of Well Coning
• Reduction of production rate
• Improvement of well productivity

• Artificial barriers
• Recompletions
• Infill drilling
• Dual completions
• Horizontal wells
Gas Reservoirs
• Produced by the expansion of the gas in the

reservoir = main drive mechanism
• Long plateau production required to sell gas for

many years.
• Try to position wells at crest of reservoir far

away from the rising GWC
• Recovery Factor depends on how low the

abandonment pressure can be reduced.
• Compression facilities on surface

Reservoir Engineering
RESERVOIR INTEGRATED STUDY
• Rock & Fluid properties
• Fluid flow
• Reservoir characterization
• Drive mechanism
• Fluid displacement
• Production forecast
RESERVOIR MONITORING
• Well testing
• Pressure and temperature gauging
• 4D seismic
• EOR injection/production control

Reservoir Integrated Study
STAGES OF AN INTEGRATED STUDY
PHASE I PHASE II PHASE III PHASE IV
Data Characterization Simulation Management
Validated Data Model Static Model Dynamic Model Business Model

STAGES OF AN INTEGRATED STUDY: PHASE I
Gathering Analysis Conversion

Inventory Validation Acquisition
DATA
Structure Petrophysical Fluids Historical

Seismic Well Logs P.V.T. Tests of wells
• Review of previous studies Geological Cores Samples Production/Injec.
• Detection of additional
information required
• Assessment of nature and
complexities to determine
scope of Phase II
• Identification of immediate
opportunities Data Model
• Set up of database of the
project

STAGES OF AN INTEGRATED STUDY: PHASE II
Structural Stratigraphic Sedimentary Petrophysical Fluids

Model Model Model Model Model
600 1,5
500 1,45
Rs(PCN/BN)
Bo(BY/BN)
400 Bo 1,4
300 PVT 1,35
200 Rs 1,3
100 1,25
0 1,2
165 1615 3015 5315
PRESION(LPCA)
Defines the geometry and Defines internal structure Defines quality, geometry Defines basic reservoir Defines properties of
dip angle of the structural of the reservoir. and distribution of the parameters: K, f, So, Sw, fluids and initial
elements that conform the Correlates and defines deposits of the flow units. density, etc. distribution in the
reservoir. flow units and maps of Identify limits and/or reservoir.
producing zones. vertical barriers. Allows to quantify
volumes of hydrocarbons
in place

STAGES OF AN INTEGRATED STUDY: PHASE III

STAGES OF AN INTEGRATED STUDY: PHASE IV
Reservoir Planning and Management

Design of exploitation strategies
Maximize
Value
UNDERSTANDING THE SUBSURFACE, WE DESIGN

PLANS OF ACTION:
• Primary, secondary or tertiary recovery?
• Changes in schemes of exploitation
• Changes in production/injection patterns
• Requirements of new technologies
• Optimal spacing and number of wells
Capital investment

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3 Reservoir Engineering Concepts

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─ Sedimentary, like sandstone and limestone

─ Metamorphic, like quartz and marble

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Most common information from cores:

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Primary porosity Secondary porosity (vugs) Secondary porosity (fractures)

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1.Volumetric calculation of fluids in the reservoir

Calculation of water saturation by the Archie Equation

Sw = [ (a / f m)*(Rw / Rt) ](1/n)

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1 md = 0.9869×10 -11 cm2 (1) Morris Muskat refined equation

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• MULTIPHASE FLOW CONTAINING LIQUIDS AND GASES

LIQUIDS: CRUDE OIL, CONDENSATES OR WATER

• LIQUID PROPERTIES: VISCOSITY AND DENSITY

• GAS PROPERTIES: DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY AND SOLUBILITY

• INTERFACIAL AND SURFACE TENSIONS

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P1>P2>P3>P4 and T = Constant

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Pressure path Critical

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Temperature Temperature Temperature

• GAS SOLUBILITY IN CRUDE OIL (Rs)

• CRUDE OIL VOLUMETRIC FACTOR (Bo)

• INTERFACIAL AND SURFACE TENSION (σ )

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Stock Tank Oil: Liquid obtained as a result of

Standard Conditions: worldwide standard

14.7 psi aprox. = 100 kPa

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LIQUID Bubble pressure

CRUDE OIL VOLUMETRIC FACTOR (Bo)

Volume ratio of liquid at reservoir condition (R.C.) or at pipe flow

Crude oil volume (including dissolved gas) at R.C.

LIQUID Bubble pressure

GAS SOLUBILITY (Rs)

Amount of gas dissolved in crude oil at a given condition of

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Gas volumetric factor (Bg)

Compressibility Factor (z)

Relative Density or Specific Gravity of a Gas (g)

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Pr, Tr Pb P, T 14.7 psi, 60oF

P 10 0.0125 oAPI 1.205

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UNDERSATURATED CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES (above bubble point pressure)

Compressibility Bo = Bob e-Cob (P-Pb)

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