Saad ur Rehman

Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Political philosophy of Allama Iqbal

 Iqbal’s Concept of Khudi

 Iqbal’s view on Nationalism-Millat
 Iqbal & Western Democracy
 Iqbal’s view on Ijtihad

ALLAMA IQBAL
Muhammad Iqbal was born at Sialkot on 9th November 1877 of a middle-class and
deeply religious family. He grew up at a time when Western civilization was
imposing a comprehensive dominance over the Muslim world and the Muslim world
was suffering a long time of decline in all aspects – political, cultural, economic, and
social life. The decline of the Muslim ummah, according to Iqbal, was primarily due
to the stagnation of religious thought. Therefore, he proposed the need for the
reconstruction of religious thought both in sphere of theology as well as in law and
jurisprudence.

KHUDI/SELF
For Iqbal, ethically, the word “khudi” means “self-reliance, self-respect, self-
confidence, self-preservation, even self-assertion when such a thing is necessary, in
the interests of life and the power to stick to the cause of truth, justice, duty.
Iqbal thought it necessary also to warn the readers “that ‘khudi’ is not used to mean
pride as in the common usage of the word in Urdu.”
The overview of the Western society according to Iqbal is its fasād-i-qalb-o-
naz ̣ar29 – i.e. double standard or hypocrisy. To face this unethical, hypocrite and
immoral West, Iqbal comes up with a proposal to strengthen ego.

The importance of self

Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

For Iqbal, the Self is the fundamental reality of the world and the measure of all
things. According to Iqbal, the ego “has the quality of growth … as well as the
quality of corruption.”12 It can expand to absorb the elements of the universe and
the attributes of God. On the other hand, it can also degenerate to the level of matter.
In his writings, particularly in Asrar-i Khudi, Iqbal tells us about the factors which
strengthen or weaken the ego. For the perfection of the Self a hundred worlds may
be created and destroyed.
According to Iqbal, the ego “has the quality of growth … as well as the quality of
corruption.”12 It can expand to absorb the elements of the universe and the attributes
of God. On the other hand, it can also degenerate to the level of matter. In his
writings, particularly in Asrar-i Khudi, Iqbal tells us about the factors which
strengthen or weaken the ego

The Factors Which Strengthen the Self

Iqbal looks upon personality as a state of tension which can “continue only if that
state is maintained. If the state of tension is not maintained, relaxation will ensue. …
That which tends to maintain the state of tension tends to make us immortal.”13 For
Iqbal it is of the utmost importance that this state of tension be maintained for it is
only by the preservation and completion of the personality that we can achieve “that
awareness of reality which Iqbal believed to be man's ultimate goal on earth. The
chief factors which strengthen the personality are:

1. Desire
Keep desire alive in thy heart
Lest thy little dust become a tomb.
Throughout Iqbal’s writings, great stress is placed on Desire as the spring from
which the Self draws sustenance. A Self that is lacking in Desire, is, in fact, dead.
Life can be viewed as dynamic only when it is imbued with restless burning. All that
humanity has achieved is a product of Desire. Iqbal calls Desire by several names
such as “suz”, “hasrat”, “justuju”, “arzu”, “ishtiyaq” and “tamanna”. Desire is a
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

creative power even when it remains unfulfilled. The fulfilment of Desire is “at the
same time, extreme happiness and the end of happiness. The separation is overcome.
But without separation there is no love and no life. What makes a human being what
he is, is the capacity for endless yearning. In Iqbal’s eyes, it is this capacity which
lifts human being to a station where he would not change his position even with God.
Life means a passionate burning, an urge to make.
A hundred joys are to be found in our unrewarding quest

2. Love

By love it (the self) is made more lasting,

More living, more burning, more glowing.

Love is the active sense of positive Desire.29 Iqbal “lays great emphasis on
the value of love … for strengthening the Self.” He uses the word in a very
wide sense, and means by it “the desire to assimilate, to absorb. Its highest
form is the creation of values and ideals and the endeavour to realize them.”
From Love, the Self acquires vitality and radiance. Love is creative of all that
is good in life, and the supreme guide of human destiny. For Iqbal, as for
Tillich, “Life is being in actuality and love is the moving prayer of life … In
man’s experience of love the nature of life becomes manifest. … The power
of love is not something which is added to an otherwise finished process, but
life has love in itself as one of its constitutive elements. Love is the
fundamental urge of Being, its elan vital and its raison d'etre.
For Iqbal, as for Rumi, only Love is an intrinsic value. All other values are
extrinsic and instrumental and are to be judged according to their capacity for
the realization of this primary value. Love is the only categorical imperative
and strikes no bargain with God or humankind.42 He who denies Love is an
infidel.
The strength and potency of our faith depend on the degree and depth of Love.
If one is steadfast in Love, one can win all things, and even “capture God”
The strength and potency of our faith depend on the degree and depth of Love.
If one is steadfast in Love, one can win all things, and even “capture God”
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Like Tillich, Iqbal thinks that “the power of a being is its possibility to affirm
itself against the non-being within it and against it. The power of a being is
the greater the more non-being is taken into its self-affirmation.”62 Love is
that which assimilates, which consolidates and fortifies, therefore, “Love is
the foundation, not the negation, of power.”63 That which negates power is
not Love

3. FAQIR
The words “Faqir” (or its synonym Qalandar”) and “Faqr” (or “Istighna”)
appear very frequently in Iqbal's verse. There is more than one sense in which
“Faqr” is interpreted. Iqbal uses “Faqr” to denote an inner attitude of
detachment and superiority to material possessions. “It is a kind of intellectual
and emotional asceticism which does not turn away from the world as a source
of evil and corruption but uses it for the pursuit of good and worthy ends.”9
Sometimes he identifies Islam with “Faqr
Iqbal points out repeatedly that a “Faqir” is not a monk or an ascetic who has
renounced the material world and who lives a life of abstinence and self-
denial, cut off from the rest of humankind. The “Faqir” undergoes all the trials
and tribulations arising from a daily encounter with the temptations that flesh
is heir to. His life is not calm like the green of the meadows, but is always
stormy like the rough waves in mid ocean
What knowledge does for the intellect, “Faqr” does for the soul. It clarifies
the vision and gives power and strength. A “Qalandar” is the faithful who “has
nothing and possesses everything.”75 His power is greater than the power of
kings:. Unless one is able to transcend the physical world, and rise, as it were,
above the rewards it has to offer, one cannot attain real kingship. It is this
attribute of God-loving persons which enables them to conquer time and
space.
A “Faqir” not only does not accept charity, it is against the dignity of his state
to complain about the hardness of his lot. He bears his cross willingly and
patiently, else his “Faqr” is yet imperfect:
A nation which combines in its character the attributes of Love and “Faqr”
can never know defeat:

4. SAYYADI
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Literally, “Sayyadi” means hunting, and “Sayyad” is a hunter. In Iqbal’s

thought where so many words find a new connotation, “Sayyadi” comes to
denote a kind of heroic idealism based on daring, pride and honour. It is most
often symbolized by the lion and the falcon (“Shahin”), the emblems of
royalty. A “Shahin” builds no nest because for it there is no rest or repose. It
lives not in comfort and security but in the wideness of the skies or on the
exposed wind-blown mountain-tops. It is the king of the birds precisely
because it disdains any form of safety or ease.
He possesses unlimited daring and courage. The “Sayyad” has a code of
honour which he must follow. He is truthful and bold and unfamiliar with the
ways of deceit and cunning:

5. SUFFERING
Since “all the results of individuality, of separate selfhood, necessarily involve
pain or suffering,” 108 Iqbal was right in observing that “No religious system
can ignore the moral value of suffering.” For Iqbal, too, “Suffering is a gift
from the gods in order to make man see the whole of life.” Iqbal was well
aware of the importance of suffering for the maturing of the personality. In
Iqbal’s verse we also find the idea taken from popular piety, namely, that God
sends afflictions to those whom He prefers

6. FORBEARANCE
“The principle of the ego-sustaining deed is respect for the ego in myself as
well as in others,” 122 said Iqbal. He was a great believer in forbearance and
tolerance. The tolerance in which Iqbal believes is born of strength rather than
weakness. It is “begotten of intellectual breadth and spiritual expansion. It is
the toleration of the spiritually powerful man who, while jealous of the
frontiers of his own faith, can tolerate and even appreciate all forms of faith
other than his own … only a true lover of God can appreciate the value of
devotion even though it is directed to gods in which he himself cannot believe.
However, when fanaticism involves an attitude of irreverence towards other
modes of thinking, it is not condoned by Iqbal. As E M. Forster points out
about Iqbal, “Whatever his opinions he was no fanatic, and he refers to Hindus
and Christians with courtesy and respect.”
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

7. Courtesy

While stressing that one must always be hard with oneself, Iqbal does not
forget to say, not once but repeatedly, that a leader must be kind and courteous
in speech and manner. The full-grown ego must possess “husn-i akhlaq”
(beauty of disposition). This makes Iqbal’s Perfect Person as worthy of
affection as he is of obedience, his heartwinning ways supplementing his
world-winning ways. He is no ruthless Superman asserting his authority
mercilessly. He is soft in speech and needs to be both a warrior and a
chivalrous person in order to be a leader:

8. Obstructions
are essential for the development of “Khudi.” Each hurdle that a person
passes over in his long journey brings him 128. Asrar-i Khudi, p. 21. 129.
Translation by Nicholson, op. cit., p. 33. 130. Javid Iqbal, Ed., op. cit., p. 23.
131. Ibid. 132. Forster, “Muhammad Iqbal,” op. cit., p. 296. 133. Bal-i Jibril,
p. 74. 25 nearer his goal. It strengthens his resolve by putting his mettle to the
test. One cannot struggle if there is nothing to struggle against. Iqbal looks
upon obstructions - whatever be their form - as being necessary to human
progress

9. Obstructions
Like Rumi, Iqbal considers evil to be extremely important in the development
of human personality. “Evil is the inevitable condition of good: out of
darkness was created light. From this standpoint it possesses a positive value:
it serves the purpose of God, it is relatively good.” 136 The spirit of
obstruction symbolized by Satan directs a person’s energies to newer
channels. It offers a challenge to his spirit and is one of the forces behind his
evolution, leading him from conquest to conquest.
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

MILLAT/NATIONALISM

The cardinal point of Allama Iqbal’s political philosophy is millat – fraternity of

believers. The bonds of this fraternity are above race, colour, region, proximity and
matter. Its core is Islam, Ka‘bah and the person of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
The bonds of millat do not segregate the believers to a corner of mosque, aloof from
all the decencies created by Allah. Rather they value a complete social order
encompassing both spiritual and temporal life1. In fact individual’s individuality
shines in the multiplicity of millat. In the larger sense, it gives birth to a collective
ego founded on the revealed word of Allah.
The sphere of millat in temporal affairs is well defined. It is not based on a utopia of
Plato, or that of Marx – utopian communism and utopian socialism2, but on the
person of Prophet (PBUH) who lived amongst the believers, and the practice that he
left will continue until the doomsday3. According to Iqbal, it was a great divine
favour retaining the symbolic honour and image of the Prophet (PBUH) for all times
and all epoches7. The millat thus raised on these parameters will attain immortality.
He says that our allegiance with China, India, Rome, Syria, Afghanistan and Turkey
is insignificant and it must be noted that all Muslims are like birds in a garden9. It is
with this yardstick that Allah has drawn a divider amongst the ummat of the lovers
of the Prophet of Islam and those who are in the other camp
Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal, the Poet of the East and a great Muslim ideologue,
having delved deep into the shambolic predicament of the Muslims, took to
diagnosing the causes responsible for the Muslim eclipse, and suggesting panaceas
to cure them. He was very much distressed to see the Muslims jumping on the
bandwagon of the West, and blindly aping the Western civilization which, by its
very nature, was infused with the brute materialism. Iqbal took up most of the
ideologies stemming from the West that were in vogue those days. Nationalism was
among such concepts gaining a widespread currency amongst the Muslims. After
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

careful study, Allama made a passionate plea against the Western notion of
nationalism exhorting the Muslims to stay away from it.
Iqbal devoted a considerable part of his philosophical thought to the idea of ‘who
constituted a nation, and on what grounds?’ It is interesting to note that before his
flight to Europe, he subscribed to the Western Territorial Nationalism. However,
during his 3-year sojourn there (1905-1908), Iqbal blossomed from an Indian
nationalist to a Pan-Islamist, cherishing a nation, Ummah or Millat cemented by the
bounds of Tauheed (Oneness of Allah), and this remarkable shift was largely due to
his extensive investigation into the Western philosophy, and partly because of the
prevailing political realities in India.
From the following two couplets, the shift from one line of thought to the other is
quite eye-catching:
‫ہمارا‬ ‫ہندوستاں‬ ‫اچھا‬ ‫سے‬ ‫جہاں‬ ‫سارے‬
‫ہمارا‬ ‫گلستاں‬ ‫یہ‬ ،‫کی‬ ‫اس‬ ‫ہیں‬ ‫بلبلیں‬ ‫ہم‬
‫رکھنا‬ ‫بیر‬ ‫میں‬ ‫آپس‬ ‫سکھاتا‬ ‫نہیں‬ ‫مذہب‬
‫ وطن ہے ہندوستاں ہمارا‬،‫ہندی ہیں ہم‬
The best land in the world is our India;
We are its nightingales; this is our garden.
Religion does not teach us to be enemies with each other:
We are Indians, our homeland is our India.
Then, in the recast version, Iqbal raises the cry:
‫ہمارا‬ ‫ہندوستاں‬ ،‫ہمارا‬ ‫عرب‬ ‫و‬ ‫چین‬
‫ وطن ہے سارا جہاں ہمارا‬،‫مسلم ہیں ہم‬
China and Arabia are ours; India is ours.
We are Muslims, the whole world is ours.

(ALL THE TEXT IN THE ITALIAN FORMAT TELLS WHAT COMPELLED IQBAL
TO DISDAIN WESTERN TERRITORIAL NATIONALISM)
Allama Iqbal believed that Islam constituted a Millat which transcended all artificial
barriers of caste, creed, race and territory. As regards the Indian Muslims, they, he
held, cannot be assimilated into a Hindu-dominated Indian political nationalism.
While advocating the repudiation of the political nationalism, and espousing the
‘Cultural Nationalism’ based on religion, Iqbal was well-cognizant of the fact that
nationalism, as it was understood in the West, demanded an affiliation to a
particular territory without having anything to do with the cultural values of the
people.
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Furthermore, West’s aggressive nationalism fostered antagonism, and bad blood

among the nations. Even during his lifetime, Iqbal was appalled at the
unprecedented mass destruction wreaked during WWI only on the grounds of
nationalism.
In contrast, the cultural nationalism describes people as a nation held together by
their inwardly-felt sharing of religious and cultural values. Iqbal’s cultural
nationalism in terms of India was mainly a desire to facilitate his vision of the reform
of the existing Muslim social and economic order. This was done by mobilizing
masses, at least, in the areas wherein the Muslims constituted a numerical majority.

Iqbal, while clarifying the nature of conflict between nationalism and Islam, wrote
to Jawaharlal Nehru:
“Nationalism in the sense of love of one’s country and even readiness to die for its
honour is a part of the Muslim’s faith; it comes into conflict with Islam only when it
begins to play the role of a political concept and claims to be a principle of human
solidarity demanding that Islam should recede to the background of a mere private
opinion and cease to be a living factor in the national life.”

It may be noted here that Iqbal’s proposition was that the nationalism was a problem
for the Muslims only in those countries where they were in a numerical minority –
such as India. However, Islam accommodates nationalism in the countries where
they were numerically large enough to assert their right to order their individual and
collective lives in accordance with the decrees of Shariah
Iqbal in his poem titled “Hussain Ahmad” on the concept of Islam and nationalism
launched into a strong condemnation of the thesis of Maulana Hussain Ahmed
Madani who insisted on territorial nationalism. Iqbal wrote:
‫است‬ ‫وطن‬ ‫از‬ ‫ملت‬ ‫کہ‬ ‫منبر‬ ‫سر‬ ‫بر‬ ‫سرود‬
‫چہ بے خبر زمقام محمد عربیﷺ است‬
“He [Husain Ahmad of Deoband] preached from the pulpit that the Muslim
nation can exist by devotion to one’s country!
How ignorant he is about the teaching of Muhammad Arabi (PBUH)!”

Allama Iqbal also discerned in the very DNA of nationalism a well-calculated

imperialistic design of Europe to enslave the nations, and shatter the religious unity
of the Muslims.
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Moreover, Iqbal was particularly antipathetic towards West for its cutthroat
materialism, so natural it was for him to seek spiritualism in any concept. He said:
“I am opposed to nationalism as it is understood in Europe. Because, I see in it the
germs of atheistic materialism which I look upon as the greatest danger to the
modern humanity.”

In the opinion of his son, Dr Javaid Iqbal, “Allama envisaged an international Islam
when he stated that Islam was neither nationalism, nor imperialism, but a
‘commonwealth of nations’ which welcomed racial diversity, and ever-changing
geographical demarcation for reference only, and not for constraining the social
horizon of its members.”

Hence, in the opinion of Iqbal, the Muslims should turn themselves as "strong and
powerful to form a living family of republics" and that is interwoven in a "League
of Nations (of Islam)" which "recognizes artificial boundaries and racial distinctions
for facility of reference only and not for restricting the social horizon of its members.
This is what constitutes millat for Iqbal. The overview of the Western society
according to Iqbal is its fasād-i-qalb-o-naz ̣ar– i.e. double standard or hypocrisy. To
face this unethical, hypocrite and immoral West, Iqbal comes up with a proposal to
strengthen ego.

IQBAL’S CONCEPT OF DEMOCRACRY

Iqbal’s outlook on all walks of individual and collective life was based on Quranic
and Sunnah injunctions. But it does not mean that his view was prejudiced and he,
therefore, swayed other ideologies because he embraced those aspects of western
democracy which were in line with the tenets of Islam and canons of rationality. As
a matter of fact, his was the thesis that the Western representative institutions were
misleading, and he had the strongest arguments to support his assertion.
1. Absence of Ethical Element
Democracy as understood in the West is devoid of a spiritual and ethical basis.
Grounded in materialistic base, it paves the way for the unscrupulous and dishonest
politicians to cling on to the ladder of power. The absence of moral and spiritual
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

values renders democracy repulsive. In Zabur-i-Ajam, Iqbal has heaped scorn upon
democracy in the strongest terms noting that by inventing democracy, the West has
let loose a monstrous demon.
2. Unbridled Democracy: A Bane
Once exposed to the unrestrained democracy, the uncouth masses due to their sheer
ignorance of the complexities of life; and politics bring disaster after disaster to
them, and to the country at large. ‘Masses wanting wisdom’ is the recurring theme
of Iqbal’s thesis of democracy. Therefore, he opposes the indiscriminate importation
of liberal ideas to the Muslims. Democracy has left the most vital affairs of life to
the vagaries of every untamed Tom, Dick and Harry, ignorant of their own good, let
alone the collective good of the society.
You should avoid democracy and become within the bond of the perfect man (the
Holy Prophet (PBUH)) as two hundred donkeys cannot combine the brain of a man.”
There is always a possibility that a man of insight may be left behind on account of
myriad of reasons to make it to a top-notch position, and get superseded by a
majority of illiterate and coarse people. This is what happens in a democracy.

3. Play round of Conflicting Ambitions

A society morphs into a battleground for the covetous scoundrels to manoeuvre
against each other for getting into the corridors of power dividing the entire nation
into parties and factions. To Iqbal, such a system causes deep schisms in the Ummah
on false and fragile lines. In his letter to Sir Francis Younghusband, published in The
Civil and Military Gazette on 30th July 1931, he notes in the following lines:
“Democracy lets loose all sorts of aspirations and grievances which were suppressed
or unrealised under autocracy; it arouses hopes and ambitions often quite unpractical
…”

4. Instrument of Secularism
With nationalism, Iqbal discerned in the Western democracy the germs of secularism
and atheism. Secularism entails a divorce between state and religion – something
Iqbal could never digest. A system, wherein religion is reduced to an immaterial
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

state of ‘private life, brings societal fabric on the verge of moral and social
decadence; besides, bringing disgrace to the nation. Secularism, and as its
consequence, democracy, are anathemas to Iqbal.

5. Old Wine in New Bottle

Iqbal believes that the cult of democracy has, in fact, old wanton Caesars and despots
under its guise. At its best, it serves old wine in new bottles. It doesn’t cure; instead,
it afflicts both body and soul. In place of offering a panacea to the sufferings of
masses, it has plunged them into the appalling deprivation even further.
Allama Iqal writes:
“The monster of tyranny has masqueraded in the garb of democracy, but people are
led to think that it is the goddess of freedom. The so-called law-making assemblies,
rights and duties are only narcotics. Debates in parliaments and assemblies are
nothing else but demands of capitalists for greater exploitation.”

Falling in with the views of Laski that the problem with democracy is moral rather
than technical in nature, Iqbal believes that its ideal is different from the realities of
realpolitik. In fact, popular revolution is possible only through observance to the
divine code embodied in Quran. Islamic democracy, which to Iqbal is “Spiritual
democracy,” is more suited, as it stresses the need for loftier ethical values, instead
of a cutthroat competition.

Spiritual Democracy
Allah says in the Quran: “…and consult with them upon the conduct of affairs. And
when you have taken a decision, repose your trust in Allah.” (Aal-e-Imran: 159)
Allama Iqbal advocates for a spiritual democracy nurtured under the divine
guidance. His is the democracy unhampered by the intrigues of the tumultuous party
politics, and oriented towards nothing else but securing people’s good in this world
and in the hereafter. Justice for everyone at the doorstep is its cardinal principle.
Rule of law reigns supreme in it. Iqbal makes a case for a democracy the essence of
which has been envisioned in the Quran. However, its form and structure may be
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

tailored on the basis of Ijtihad in view of the requirements of the contemporary

political realities.
From Armughan-e-Hijaz, it is discernable to eye that Iqbal has a fascination for
Khilafah (caliphate) as an ideal form of government. Drawing inspiration from the
epoch of Khilafat-e-Rashida, he holds, democracy was literally put in place in letter
and spirit then. He firmly believes ‘democracy to be the most important aspect of
Islam where there is no aristocracy and monarchy’.
Moreover, the essence of Tauhid (Oneness of Allah Almighty) as lively ideal is
freedom, equality and solidarity, and liberation from all sorts of fetters – something
the modern democracy claims to secure. It brings the ruler and the ruled
unconditionally on an equal footing. Allah alone is the repository of absolute
sovereignty. Dismissing the parliaments as talking-shops which yield only follies,
he proposes the constitution of an assembly of enlightened men versed in both
modern scholarship and Islamic jurisprudence. The same should be fully equipped
with the authority of exercising ‘Ijtihad’ to find a way out to the quandaries besetting
the contemporary world. It can safely be construed from the discussion that Iqbal is
for a limited franchise, favouring a government by the men of professional expertise
and veritable integrity.

Distinction between Iqbal’s Parliament and that of Western Democracy

On the other aspect, Iqbal has made a distinction between shura and democracy in
which he condemned Western democracy which is devoid of religious guidance.
Iqbal mentioned some basic principles of an Islamic state which are different from
Western democracy. For instance, all decisions of an Islamic state are made due to
the principles of shura by the means of ijtihad and ijma’. Muslims are entitled to
make laws which are of public interest, keeping in view that such laws do not conflict
with basic laws of shariah. Therefore, both Quran and sunnah always play the
decisive role and are to be the main sources of ijtihad and ijma’ (Parveen Shaukat
Ali 1970). Moreover, elections in Western democracy are held on the basis of adult
irrespective of pre-requisites. This makes it possible for incompetent people to run
the affairs of the state. Islam, on the contrary, has imposed certain restrictions on the
suitability of candidates for different offices of the state. Islam also prevents any
individual from nominating himself for state office or asking to be nominated to any
official position. Furthermore, the representative member of majlis al-shura has a
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

more difficult task than the representative member in Western democracy. He

always speaks and acts on behalf of entire Muslims to present and to look after their
interests in accordance to shariah. Therefore, he performs dual responsibilities to his
electorates as well as to the Islamic Divine law (H.H Bilgrimi 1966). In the Western
democracy, however, a member of an Assembly or Congress or Parliament has a
single responsibility which is to the electorate only.

IQBAL ON IJTIHAD
Ijtihad was exercised from the earliest days of Islam. Some learned companions of
the Prophet (p.b.u.h) after his (p.b.u.h) demise, exercised ijtihad in matters which
had no specific solutions in the Quran and the Sunnah. Starting from this early
practice, ijtihad then was used extensively by the four great scholars of Muslim
jurisprudence in the second century of hijrah. The sphere of ijtihad at that time was
very wide. It covered all the aspects of religious, political, and civil life, including
the whole field of family laws, the laws of inheritance, and all legal questions that
arose in social life. However, in the third century of hijrah, the four schools of
jurisprudence were regarded as fully developed. This resulted in the closing of the
doors of ijtihad. Thus, after the third century of hijrah, ijtihad completely
disappeared as a practical intellectual force in Islam.
The closing of the doors of ijtihad is considered as one of greatest intellectual
disasters in the development of Islamic thought. It prevents the advancement of the
Muslims in social, political, and legal avenues of Islam. Therefore, Iqbal tried to
revive ijtihad and to bring back this dynamic element of Islamic civilization.
Iqbal observed that no law or institution can be truly Islamic unless it imbibes the
spirit of the dynamic outlook of the Quran. Iqbal emphasized that we have to
reevaluate our intellectual inheritance which involves exercising the right of ijtihad.
He discussed the subject in a comprehensive manner in the sixth lecture of his
Reconstruction entitled “The Principle Movement in the Structure of Islam” in
which some authors translated it as ijtihad.
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Causes for Decay of Ijtihad

Iqbal mentioned three causes for the decay of ijtihad among the Muslims;
First, the adherence of the Muslim community to extreme positions. During the age
of the Abbasids, the rise of rationalist movements, such as, mu’tazilah was
considered as a danger to the Muslim society. The conservative ulama’ regarded the
rationalist movement as a destructive force. Therefore, in order to preserve the social
integrity of Islam, they made the structure of their legal system as rigorous as
possible. They did not regard ijtihad to be a source of advancement of thought or
knowledge.
Second, the rise and growth of ascetic Sufism which gradually developed under the
influence of a non-Islamic character turned the great Muslim intellectuals into sufis
who confined themselves to the preservation of faith and beliefs. When such
extremes penetrated into the Muslim society, the independent thinking and the spirit
of ijtihad, according to Iqbal, gradually deteriorated and decayed.
Third, Iqbal pointed out that the destruction of Baghdad, which was the centre of
Muslim intellectual life was responsible for the decay of ijtihad up to the second half
of the thirteenth century. It caused the Muslim community to think pessimistically
about the future of Islam.
Basis of Iqbal’s Support for Ijma
According to Iqbal, only religious obligations are permanent and cannot be changed,
such as, the times of prayer and the period of fasting during Ramadan. On the other
hand, worldly affairs (muamalat) are subject to the law of change. It includes all laws
pertaining to civil and criminal matters, which can be changed and reinterpreted in
accordance with changing condition and needs as well as the requirements of the
Muslim community As the principle of movement in Islam, ijtihad is the means
whereby changes can be affected in the laws of Islam, provided they are not
inconsistent with the basis on which the system rests.
In fact, he regarded ijtihad as one of the dynamic elements and creative spirit of
Islam. Iqbal defined ijtihad as to exert with a view to form an independent judgment
but not to be independent of the Quran and Sunnah. He opposed freedom of thought
which makes man deviate from Divine guidance but endorsed the freedom of ijtihad
to oppose rigidity and stagnation.
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Qualifications for Exercising Ijtihad

When he talked about the freedom of ijtihad or independent judgment, Iqbal did not
regard any independent judgment to be ijtihad, rather he believed that it must be
exercised by those who have knowledge and whose character can be fully relied
upon. In his emphasis on the qualifications of exercising ijtihad, Iqbal explained in
his Reconstruction, Iqbal suggested certain qualifications as follows;
1. Knowledge of Islam, deep understanding of the ultimate aims of its ideology,
institutions and politics.
2. Understanding of the modern problems that beset the Muslim world.
3. Closeness to the Prophet’s way and understanding of his methods and approach.
4. Reliable moral character so that decisions may be looked upon with respect.

Ijtihad by Legislative Assembly

Since there is an acute shortage of such specialists who are qualified to exercise
ijtihad, Iqbal observed that a committee of people should be formed which includes
Islamic scholars as well as those who have a good knowledge of contemporary
problems and possess true Islamic character. Through their combined efforts, they
will be able to make some contributions to the reconstruction of the Islamic law as
well as fulfilling on an important need of society. Therefore, Iqbal suggested that the
ulama’ should be nominated to constitute a vital part of legislative assembly, helping
and guiding discussions on questions relating to law, along with contribution from
laymen who may happen to possess a keen insight into affairs. A body of ulama’ is
needed as the assembly may face difficulties in understanding intricate points of
fiqh. In this way, they will reduce the possibility of erroneous interpretation
Iqbal clearly proposed the idea of transforming the right of ijtihad from individuals
to a legislative assembly, which then should be the sole law-making body on the
ground of expediency.

Iqbal about Sources of Ijtihad

Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Iqbal mentioned four sources of ijtihad; Quran, hadith, ijma’, and qiyas, in order to
prove the possibility of evolution within Islamic law when meeting new situations.
All those sources contain within them the potentialities of evolution when meeting
new situations. Therefore, it is important to highlight Iqbal’s views on these sources
of ijtihad for the purpose of illustrating the flexibility of Islamic law or shariah.

1. Qur’an
As the first source of ijtihad, according to Iqbal, contains not merely substantive
legal provisions, but also indicates the means by which it is to be interpreted and
supplemented. For example, the Quran insists that the Muslims should abide by
the decisions of the Prophet (p.b.u.h) whenever some differences arise among
them. Moreover, Iqbal regarded Quran as an embodiment of both the lofty moral
principles and positive legal rules. The uniqueness of this two-fold nature of the
Quran ensured the satisfaction of the needs of people. Apart from setting the
codes of law for guidance of the people, the Quran endows man with a
revolutionary outlook and awakens him with a unique insight into life, so that he
may reform and refashion his entire life in accordance with the spirit of Islam.
2. Hadith
Iqbal was critical to tradition or hadith as the second source of ijtihad, He
observed that hadith is not fully valid in changing times and places. On this
ground, Iqbal highlighted that Abu Hanifah, the founder of Hanafi school of law
did not practically make use of the hadith but preferred to use istihsan. However,
Iqbal did not mean to reject the validity of hadith altogether; rather suggested that
the study of hadith must be taken more seriously and critically.
3. Ijma
The third source of ijtihad is ijma’, and Iqbal considered it as the most important
legal notion in Islam. It is a process through which new values are established
and preserved in Islam. In ijma’, the mujtahidun agreed on a point of law and
such a consensus becomes a permanent source of law. Iqbal supported exercise
of ijma’ through legislative assemblies and gave its power to both the ulama’ and
the modern lawyers. He was conscious of the misleading and narrow
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

interpretation of the non ulama’, therefore, insisted on the vital participation of

the ulama’ in the Muslim legislative assembly
4. Qiyas
The last source of ijtihad elucidated by Iqbal is qiyas or analogical reasoning
which is the process of applying Islamic principles to local problems or to
changing conditions. Iqbal mentioned some of the early jurists who practiced
qiyas particularly Abu Hanifah. He said Abu Hanifah made a great use of
analogical reasoning in view of changing socioeconomic conditions, which arose
by the extension of Muslim states.

Iqbal’s Framerwork of Shura in Relation to Ijtihad

Ijtihad and shura are connected to each other and this connection existed during the
period of pious companions and caliphates, but it ceased to exist in later times. That
is the reason why Iqbal emphasized these two concepts in an attempt to evolve a
political system based on Islamic ideals and values, rather than adopting Western
constitutional principles.
Iqbal wanted to bring back the concept of shura as practiced in the early period of
Islam. He emphasized that the authority to interpret shariah is the right of the entire
ummah. Iqbal defined shura as the opinion of the whole ummah with regard to affairs
of common interest which are conducive to the healthy development of the state.
According to him, the ummah should elect their representatives by means of a fair
and impartial election and these representatives should carry out the duty of the
interpretation of shariah. Therefore, Iqbal allocated the authority to interpret shariah
to elected representatives in Parliament or majlis-al-shura. He gives two reasons why
the authority for interpretation of shariah should only be made by elected
representatives in Parliament. First, followers of different schools of fiqh are unable
to perform ijtihad because they represent different point of views and may interpret
shariah according to their own school of fiqh meanwhile shariah is for the entire
Muslim community. Second, God has not delegated the right to interpret shariah to
any person or any sect but He has bestowed it to the entire ummah.
Pertaining to the members of majlis al-shura, Iqbal emphasized that they should
possess certain characteristics, thus, the task of shura should not be given to
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

incompetent people who are unable to run the affairs of the state. In conformity with
Islamic principles, Iqbal laid down the conditions for the members of majlis-al-
shura;
1. He should possess a firm and profound belief in the tenets of Islam.
2. He should possess integrity of character.
3. He should have reasonable knowledge and necessary understanding of the job
and responsibility which is being entrusted to him.
4. He should have not only a good intellectual personality, but also an impressive
physical personality.
5. Moreover, Iqbal added that the candidate must have the ability to understand
the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah, knowledge of modern science and
disciplines, and knowledge of international and national problems.
Task of Majlis e shura
Iqbal divided the tasks of majlis al-shura into three fields;
1. To amend existing laws so that they conform to Islamic injunctions.
2. To implement Islamic laws that are not being enforced,
3. To establish new laws that are not repugnant to the injunctions of Islam
In his framework of shura, Iqbal wanted to change the system used in the monarchial
period in which the ummah was deprived of the right to collective legislation. Only
a handful of jurists and kings used to perform ijtihad among them. For Iqbal, this is
not possible in the present democratic era and he claimed the right of the entire nation
to take part in this process. The process, according to Iqbal, will include participation
by the entire nation for the discussions and debates will take place publicly over any
issue. Therefore, the collective thinking of the entire nation eventually takes the
shape of a law.
He said, “the transfer of the power of ijtihad from individual representatives of
schools to a Muslim assembly is the only possible form ijma’ can take in modern
times”
Iqbal reminded that majlis-al-shura is significant for the Muslims as he saw it the
only possible legal form that ijma’ (consensus of opinion) can take in modern times.
The religious scholars of all various sects could sit together in the legislative
assemblies and thrash out their differences through ijma
Saad ur Rehman
Civil Engineer, COMSATS

Iqbal is, however, doubtful whether such an exercise could be possible in the non-
Muslim assemblies. Nevertheless, the question of non-Muslim

Conclusion
Iqbal was highly critical of the contemporary Islamic thought which had become
narrow, rigid, and static. He considered ijtihad to be the key to updating the legal,
political, and social institutions of Islam. For him, ijtihad is the intellectual method
to create an intellectual creativity among Muslims. Iqbal’s ideas are part of the
continuing tradition of Muslim intellectuals’ concern about the problem of
stagnation of religious thought among Muslims. He also rejected the classical
concept of shura as being the exclusive privilege of the ulama’. He wanted to give it
a new meaning by assuming shura as a consensus which should be derived from a
parliamentary system of an Islamic state government. Iqbal’s attempt at enlargement
of the scope of shura was to show the compatibility of Islam with the socio-political
institutions of modern age