Some Very Important VSAQ and SAQ from first year Botany for IPE

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What are the seven pairs of contrasting characters selected by Mendel for conducting crosses?
Ans:
Character Contrasting Traits
1. Shape of mature seed Round or Wrinkled
2. Colour of the cotyledons Yellow or Green
3. Colour of the seed coat White or Grey
4. Shape of ripe pods Inflated or Constricted
5. Colour of Unripe pods Green or Yellow
6. Position of flowers Axillary or Terminal
7. Length of stem Tall or Dwarf

2. In which cross would you obtain a 9:3:3:1 ratio for F2 Progeny. What is the test cross ratio of the
same cross.
Ans: Dihybrid cross. Test cross ratio is 1:1:1:1
3. Explain homozygous and heterozygous parents.
Ans: Individuals with similar genes for a character such as TT or tt for length of stem are
described as homozygous and the individuals with dissimilar genes for the character such as Tt
for length of stem are described as Heterozygous.
4. What are alleles? Give an example.
Ans: Alternative forms for a gene are called as alleles. Ex: The alleles for length of stem are T and
t.
5. Explain dominant character and recessive character
Ans: In a cross the character which is expressed in F1 generation is called as dominant and that
is concealed is called as recessive.
6. What is test cross?
Ans: Cross between a hybrid or unknown genotype with a recessive parent is called as test cross.
It helps in determining the individual as heterozygous or homozygous.
7. What cross is useful in determining the genetic purity of gametes? Show with an example.
Ans: Test cross. If it is done between an individual with Tt genotype and the recessive parent with
tt genotype, 50% of the individuals obtained will be tall and the remaining are dwarf.
8. Explain the terms Phenotype and Genotype
Ans: Physical appearance of a trait is called as Phenotype. Genetic make up of an individual is
called as genotype.
9. What phenotypic and genotypic ratios are expected in F2 generation when monohybrid and
dihybrid crosses are made?
Ans: Monohybrid cross : Phenotypic ratio is 3:1 and Genotypic ratio 1:2:1.
Dihybrid cross : Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1. Genotypic ratio is 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
10. What are mutations? Who discovered them?
Ans: Sudden inheritable change in an organism is called as mutation. They were discovered by
Victor Hugo de Vriese.
11. What is a mutant
Ans: Organism showing mutations is called as mutant.
12. What are mutagens?
Ans: Agents that cause mutations
13. How are mutations useful for crop improvement?
Ans: Mutations bring about genetic variability in crops. Some of them are desirable and such
plants are selected and further developed by hybridization.
14. Differentiate between spontaneous and induced mutations?
Ans: Mutations that occur themselves in nature are called as spontaneous mutations. Ex: GEB –
24 variety of Paddy. Mutations caused deliberately by using mutagens are called as induced
mutations.
15. What is linkage?
Ans: Coexistence of two or more than two genes on the same chromosome is called as Linkage.
16. What is crossing over? What is its significance?
Ans: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during pachytene of
meiosis is called as crossing over. It brings about variations in the offspring due to recombination.
It helps in natural selection and evolution.
17. Define chromosome maps
Ans: it is condensed graphic representation of the distance between the genes in a linkage group
expressed in the percentage of recombination, located in a single chromosomal group.
18. In which stage of cell does crossing over occur? What is its role in the origin of species?
Ans: Pachytene of Meiosis. It brings about variations in the off spring. Continuation of these
variations for several generations leads to origin of new species.
19. Name two amphibious plants
Ans: Limnophila heterophyllum, Typha
20. What are hydrophytes? Which type of tissue is responsible for buoyancy in hydrophytes?
Ans: Plants that live in water or water rich soils are called as hydrophytes. The tissue that helps in
buoyancy is Aerenchyma.
21. Distinguish succulents and non-succulents.
Ans: Succulents are those xerophytes in which either one more than vegetative organs become
swollen due to storage of water by the presence of mucilaginous parenchyma. These are drought
avoiding xerophytes. Non- succulents are true xerophytes without any water storage organs and
face the dry conditions both externally and internally.
22. What is biosphere? Name the Giant ecosystem
Ans: Biologically inhabited part of the earth consisting of all ecosystems of the world is called
biosphere. The earth is giant ecosystem.
23. Who recognized the importance of floral characters in Taxonomy? Why are floral characters more
useful than vegetative characters in classification?
Ans: Linnaeus. Floral characters show more variations and more stable than vegetative
characters.
24. Define artificial system of classification and give two examples.
Ans: Classification which is based on one or few easily comparable characters is called as
Artificial system of classifications. Ex: Theophrastus classification of plants into Herbs, Shrubs
and Trees in Historia Plantarum. Linnaeus classification of plants based on androecium and
Gynoecium characters.
25. What is epicalyx? Give the scientific name of one plant in which it is present.
Ans: It is whorl of bracteoles present below the calyx. Ex: Hibiscus
26. Write the characters of Gynoecium in Solanaceae.
Ans: Gynoecium has bicarpellary syncarpous bilocular (Solanum) or Unilocular (Capsicum) or
tetralocular (Datura) ovary with ovule on swollen placental axis on axile placentation. Style is
terminal and stigma capitate.
27. Define Population and Community.
Ans: Population is a group of similar individuals of a species living in an area. Community is a
group of different species living under same climatic conditions.
28. Define communities? Who classified plant communities into hydrophytes, mesophytes and
xerophytes.
Ans: Community is a group of different species living under same climatic conditions. They are
classified by Warming based on dependence on water
29. What are succulents? Discuss briefly different types of succulents.
Ans: Plants which absorb large quantities of water during rainy season and store in their organs in
the form of mucilage are called as succulents or drought avoiding plants. These may be stem
succulents as in Opuntia, Root succulents as in Asparagus, Ceiba and Leaf succulents as in
Bryophyllum and Aloe.
30. Name two free floating hydrophytes with offsets.
Ans: Pistia, Eichhornia
31. Name the alkaloids obtained from Capsicum fruitescence and Nicotiana tabacum.
Ans: Capsine from Capsicum and Nicotine from Nicotiana
32. Name the two plants of Malvaceae that lack epicalyx.
Ans: Abutilon, Sida
33. Who discovered living cells? Name the first discovered living organism
Ans: Leeuwenhoek, Bacteria
34. What is meant by apposition and intussusception?
Ans: Apposition is increase in thickness of the cell wall due to deposition of cellulose fibrils one
upon the other to form the frame work.
Intussusception is increase in the area of the cell wall due to deposition of non-cellulose cell wall
materials between cellulose fibrils.
35. What is meant by unit membrane and what is its approximate thickness?
Ans: Any biological membrane with bimolecular lipid zone surrounded by monomolecular protein
zones is called as unit membrane by Robertson. Its thickness is 75A0.
36. What is the role of golgi complex in cell division?
Ans: During cell division the vesicles of Golgi are involved in the formation of cell plate at the
equatorial region which eventually forms the middle lamellum. In this way Golgi plays a role in
cytokinesis.
37. Name the cell organelle associated with photorespiration? Who discovered it?
Ans: Peroxisome, Rhodin
38. Explain the terms Karyotype and Idiogram.
Ans: Characteristic chromosome complement of a given species which depicts the number,
morphology of chromosomes is called as karyotype. Its Diagrammatic representation is called as
Idiogram.
39. What are nucleosomes? What are they made of?
Ans:These are units of chromatin. They consists of 8 Histone proteins belonging to 4 types known
as H2A, H2B, H3, H4 and two coils of DNA.
40. Differentiate nucleotide and nucleoside.
Ans: A nucleotide is unit of nucleic acid consisting of a nitrogen base, phosphate and a pentose
sugar. A nucleoside is nucleotide without phosphate.
41. In a cell haploid chromosome number is 15. What number is found in Pollen grain, Zygote,
Primary endosperm nucleus and Colchicine treated zygote.
Ans: 15 in pollen grain, 30 in zygote, 45 in Primary Endosperm nucleus and 60 in colchicine
treated zygote.
42. What is the significance of S-phase of cell cycle?
Ans: During S phase there is doubling of DNA due to semiconservative replication of DNA. The
two chromatids of chromosomes are formed at the end of this stage.
43. Define mericarp
Ans: It is each fruit unit seen in Schizocarpic fruits like Lomentum and Schizocarp.
44. If there are 16 chromosomes in the cell of an angiospermic plant, how many chromosomes are
there in the perisperm and endosperm cell
Ans: 16 in perisperm as it is diploid and 24 in endosperm as it is triploid
45. What is Epicotyl and Mesocotyl?
Ans:The region of Tigellum present above the cotyledons is called Epicotyl. The region present
between the cotyledonary node and Coleoptile is called as Mesocotyl.
46. Bisexual flowers are present in both Clerodendron and Scrophularia. Still cross pollination takes
place. How?
Ans: In clerodendron the androecium attains maturity earlier than gynoecium and in Scrophulria
the gynoecium attains maturity earlier than androecium.
47. Difine self sterility. Give an example
Ans: It is failure of germination of pollen grains on the stigma of the same flower. Ex: Orchids,
Passiflorea, Abutilon
48. What are the cells found in the egg apparatus of matured embryosac?
Ans: Two synergids and one egg cell
49. What is microsporogenesis? Where does it occur in angiosperm?
Ans: It is formation of microspores from microspore mother cell upon reduction division. It occurs in
the microsporangium of Anther.
50. What is meant by Monosiphonous and Polysiphonous pollen grains? Give examples.
Ans: Pollen gains that form single pollen tube are monosiphonous. Ex: Solanum. Which form more
than one pollen tubes are Polysiphonous. Ex: Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae
51. What is syngamy? Who discovered it?
Ans: Syngamy is fusion of male and female gametes. It was discovered by Strasburger.
52. Name any two plants having sensitive stigmas
Ans: Mimulus, Martynia
53. How Parasara’s Krishi Parasaram and Vrikshayurveda are useful for Botany?

Ans: Krishiparasaram was the first book on Agriculture and provides information about weeds.
Vrikshayurveda has information about medicinal plants, 14 types of forests and external and internal
characters of Plants.

54. What was the contribution of Carolus Von Linnaeus for the development of Botany?

Ans: He contributed for the development of botany by effectively following binomial nomenclature and
proposing classification rules and sexual system of classification. He is regarded as father of
taxonomy.

55. Who invented Electron Microscope and what was its use?

Ans: Knoll and Ruska invented Electron Microscope. It is used to know the finer details of the cell

56. To which family the petro plants belong and give an example.
Ans: Petro plants belong to family Euphorbiaceae. Example is Jatropa

57. Differentiate between Phycobiont and Mycobiont.

Ans: Phycobiont is algal partner of a Lichen. It synthesizes food materials and gives to the plant.
Mycobiont is fungal partner of Lichen and it protects the alga and supplies absorbed water and
nutrients to the fungus.

58. Which group of Plants are called Amphibians of the plant kingdom and give an example.
Ans: Bryophytes are called as Amphibians of the Plant Kingdom. Example is Funaria.
59. Name the plant organs that grow positively geotropic and positively phototropic manner.
Ans: Roots grow positively geotropically and Stem grows positively phototropically.
60. What is the use of Palaeobotany? In our country which organization is under taking these studies
and where is it located.
Ans: Palaeobotany helps in understanding the course of evolution in plants. Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany undertakes these studies and it is located in Lucknow.

61. Name the branches of Botany that deal with chlorophyllous and non-chlorophyllous heterotrophic
thallophytes.
Ans: Phycology deals with Chlorophyllous thallophytes and Mycology non-chlorophyllous thallophytes.
62. Define Phytogeography
Ans: it is Study of distribution of plants on this planet.
63. What are assimilatory roots? Give two examples.
Ans: Modified green adventitious roots that help in assimilation of carbon dioxide are called as
assimilatory roots. Examples are Taeniophyllum, Tinospora.

64. What is a complete root parasite? Give an example.

Ans: A complete parasite is achlorophyllous, establishes haustorial connection with both xylem and
Phloem of the host to absorb both mineral water and organic food materials from the host plant.
Ex: Orobanche

65. What are fasciculated roots? Give two examples.

Ans: Tuft of storage adventitious roots are called as fasciculated roots. Ex: Asparagus, Dahlia

66. Which underground stem modification does not possess roots? Mention its scientific name.
Ans: Stem tuber is the underground stem modification that does not possess roots. Solanum
tuberosum is its scientific name.

67. Which aerial stem modification is concerned with vegetative propagation? Give two examples.
Ans: Bulbils. Ex: Agave americana, Dioscoria bulbifera

68. What is cladophyll? How does it differ with Phyloclade?

Ans: Cladophyll is a green axillary, aerial branch of one or few internodal length arising in the axil of
scale leaf. It differs with Phylloclade in being always axillary and showing limited growth.

69. Define aereole and give an example.

Ans: Aereole is elevated region on the Phylloclade of Opuntia which represents a node and consists
of spinous modified leaves. The spines are normal spines and hair like spines known as barbs.

70. How do differentiate Bulb from Pseudobulb?

Ans: A bulb is underground modified stem whose leaves store food materials where as pseudobulb is
aerial modified stem of Bulbophyllum which stores food materials and has few leaves.

71. Name the sub-aerial stem modification seen in free floating aquatic plants. How does it help in
vegetative propagation?
Ans: Off-set is the sub-aerial modified stem seen in free floating hydrophytes. It is brittle and has
leaves and roots at its only node. When broken accidentally, it is separated from parent plant and can
lead independent life.

72. What is stipule? Which type of stipules are found in Ipomoea quamoclit?
Ans: Stipules are two small lateral appendages of leaf present on both sides of leaf base. Ipomoea
quamoclit has branched stipules.

73. Compare paripinnate and imparipinnate compound leaves.

Ans: Parpinnate compound leaves have leaflets in pairs (Even number of leaflets) and imparipinnate
compound leaf has atleast one unpaired leaflet (odd number of leaflets) at the apex of rachis.

74. Compare opposite superposed and opposite decussate phyllotaxy.

Ans: Both types have two leaves at every node. In superposed type, the successive pairs of leaflets
are arranged one above the other in the same plane. In decussate type one pair of leaves at one
node are perpendicular to pair of leaves at the next node.

75. What is the nature of phyllode in Acacia melanoxylon and Parkinsonia.

Ans: In Acacia melanoxylon, Petiole is modified into Phyllode and in Parkinsonia, secondary rachii are
modified into phyllodes.
76. Name the special inflorescence which has a single flower and many male flowers. What are its
cymose characters?
Ans: The inflorescence is Cyathium. The male flowers are arranged in scorpioid cymes.
 (Continued from Vidya Page 28-2-2010)

K. Vani Manohar
Senior Faculty,
Sri Chaithanya Vidya Samsthalu,
Hyderabad

Some Very Important VSAQ and SAQ from first year Botany for IPE
Very Short Answer Questions

77. What are the modifications of bracts, bracteoles and perianth lobes in a compound spike.
Ans: In compound spike, bracts are modified into sterile Glumes and fertile Lemma, Bracteoles as
palea, and perianth lobes as Lodicules.

78. What are gall flowers? In which inflorescence are they found.
Ans: Gall flowers are sterile female flowers. They are found Cyathium inflorescence.

79. Define anterior and posterior sides of flower.

Ans: The side of the flower facing the bract is anterior side and facing the axis is posterior side.

80. What is Polygamous condition and give two examples.

Ans: Polygamous condition is presence of male, female and bisexual flowers on the same plant.
Ex: Mangifera, Polygonum

81. Define marcescent and acrescent calyx and an example to each.

Ans: Persistant calyx that does not show development after fertilization is marcescent calyx. Ex:
Solanum melongena. Persistant calyx that shows development even after fertilization is called as
Acrescent calyx. Ex: Physalis

82. What are the three types of styles? Give examples.

Ans: The three types of styles are 1. Terminal – Ex: Datura, 2. Lateral – Ex: Mangifera, 3.
Gynobasic – Ex: Ocimum

83. Differentiate between fascicular cambium and interfascicular cambium.

Ans: Cambium present between xylem and Phloem of primary dicot stem bundles is called as
fascicular cambium and the cambium dedifferentiated from medullary rays region present
between adjacent vascular cambium is called as interfascicular cambium. Fascicualr cambium is
primary meristem and interfascicular is secondary meristem.
84. Explain the terms wood and Bast.
Ans: Wood is secondary xylem and Bast is secondary phloem formed from vascular cambium.
85. How do spring wood and autumn wood differ from one another.
Ans: Spirng wood has more broad, thin walled tracheary elements and extensive and autumn
wood has few, narrow and thick walled tracheary elements in a given annual ring.
86. Differentiate Duramen and Alburnum
Ans: Duramen is dark colored with tyloses and useless for conduction but has timber value.
Alburnum is recently formed, light coloured secondary xylem without naturally formed tyloses
useful for conduction but not having timber value.
87. Differentiate between Phellum and Phelloderm
Ans: Phellum or Cork is dead tissue formed from phellogen towards outside of the axis and
consists of lenticels for exchange of gases. Phelloderm or secondary cortex is living
photosynthetic tissue with intercellular spaces formed inside from cork cambium and less in
amount.
88. What are bulliform cells? What is their role?
Ans: Specialised larger epidermal cells seen in the upper epidermis of grass leaves which store
water are called as bulliform cells or motor cells. They help in rolling and unrolling of lamina.
89. What are bundle sheath extensions? What is their role?
Ans: The extensions of bundle sheath of leaf towards adaxial and abaxial sides of leaf are called
as bundle sheath extensions. They help in conduction and providing mechanical strength.
90. Differentiate eustele and atactostele
Ans: In Eustele the vascular bundles are arranged regularly in the form a ring as in dicot stem. In
atactostele the vascular bundles are scattered in the ground parenchyma as in monocot stem.
91. Where do you find protoxylem lacuna? How are they formed?
Ans: They are found in the vascular bundles of monocot stem. They are formed due to crushing of
protoxylem vessels during the course of development.
92. What is exodermis? What is its function.
Ans: Suberised peripheral region of root cortex is called as exodermis. It provides mechanical
strength and prevents the leakage absorbed mineral water.
93. What is conjunctive tissue?
Ans: The parenchymatous or sclerenchymatous tissue present between the xylem and phloem of
radial vascular bundles of roots is called as conjunctive tissue. Due to its presence the vascular
bundles are described as separate vascular bundles.
94. How do you identify a meristem cell and permanent cell under microscope.
Ans:
Meristem cell Permanent cell
1. Smaller in size Larger
2. Has only primary wall Only primary wall or both primary and secondary
wall
3. Intercellular spaces are absent Present or absent
4. Has dense cytoplasm with many minute Has sparse protoplasm with peripheral nucleus
vacuole randomly arranged and central nucleus due to presence of central vacuole.

95. What is chlorenchyma? What is its function?

Ans: Parenchyma with chloroplasts is called as Chlorenchyma. It carries out photosynthesis.
96. Name the living mechanical tissue? What is its function?
Ans: Collenchyma. It helps in providing mechanical strength in aerial parts of dicots. If green, it
carries out photosynthesis. Sometimes it is meristematic and gives rise cork cambium in dicot
stems at the time of secondary growth.
97. What are flax fibres?
Ans: these are phloem fibres obtained from Linum. They have only cellulose and used in textile
and cordage industry.
98. Why tracheids are less efficient than vessels in conduction
Ans: Tracheids do not have uniform diameter, overlapped on each other at the ends and have
solid cross walls. Vessels have uniform diameter, perforated cross walls and their elements are
not overlapped but arranged one above the other.
99. What is guttation?
Ans: it is loss of water in the form liquid through hydathodes.
100. Differentiate laticiferous vessels and cells.
Ans: laticiferous cell is smaller, less efficient and coenocyte. Laticiferous vessel is formed by the
union of latex cells. It is more efficient and called as syncytium.

Short Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on storage roots
Ans: Modified roots that become swollen due to accumulation of excessive food materials are
called as storage roots. They may be developed from tap root or tap root system which appear in
conical shape in Daucus carotus, fusiform in Raphanus sativus and napiform in Beta vulgaris.
Singly occurring storage adventitious root at every node is seen in Ipomoea batatus and as group
known as fasciculated roots at the base of stem in the monocot Asparagus and dicots like Ruellia
and Dahlia.
Usually starch is stored in these roots. But inulin is stored in Dahlia and sugars in Beta vulgaris.
Plants grown for their roots are called as root crops. These are biennials. In the first year they
store food materials in their roots and in the second year they utilize the stored food materials for
flowering, fruiting and seed setting. Hence they must be harvested at the end of first year.

2. Differentiate Rhizome and corm

Ans:
Rhizome Corm
1. Grows horizontally in the soil Vertically in the soil
2. Has adventitious roots at the nodal region on Has adventitious roots at the basal region and
the ventral side. sometimes on the lateral side
3. shows dorsiventral differentiation No such differentiation.
4. Has smaller apical bud Larger apical bud
5. Contractile roots or pull roots are absent Present.
Ex: Curcuma, Zingiber, Musa, Canna, Gloriosa Ex: Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Colchicum

3. Define phylloclade and describe it.

Ans: Phylloclade is an aerial modified stem or branch with several internodes whose axis
becomes green colored to perform photosynthesis. It may be cylindrical as in Casuarina or flat as
in Opuntia and Cocoloba. It may be succulent or non-succulent. It has modified leaves in the form
of spines as in Opuntia or scale leaves as in Casuarina. In Opuntia the leaves of axillary buds are
 modified as a cluster of two types of spines at every node known as areole. This type of
modifications reduce transpiration and an adaptation of xerophytes.
4. Write short notes on leaves that help in vegetative reproduction
Ans: Leaves which have epiphyllous buds help in vegetative reproduction. Such leaves are called
as reproductive leaves. In Bryophyllum, notches of leaf margins have epiphyllous buds which
upon shedding strike adventitious roots and develop into new plants. In Scilla, epiphyllous buds
arise at the leaf tip and in Begonia from the wounded regions of leaf.
5. What are insectivorous plants and describe the mechanism of insect trapping in Nepenthes.
Ans: Plants that fulfill their nitrogen requirements by digesting the insects are called as
insectivorous plants. Nepenthes is commonly called as Pitcher plant. It has petiole whose lower
portion is green, expanded and photosynthetic, upper part is modified into tendril to climb over the
support. The lamina is modified into pitcher like structure and leaf apex as attractive lid. Rim of
the pitcher has nectaries. Inner surface has digestive glands and downwardly bent hairs.
The lid attracts the insect. The insect alights on the rim and in the attempt of sucking
the nectar it slips into the pitcher which is filled with digestive fluid rich in Pepsin. The downwardly
bent hairs do not allow the insect to climb up. The insect is drowned and the pepsin digests the
protein component of insect body which is absorbed by the cells of pitcher.

6. Compare head and cyathium inflorescences.

Ans:
Head Cyathium
1. It is racemose inflorescence that looks like a It is special inflorescence that looks like single
single flower flower
2. Bracts of involucre are free or fused Fused to form cup like structure
3. Flowers are sessile Pedicellate
4. Flowers are arranged in centripetal manner Centrifugal manner
5. Chlamydeous unisexual or both unisexual and Unisexual flowers are achlamydeous.
bisexual flowers
6. Nectaries are not present on the involucre Present on the involucre

7. Write short notes on single fruit like inflorescence.

Ans: Hypanthodium is fruit like inflorescence. The peduncle is condensed, fleshy cup like hollow
structure with an apical opening. The flowers are small, sessile unisexual and monochlamydeous.
Inner surface of peduncle has fertile male flowers at the basal region, above them sterile female
flowers (Gall flowers) and at the top male flowers. Opening of flowers is not in a definite order. Ex:
Ficus species

8. Describe various types of symmetry of flower based on the arrangement of floral parts.
Ans: On the basis of this character, floral symmetry is of the following three types.
I. Spiral : The free sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are arranged spirally over
the conical or convex thalamus. Ex: Magnolia
II. Hemispiral: Sepals and Petals are in cycles. Stamens and Carpels are arranged
in spiral manner over the conical or convex thalamus. Ex: Annona, Polyalthia.
III. Cyclic: All the four floral parts are arranged in cycles over the thalamus.
Ex: Hibiscus, Datura
9. Describe various types of aestivations with the help of suitable examples.
 Ans: Arrangement of perianth lobes in bud condition is called as aestivation. They are of the
following types.
I. Valvate: Perianth lobes of cycle are arranged side by side but not overlapped. Ex:
Calyx of Hibiscus and Datura.
II. Twisted: It is also known as contorted or convolute aestivation. In this each
perianth lobe has one overlapped and one underlapped margin. Ex: Corolla of
Datura and Hibiscus.
III. Ascending imbricate: In this the overlapping of perianth lobes is from anterior to
posterior with one anterior one completely outside, three of them with one margin
inside and one margin outside and the posterior odd one completely inside. Ex:
corolla of Caesalpiniaceae.
IV. Descending Imbricate: In this the overlapping of perianth lobes is from posterior
to anterior. Ex: Corolla of Fabaceae.
V. Quincuncial: It has one opposite pair of perianth lobes completely inside, one
opposite pair completely outside and the remaining one has one margin inside
and one margin outside. Ex: Calyx of Ipomoea and Catharanthus.
10. Describe adhesion of stamens
Ans: Fusion of stamens with other floral parts like sepals, petals, stamens and carpels is called as
adhesion. It is of the following types.
I. Epipetalous: Stamens are fused with the petals. Ex: Hibiscus, Datura
II. Episepalous: Stamens are fused with sepals. Ex: Grevillea
III. Epiphyllous: Stamens fused with undifferentiated perianth lobes. Ex: Asparagus
IV. Gynostegium: Stamens fused with the stigma of gynoecium. Ex: Calotropis
11. What is placentation? Describe the various types of placentation in plants.
Ans: It is arrangement of ovules in the ovary. Part of the ovary from which ovules arise is called
as placenta. Placentation is of the following types.
I. Marginal placentation: Ovules are borne along the ventral suture of unilocular
monocarpellary ovary. Ex: Dolichos
II. Parietal placentation: Ovules are borne on the inner surface of ovary wall where
the margins of adjacent carpels are fused. Ex: Brassica, Cucurbita.
III. Axile placentaton: In this, the ovules are attached to a central axis present in the
bilocular to multilocular ovary. Ex: Hibiscus
IV. Free central placentation: It is formed from axile placentation. It is fomed due to
dissolution of septal walls which makes the ovary unilocular leaving free placental
axis with ovules at the centre. Ex: Dianthus
V. Superficial placentation: Ovules arise all over the inner surface of each locule of
multilocular ovary. Ex: Nymphaea
VI. Basal placentation: One or few ovules arise from the base of the unilocular ovary.
Ex: Tridax, Helianthus.
12. Describe the structure of anther with the help of a neat diagram
Ans: Structure of anther is clearly understood in the transverse section of anther. In the T.S. of a
dithecous anther the two thecae are joined by connective consisting of sterile tissue. Each theca
has two locules representing the microsporangia which are separated by a strip of sterile tissue
known as partition wall. The two main parts of anther are anther wall and sporogenous tissue.
Anther wall: It consists of Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layers and Tapetum.
Epidermis: It is single layered and protective in function. It has relatively thin walled smaller cells
between microsporangia of same theca forming stomium. Stomium shows the signs of
degenearation by the time meiosis takes place in microspore mother cells.
Endothecium: It is hypodermal in position. It is hygroscopic and consists of fibrous thickenings
made of cellulose and helps in dehiscence of anther.
Middle layers: These are 1-5 layered, thin walled and ephemeral structure.
Tapetum: It completely surrounds the sporogenous tissue. Its cells have prominent nuclei and
dense cytoplasm. It nourishes the sporogenous tissue. It is completely used by the time the
anther shows dehiscence.
 Sporogenous tissue: It is fertile tissue. Its cells divide and redivide to form microspore mother
cells which undergo meiosis to form haploid microspores in tetrads which later separate from
each other and liberated individually. Individual microspores are called as pollen grains.
13. Describe the structure of ovule with the help of neat labeled diagram
Ans: Ovules are seen in flowering plants. In Gymnosperms they are exposed and in angiosperms
they are enclosed.

Typical ovule has a stalk known as Funiculus and ovule body. Body has diploid mass of tissue
called as nucellus covered by one or two protective coverings called as integuments. The region
where the body is in contact with the funiculus is called as Hilum. The narrow passage left
uncovered by the integument is called as micropyle. Part of the funiculus which fuses on the
lateral side of ovule body forming a ridge is called as raphe. Within the nucellus, the embryosac is
embedded. The region of ovule where the nucellus, integuments and funicle unite is called as
chalaza. The ovules may be unitegmic with single integument as in Asteraceae and Solanaceae,
bitegmic with two integuments as in Monocots and Polypetalae and ategmic without integuments
as in parasites such as Balanophora, Loranthus.
14. Explain dichogamy
Ans: Dichogamy is maturation of androecium and gynoecium of a bisexual flower at different
periods. It is of two types known as Protandry and Protogyny.
Protandry: Androecium attains maturity earlier than gynoecium. It is most common type of
dichogamy. Ex: Gossypium, Helianthus, Clerodendron.
Protogyny: Gynoecium attains maturity earlier than androecium. Ex: Solanum, Colchicum
15. What is zoophily? Mention the four kinds of zoophily with examples.
Ans: Pollination by animals is called as zoophily. The four types are as follows
1. Entomophily: it is pollination by insects. Ex: Cestrum
2. Ornithophily: Pollination by birds. Ex: Bignonia
3. Malacophily: Pollination by Snails and slugs. Ex: Aroideae
 4. Cheiropteriphily: Pollination by bats. Ex: Kigelia pinnata
16. Describe double fertilization in angiosperms.
Ans: Occurrence of two types of fertilizations in the same embryosac is called as double
fertilization. It was discovered by Nawaschin in Fritillaria and Lilium. It is a feature of angiosperms.
The two fertilizations are Syngamy and Triple fusion.
Syngamy: It is fusion of one of the male gametes with the egg cell to form zygote. It is also known
as true fertilization or zygotic fertilization. It was discovered by Strasburger in Polygonum.
Triple fusion: It is fusion of second male gamete with the diploid secondary nucleus or two haploid
polar nuclei to form triploid Primary Endosperm Nucleus. It was discovered by Nawaschin in
Fritillaria and Lilium. PEN develops into endosperm.
17. Describe the various outgrowths of seed.
Ans: The outgrowths of seed are Caruncle and Aril.
Caruncle: It is developed from integumentary cells of micropylar region. It is spongy and helps in
absorbing water during seed germination. It is seen in Euphorbiaceae members. Ex: Ricinus
communis
Aril: It is outgrowth of seed developed from funiculus or hilum. It is considered as third
integument. It is dissected and completely surrounds the seed in Myristica. It is commonly called
as mace and is used as spice. In Pithecalobium, it is edible and spongy.
18. Explain false fruits with examples
Ans: Fruits developed from non-ovarian part of the flower are called as false fruits. They are
always associated with true fruits. Ex: Anacardium occidentale, Pyrus malus
In Anacardium, the pedicel becomes fleshy, juicy edible part. In Pyrus malus, the thalamus
becomes fleshy. It is edible and completely surrounds the false fruit.
19. Write short notes on aggregate fruits.
Ans: Fruits developed from bi or multicarpellary apocarpous ovaries are called as aggregate
fruits. Ovary of each carpel develops into a small fruit called as fruitlet. All the fruitlets are
attached to a common pedicel. Such group of fruitlets attached to common axis is called as
etaerio. In plants like Annona all the fruitlets are fused and form single fruit like structure. Based
on the nature of pericarp, they are etaerio of berries as in Polyalthia and Artabotrys, Etaerio of
achenes as in Naravalia and Nelumbo, etaerio of follicles as in Magnolia and etaerio of drupes as
in Rubus.
20. Write short notes on multiple fruits.
Ans: Multiple fruits are developed from inflorescence. These are of two types known as Sorosis
and Syconus.
1. Sorosis: It is developed from Spadix, Spike and Catkin inflorescences. In
Morus and Casuarina, it is developed from catkin. In Ananas, it is developed
from spike. In Artocarpus, it is developed from spadix.
2. Syconus: it is developed from hypanthodium inflorescence. Each female
flower develops into an achene. The fleshy part is peduncle.Ex: Ficus
species.
21. Write about the events of Pachytene and mention the significance of this phase.
Ans: Events of Pachytene:
1. The two chromatids of chromosome are clearly seen. Each bivalent has 4 chromatids and
known as Pachytene tetrad. Chromatids of the same chromosome are called as Sister chromatids
and that of different chromosomes as non-sister chromatids.
2. The arms of non sister chromatids are broken transversely by the action of Endonuclease and
the broken pieces are reciprocally united by Ligase. In this way the genetic material exchanged
and the phenomenon is called as Crossing Over.
3. The cross shaped structures seen at the place of crossing over are called as Chiasmata.
Significance: Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic characters. This is responsible for
the origin of new species which is one of the causes of evolution.
22. Describe the molecular model of DNA in brief as given by Watson and Crick.
Ans: 1. DNA is double helical structure resembles a twisted ladder.
2. Each strand shows 5'→ 3' polarity and one strand is antiparallel to the other. Every strand has
deoxyribonucleotides.
3. Each nucleotide has a Deoxyribose sugar, Phosphate and a nitrogen base. Backbone of the
strand is made of alternately arranged Sugar and phosphate with diester bonds between them.
4. The nitrogen bases are Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) as Pyrimidines and Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G) as purines.
5. Thymine of one strand pairs with Adenine of another strand by forming 2 hydrogen bonds
between them. Similarly G pairs with C and forms 3 hydrogen bonds.
6. Length is variable but the diameter is 20Ao. Length of each spiral is 34Ao and consists of 10
base pairs. The angle between the successive nucleotides of the same strand is 36o.
23. Give an account on suicidal bags of the cell.
 Ans: These are Lysosomes. They have single unit membrane and formed from E.R. and Golgi
complex. These were discovered by de Duve. They are rich in hydrolytic enzymes and play a role
in digestion.
Freshly formed lysosomes are called as Primary lysosomes. Lysosomes associated with food
vacuoles are contents of the same cell as secondary lysosomes and lysosomes with undigested
left over particles as residual bodies or telolysosomes.
Since lysosomes can destroy the contents of the same cell they are called as Suicidal bags of the
cell.
24. Describe Plasma membrane with reference to Fluid Mosaic model.
Ans: Fluid Mosaic model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson. This model states that plasma
membrane is semi-solid. It has bimolecular fluid like lipid zone in which the solid like proteins are
embedded in mosaic manner. The proteins may be either superficially present over the lipid
bilayer (Peripheral proteins) or embedded either completely or partially (Intrinsic proteins). This
model best explains the functions of plasma membrane. Hence it is most acceptable model.
25. Describe the essential organs of Malvaceae
Ans: Androecium: Stamens are many, epipetalous, monadelphous, anthers are reniform,
monothcous, extrorse, dorsifixed, transverse dehiscence and pollen grains are large, spherical,
spiny and polysiphonous.
Gynoecium: It has tri or Penta (Hibiscus) or multicarpellary syncarpous equal number of locular
superior ovary with ovules on axile placentation. Style is terminal and stigma is capitate and
lobed. Lobes may be either equal or double the number of carpels.
26. Mention the economic importance of Solanaceae.
Ans: 1. Stem tubers of Solanum tuberosum, fruits of Solanum melongena, Capsicum,
Lycopersicon are used as vegetables.
2. Capsicum powder is used as spices and dried chillies are used as condiments.
3. Leaves of Solanum surattense and Datura are used for curing Asthama. Seeds of Solanum
nigrum have medicinal value.
4. Leaves of Atropa have Atropine alkaloid and has medicinal value.
5. Rejuvenating tonic is obtained from roots of Withania.
6. Species of Cestrum and Petunia are ornamentals.
7. Fruits of Physalis are edible.
27. Explain binomial nomenclature.
Ans: It is naming an organism by using two words. The first word denotes the generic name in
noun form and started with capital letter. The second word denotes the species name in adjective
form and started with small letter. Binomial should be in latin and printed in Italics.
28. Enumerate the morphological adaptations of Hydrophytes.
Ans: 1. Roots are either absent (Wolffia, Ceratophyllum) or poorly developed (Hydrilla). Rooted
hydrophytes have root caps but not others. Free floating hydrophytes may have Root pockets as
in Pistia and Eichhornia. Balancing roots are seen in free floating hydrophytes.
2. Stem may be long and slender as in submerged forms like Hydrilla and Potamogeton. Offsets
are seen in free floating forms. Rhizome is seen in rooted hydrophytes with floating leaves like
Nymphaea and Nelumbo.
3. Leaves are ribbon like in Vallisneria, linear in Potamogeton, finely dissected in Ceratophyllum,
large and flat with flexible elongated petioles, having waxy coating on the upper surface in
Nymphaea, Victoria, Nelumbo. Swollen and spongy petioles in Eichhornia and Trapa.
29. Enumerate the morphological adaptations of Xerophytes.
Ans: 1. Root system is well developed with more lateral roots with root caps and root hairs.
2. Stem may be stunted and woody with thick bark. Stem may be underground in some. Stem is
succulent, green phylloclade which stores water and performs photosynthesis as in Opuntia. In
some stem is covered with waxy coating as in Calotropis.
3. Leaves are reduced to scales as in Casuarina or spines as in Opuntia. Leaflets are small in
Acacia. Phyllodes are seen in Acacia melanoxylon and Parkinsonia. Leaves may be succulent as
in Aloe and Bryophyllum. Leaf surface is shiny as in Calotropis.
29. With the help of labeled diagram give an account of the cell organelle which is generally referred
as Cell brain.
Ans: Nucleus is the controlling centre of the cell that consists of chromosomes. Structurally it has
four parts known as Nuclear envelope, Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus and Chromatin.
 Nuclear envelope: It is covering of nucleus present around the nucleoplasm. It has two unit
membranes called outer membrane and inner membrane between which a cavity called
perinuclear space is present. It has pores called nuclear pores which control the exit and entry of
materials into the nucleus. Outer membrane is in contact with endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear
envelope disappears during prophase and reappears during anaphase.
Nucleoplasm: It is protoplasm of nucleus. It is homogenous semisolid substance. It has
glycoproteins, ribonucleoproteins, hydrolases, DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase and chromatin
material.
Chromatin material: The deeply stained network like substance found in nucleoplasm is called
chromatin material. It has DNA and histone proteins. During division, the chromatin transforms
into thick structures called chromosomes.
Nucleolus: These are spherical, deeply stained bodies found in the nucleoplasm. These were
discovered by Fontana. These are also called as Plasmosomes. Chemically these are composed
of RNA, proteins and little DNA. It forms ribosomes. It is associated with chromosome at
secondary constriction. It also disappears in Prophase and reappears in telophase.
30. Describe the cell organelle which is responsible for the synthesis of starch.
The cell organelle responsible for the formation of starch is Chloroplast. It was discovered by
Sachs and named by Schimper. It is usually disc shaped or Biconvex or Oval or spherical.

Structurally it consists of envelope, stroma and thylakoids.

Envelope has two unit membranes known as outer membrane and inner membrane between
which a cavity called periplastidial space is present. Stroma is the enzymatic region surrounded
by inner membrane. It has dark reaction enzymes, circular DNA, RNA, 70S ribosomes, thylakoids
and starch grains. Since it has circular DNA and ribosomes it can synthesize some of its proteins
and can replicate by itself. Hence it is called as semiautonomous cell organelle. Thylakoids are
flattened sac like structures present in the stroma. They have pigment molecules such as
chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobilins in their membrane associated with proteins to form
Photosystems. It is involved in Light reaction. A stack of thylakoids is called granum and the
unstacked thylakoids that connect the adjacent grana are called as Stroma thylakoids.
31. Give an account on the structure and function of tRNA
Ans: Transfer RNA is the smallest among the RNAs. It is also known as adaptor RNA or decoding
RNA or soluble RNA. It accounts for 10 – 15% of total cellular RNA. It consists of 80 – 90
nucleotides. Its molecular weight is 25,000 daltons. Its clover leaf model was given by Holley. It
shows that it has 5 arms. The 1st arm is amino acid attachment arm with free ends and consisting
of CCA bases at the 3' end. Opposite to it is anticondon arm with a loop consisting of anticodon
complementary to codon. There are 61 anticodons and hence 61 types of tRNA. The second arm
recognizes the enzyme amino acyl tRNA synthetase, the 5th one the ribosome. The 4th arm is
variable arm with no known significance.
tRNA brings the aminoacids to the surface of ribosomes at the time of protein synthesis.

32. Describe the metaphase of Mitosis

Ans: Metaphase is the second stage of karyokinesis of mitosis. In this the karyotype of an
organism is determined. In this the spindle is totally organized. Chromosomes are in highly
condensed state and aligned at the equatorial region to form equatorial plate with their
centromeres. The chromosomal arms are directed towards the poles. Its spindle has three types
of spindle fibres formed by tubulin. They are continuous fibres extended from one pole to the
other, chromosomal fibres attached to centromere of chromosomes and interzonal fibres
suspended at the equatorial region (actually an artifact). The chromatids of chromosomes and the
kinetochores of centromere are clearly visible.
33. Write the characters of meristems and briefly write about apical meristems.
Ans: Characters of meristems:
1. Cells are small, isodiametric, cubical or polyhedral.
2. Cells are immature and young.
3. Intercellular spaces are absent
4. Cell wall is thin and cellulosic.
5. Cytoplasm is dense with several vacuoles.
6. Nucleus is prominent at the centre of cell.
7. Mitochondria and Lysosomes are abundant.
8. Excretory materials are absent.
9. Cells show active metabolism.
Apical meristems: These meristems are present at the tip of root, stem and its branches and
contribute for linear growth of the plant and produce the aerial other appendages. These are long
lasting.
34. Explain various kinds of sclereids with examples
Ans: Sclereids are relatively short sclerenchyma cells which occur either singly or in groups in
various parts of the plant body. They are of the following types.
1. Brachysclereids: These are short, isodiametric and resemble parenchyma cells. They are
found in all most all parts of the plant body. Ex: Pyrus communis, Cocos nucifera
2. Macrosclereids: These are elongated rod shaped cells that appear like palisade beneath the
epidermis of fabaceae seeds. These are also known as Malpighian cells. Ex: Dolichos lab-lab,
Pisum sativum
3. Osteosclereids: These are bone shaped sclereids with broad bulged ends present in the
leaves (Hakea) and cotyledons of dicots (Mouriria).
4. Astrosclereids: These are branched sclereids that resemble star. Ex: Nymphaea
5. Filiform sclereids: These are long and slender thread like sclereids usually found in leaves.
Ex: Olea
6. Trichosclereids: These are branched hair like sclereids that are extended into even
intercellular spaces. Ex: Leaves of Olea and aerial roots of Monstera
35. How many types of secretary cavities are there? Explain with examples
Ans: There are two types of secretary cavities known as Lysigenous cavities and Schizogenous
cavities.
1. Lysigenous cavities: These are formed by the lysis of secretary cells. The cavities are
surrounded by ruptured layers of cells. Ex: Oil cavities of Citrus and Eucalyptus.
2. Schizogenous cavities: These are formed by enlargement of intercellular spaces present
between secretary cells. The lining layer of cells is called as epithelium.
Ex: Pinus resin ducts.
36. Explain the law of segregation and law of independent assortment proposed by Mendel
Ans: 1. Law of Segregation: This law shows that the two alleles of a gene when present together
in a heterozygous state, do not fuse of blend in any way, but remain distinct and segregate during
meiosis or in the formation of gametes. Due to this each meiotic product of F1 hybrid or gamete
will carry only one the alleles. Segregation of genes is seen in all sexually reproducing organisms.
2. Law of Independent Assortment: Base on the results of dihybrid cross in pea plant, Mendel
proposed this law. It indicates that when the plants differ from each other in two or more pairs of
contrasting characters or factors, then the inheritance of one pair of factors is independent to that
of other pair of factors.
37. Explain back cross with an example. What ratio does it give?
Ans: Back cross is cross between F1 hybrid of monohybrid cross with one of the parents or
individuals resembling the parents. If the F1 hybrid is crossed with the dominant parent, no
recessive individuals are obtained in the progeny. If crossed with the recessive parent the
dominant and recessive individuals are obtained in 1:1 ratio.
1) F1 ♀ Tt X TT ♂
 ↓
TT (tall homozygous) , Tt (Tall heterozygous)

2)
F1 ♀ Tt X tt ♂
↓
tt (dwarf homozygous) , Tt (Tall heterozygous)

38. What are mutations? Explain the types of mutations.

Ans: Mutation is sudden inheritable change in an organism. The various types of mutations are
1. Spontaneous mutations: These occur by themselves in nature and are very slow. Ex:
Delicious apple.
2. Induced mutations: Mutations caused deliberately by using some mutagens. These are widely
used in crop improvement. The mutagens may be physical like radiation or chemical like
colchicines, EMS, MMS, Formaldehyde etc.
3. Chromosomal mutations: Mutations caused due to change in structure and number of
chromosomes. The structural changes are deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations
and numerical changes such as Euploidy polyplids and aneuploids such as Monosomy,
Trisomy, Tetrasomy, Nullisomy.
4. Gene mutations or Point mutations: It takes place in a small segment of DNA molecule i.e. a
single nucleotide or a nucleotide pair.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain dihybrid cross performed by Mendel on pea plant. Mention the law of independent
assortment.
2. Explain briefly the intrastelar changes that occur during secondary growth in a dicot stem.
3. Describe the internal structure of Dicot stem
4. Describe the internal structure of Monocot root.
5. Write an essay on dry fruits.
6. Describe the process of fertilization in Angiosperms
7. Describe the structure of embryosac of angiosperm that is ready for fertilization with the help of
neat labeled diagram.
8. Describe various types of root modifications
9. What are multipurpose modified stems? Describe with suitable examples.
10. Describe various types of sub-aerial stem modifications.