Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

Reg No.
Agni College of Technology

Thalambur, Chennai 600 130
Office of Examcell¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬
Internal Test_I Answer key
Sub Name: WR&IE QP Set: SET-A
Sub Code : CE 6703 Department: CIVIL
Date: Year & Sec: IV
Timing: 10:00 pm to 1:00 pm Max Mark: 100 Marks
PART – A (11 x 2 = 22Marks)
Answer Any Eleven questions.
1. Define Irrigation.
The process of artificially supplying water to soil for raising. It is science of
planning and designing an efficient, low cost, economic irrigation system to fit
natural condition.
2. What is crop period?
The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting is called crop period.
3. What is base period?
The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its
last watering before harvesting is called the base period
4. Define duty of water?
It is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of crops it
matures is called duty of water.
5. Define delta of a crop?
Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed interval of
time, through its period of growth is called delta of a crop.
6. What is mean by consumptive use of water.
Evapo transpiration (or) consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth of
water consumed by evaporation and transpiration during crop growth
including water consumed by accompanying weed growth.
7. What is meant by canal escape?
Canal escapes are the safety valves of canals &must be provided at regular
intervals depending upon the importance of channel& availability of suitable
drainage for the disposal of the exposed water.
8. State various kinds of dams.
Earth dams
Rock fill dams
Solid masonry gravity dams
Timber dams
Steel dams
[1]
Arch dams
9. Define gross commanded area.
It is the total area bounded with in the irrigation boundary of a project. It
includes the cultivable as well as uncultivable areas.
1 Define diversion headwork.
Any hydraulic structure, which offers water to the offtaking canal, is called
0.
diversion headwork.
1 Define Canal lining
An impermeable layer is provided at the bed and sides of canal to improve the
1.
life and discharge capacity of canal known as canal lining.
1 What are all the forces acting on gravity dam ?
 Water pressure
2.
 Weight of dam
 Uplift pressure
 Pressure due to earthquake
 Ice pressure
 Wave pressure
 Silt pressure
1 What is rotation period?

The time interval between two such consecutive watering is called frequency
3.
irrigation.
1 What is called effective rainfall?
Precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is available to
4.
meet the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop, is called effective rainfall.
1 What is meant by evaporation.
Evaporation is the transfer of the water from the liquid to vapour state. The
5.
rate of evaporation from water surface is proportional to difference between
the vapour pressure at the surface and the vapour pressure over laying air.
1 What is mean by transpiration.
It is the process by which plants dissipate water from the surface of their
6.
leaves, stalks and trunks in the process of growth.
1 State diff types of spillways.
1.straight drop spillway
7.
2.ogee spillway
3.trough spillway
4.side channel spillway
[2]
5.shaft spillway
6.syphon spillway
1 What is tank sluices?
It is an opening in the form of culvert under the tank bund and supplying water
8.
to the distributory channel.
1 What are the types of earthen dams.
1.homogeneous embankment type
9.
2. zoned type
3. diaphragm type.
2 What are the types of aeration tanks.
1.air diffusion
0.
2.mechanical aeration
3.combined
PART – B (6 x 13 = 78Marks)
21. What are the merits and demerits of irrigation? [13]
¬
DEFINITION OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually used
to assist the growing of crops in dry areas and during periods of
inadequate rainfall.
THE NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION
 India is basically an agricultural country, and all its resources depend
on the
 agricultural
 Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life.
 Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains.
 However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either
insufficient, or ill-timed.
 In order to get the maximum yield, it is essential to supply the
optimum quantity of water, and to maintain correct timing of water.
 This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system-by
collecting water
[3]
 during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and
when it is needed.
Importance of Irrigation Engineering
 In the next 35-45- years, world food production will need to double to
meet the demands of increased population.
 90% of this increased food production will have to come from existing
lands.
 70% of this increased food production will have to come from irrigated
land
PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION
 Providing insurance against short duration droughts
 Reducing the hazard of frost (increase the temperature of the plant)
 Reducing the temperature during hot spells
 Washing or diluting salts in the soil Softening tillage pans and clods
 Delaying bud formation by evaporative cooling
 Promoting the function of some micro organisms
Objectives of irrigation
 To Supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need
 To Cool both the Soil and the Plant
 To Leach Excess Salts
 To improve Groundwater storage
 To Facilitate continuous cropping
 To Enhance Fertilizer Application
BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION
1. Increase in Crop Yield
2. Protection from famine
3. Cultivation of superior crops
4. Elimination of mixed cropping:
[4]
5. Economic development
6. Hydro power generation
7. Domestic and industrial water supply
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages:
1. Increase in food production
2. Optimum utilization of water for optimum benefits
3. General development of the country
4. Elimination of mixed cropping
5. Generation of hydroelectric power
6. Afforestation
7. Domestic water supply
8. Inland navigation
Disadvantages:
1. Pollution of underground water
2. Water – logging of the area
3. Creating unhealthy conditions in colder and damp places
4. Irrigation water may cause breading places of mosquitoes
5. Irrigation increases the expenditure of government
6. Gives rise to disease like malaria
7. Excessive seepage causes water-logging and
8. The climate becomes cooler and makes the locality damp resulting ill-
health of the public.
22. What are the factors affecting duty? Explain indetail. [13]
¬
FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY
(a) Type of soil
[5]
(b) Temperature and wind
(c) Rainfall and wind.
(d)Crop
(e) Method of cultivation.
(f) Water management.
(g)Climate and season
IMPROVING DUTY
Duty of water can be improved if water is used carefully.The following
efforts can be made
to improve duty:
1. The water losses can be reduced by having the irrigated area nearer to
the head of the canal.
2. Evaporation losses can be minimized by using the water as quickly as
possible.
3. Water losses can be minimized by lining the canals.
4. The cultivators should be trained to use water economically without
wasting.
5. The soil properties should be studied by establishing research stations
in villages.
23. What are the consumptive use of water? [13]
Consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth of water consumed by

the plant in the process of transpiration and evaporation, during crop
growth.
Transpiration is the process of water entering the plant roots and used
to build plant tissue.
Evaporation is the process of water evaporating from the adjacent soil,
water surface or from the surface of the leaves of the plant. Any water
deposited by dew or rainfall and subsequently evaporated without
entering the plant system is also part of evaporation.
[6]
These two processes (i.e. transpiration and evaporation) collectively
termed as evapo-transpiration.
Consumptive use of water by a crop is expressed as the depth of water
per unit area for specified period, such as days, months or seasons.
The value of consumptive use of water is needed to calculate the
irrigation requirement of the crop.
The values of consumptive use for a given crop at a given place can vary
widely from day to day.
There are a lot of factors which affects the consumptive use of water by
a crop. These are as given below.
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Wind Velocity
 Soil Topography
 Sunlight Hours
 Method of Irrigation
 Cropping Patterns
 Natural Ground Water Table
24 [13]
Write notes on
(i) Gross command area
(ii) Cultivable command area
(iii) Intensity of irrigation
(iv) Crop ratio and base period
Gross command area (GCA): This is defined as total area that can be
irrigated by a canal system on the perception that unlimited quantity of
water is available. It is the total area that may theoretically be served by
the irrigation system. But this may include inhibited areas, roads, ponds,
uncultivable areas etc which would not be irrigated.
Cultivable command area (CCA): This is the actually irrigated area within
[7]
the GCA. During any crop season, only a part of the CCA is put under
cultivation and this area is termed as cultivable cultivated area. The
remaining area which is not cultivated during a crop season is conversely
termed as cultivable uncultivated area.
Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of the irrigation
proposed to be
irrigated annually. Usually the areas irrigated during each crop season
(Rabi, Sharif, etc) are expressed as a percentage of the CCA which
represents the intensity of irrigation for the crop season. By adding the
intensities of irrigation for all crop seasons the yearly intensity of
irrigation to be obtained.
Crop-ratio: The ratio of the areas under the two crop seasons is called
crop-ratio.
Base period: The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of
its sowing and its last watering before harvesting is called the Base or
Base period of crop.
25. Write short notes on [8]

(i) Optimum Utilization of Irrigation Water
If a crop is sown and produced under absolutely identical conditions,
using different amounts of water depths, the yield is found to vary. The
yield increases with water, reaches a certain maximum value and then
falls down, as shown in figure. The quantity of water at which the yield is
maximum, is called the optimum water depth.
Therefore, optimum utilization of irrigation generally means, getting
maximum yield with any amount of water. The supplies of water to the
various crops should be adjusted in such a fashion, a to get optimum
benefit ratio, not only for the efficient use
1. Structural damage. Is there a danger of significant damage being
caused to dams, cmbankments, canal banks or other components of the
irrigation /drainage/flood control works, through the action of plants and
animals (including rodents and termites) favoured by the Project?
[8]
2. Animal imbalance. Does the Project cause zoological imbalances
(insects, rodents, birds and other wild animals) through habitat
modification, additional food supply and shelter, extermination of
predators, reduced competition or increased diseases?
The recommended approach for use of the environmental checklist
(table) is to prepare a detailed description for each of the checklist items
on the basis of collected information required for the purpose. Based on
these descriptions, the extent of the environmental effect is assessed
and a cross (x) is entered in one of the columns A to E. The total number
of crosses in each column of table gives an indication of the number of
responses in each category. However, these numbers should not be
given strict quantitative significance in assessing the overall balance of
positive and negative changes from the project since certain changes will
be far more important than other .
(ii) Net irrigation water requirement [5]
Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is the quantity of water

necessary for crop growth. It is expressed in millimeters per year or in
m3/ha per year (1 mm = 10 m3/ha). It depends on the cropping pattern
and the climate. Information on irrigation efficiency is necessary to be
able to transform NIWR into gross irrigation water requirement (GIWR),
which is the quantity of water to be applied in reality, taking into account
water losses. Multiplying GIWR by the area that is suitable for irrigation
gives the total water requirement for that area. In this study water
requirements are expressed in km3/year.
Calculations of irrigation water requirements are done while preparing

national water master plans or irrigation projects. Useful information was
obtained from a number of country studies available from AQUASTAT,
but the information was based on many different approaches. For the
purpose of this study the need was felt to develop a method of
computing irrigation water requirements for the whole continent in a
systematic way. In order to be able to do this at the scale of the
continent, assumptions have to be made on the definition of areas to be
considered homogeneous in terms of rainfall, potential evapo
transpiration, cropping pattern, cropping intensity and irrigation
efficiency.
26 Briefly explain about Canal irrigation. [13]
[9]
The role of Canal irrigation for modernization of irrigation in India is
great. Modern Canal irrigation is now conducted, controlled and
administered as a part and parcel of river valley projects.
They are planned to serve dual purpose effectively. They provide

irrigation facilities and control flood. Many of these river valley projects
are called multipurpose projects as they serve manifold benefits such as
flood control, irrigation and generation of power, etc.
The canal irrigation is of two types, namely: Inundation Canal and

Perennial Canal.
Inundation Canals
Inundation canals are taken out from the rivers. These canals do not
have any kind of weir at their head to regulate the flow of water from the
river. During rainy season, the river gets flooded and the flood water
overflows into these canals. Many canals of these types are found on the
Sutlej-Ganga plains and Brahmaputra valley. These canals constitute
simple flood water drainage system. The supply of irrigation water
through the inundation canal is dependent on the rainfall. Besides,
irrigation is restricted to the land lying on a level lower than the river
valleys. Moreover, during winter these canals are practically of no use. In
modern India, attempts are being made to convert them into perennial
canals with the help of river valley projects.
Perennial Canals
Perennial canals are those canals which maintain its flow of water
throughout the year even during winter season. These canals draw their
water either from rivers or from reservoir of the river projects. A weir is
built below the intake of the canal, the intake itself being regulated by
sluice gates.
Much more challenging than that of groundwater is the improvement of

performance of canal systems, which will remain the dominant water
transfer technique in developing countries in the future. The standards
used for design of irrigation canals in many countries have not kept up
with the development of new technologies. Most traditional delivery
systems have no or little flexibility built into them. Their control
strategies and control structures are inadequate for good water
management practices. Water deliveries at farm level are not compatible
[10]
with the key requirements of modern agriculture. Thoughts on how to
assess the performance of canal projects are evolving.
The engineering concept of efficiency at different levels of a canal

system is important for planning, designing and even operating a canal
irrigation system. However, water resources experts have criticised this
concept which could be misleading. These experts argue that seepage
losses contribute to the recharge of aquifers and losses from a project
can be recovered downstream if the water quality has not deteriorated
beyond certain limits. These arguments are valid when considering the
development of water resources at basin level or even at broader levels
when aquifers extend beyond basin boundaries. Advocates of water
conservation measures, such as canal lining, then respond that water
quality may decline in the recycling process, lands adjacent to canals
may be affected by water logging and salinization, and an important
volume of water can be lost from wasteland. Furthermore, farmers have
to support the cost of groundwater pumping to which opponents can
argue that farmers use groundwater more efficiently than canal water
which is too often unreliable. The application of water conservation
measures in irrigation can have negative or positive impact on third
parties. The theoretical debate is endless.
Efficiency alone is not a sufficient indicator to define the performance of

an irrigation system. Indicators of water productivity expressed in terms
of production or value of production per unit of water are very important
in increasingly water-scarce situation. A canal irrigation system may have
high conveyance efficiency with a minimum of seepage and operational
losses. However, if water delivery is too rigid or unreliable, there will be
considerable waste further down at the farm level. A water productivity
indicator provides a global indication of the effectiveness of water
conservation measures and of the quality of service provided to the
users, as well as the farm use of water and other inputs.
27. Define Canal falls. Explain its types briefly. [13]
Canal falls are solid masonry structure which is constructed on the canal
if the natural ground slope is steeper than the designed channel bed
slope. If the difference in slope is smaller, single fall cane be
[11]
constructed. If it is of higher then falls are constructed at regular suitable
intervals.
Location of Canal Falls

Location of canal fall depends upon the following factors
1. Topography of canal
2. Economy of excavation or filling
The above two will decide the location of canal fall across canal. By
understanding topographic condition we can provide the required type of
fall which will give good results. At the same time, the provided falls is
economical and more useful. So, economical calculation is also
important. Unbalanced earth work on upstream and downstream result
the project more uneconomical.
Types of Canal Falls and their Importance

The important types of falls which were used in olden days and those
which are being used in modern days are described below:
 Ogee falls
 Rapids
 Stepped falls
 Trapezoidal notch falls
 Well type falls
 Simple vertical drop falls
 Straight glacis falls
 Montague type falls
 English falls or baffle falls
Ogee Canal Falls
Ogee curve is the combination of convex and concave curves. So, Ogee
fall consists of both convex and concave curves gradually. This gradual
combination helps to provide smooth transition of flow and also reduce
the impact. If the canal natural ground surface is suddenly changed to
steeper slope, ogee fall is recommended for that canal. Stone pitching is
provided in the upstream and downstream of the fall.
[12]
Rapid Canal Falls

Rapid fall consists a long sloping glacis. It is constructed if the available
natural ground surface is plane and long. For this, a bed of rubble
masonry is provided and it is finished with cement mortar of 1:3 ratio. To
maintain the slope of bed curtain walls are provided at both upstream
and downstream. Rapid falls are high priced constructions.
[13]
Stepped Canal Falls

As in the name itself, stepped fall consist vertical steps at gradual
intervals. Stepped fall is the modification of rapid fall. It is suitable for the
canal which has it upstream at very high level as compared to
downstream. These two levels are connected by providing vertical steps
or drops as shown in figure.
[14]
Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls

In case of trapezoidal notch falls, a high crested wall is built across the
channel and trapezoidal notches are provided in that wall. Trapezoidal
falls are very economical and suitable for low discharges. Now a days
this type of falls are using widely because of their simplicity and
popularity.
Well Type Canal Falls

Well type falls are also called as syphon drop falls. In this case, an inlet
well with pipe at its bottom is constructed in upstream. The pipe carries
[15]
the water to downstream well or reservoir. If the discharge capacity is
more than 0.29 cumecs then downstream well is preferred otherwise
reservoir is suitable.
Simple Vertical Drop Falls (Sarda Type fall)

Simple vertical drop fall or sarda fall consists, single vertical drop which
allows the upstream water to fall with sudden impact on downstream.
The downstream acts like cushion for the upstream water and dissipate
extra energy. This type of fall is tried in Sarda Canal UP (India) and
therefore, it is also called Sarda Fall.
[16]
Straight Glacis Canal Falls
This is the modern type of construction, in which a raised crest is
constructed across the canal and a gentle straight inclined surface is
provided from raised crest to the downstream. The water coming from
upstream crosses the raised crest and falls on inclined surface with
sufficient energy dissipation.
Montague Type Canal Falls

Montage fall is similar to straight glacis fall but in this case the glacis is
not straight. It is provided in parabolic shape to introduce the vertical
component of velocity which improves the energy dissipation to more
extent.
English or Baffle Canal Falls
[17]
In this case, straight glacis fall is extended as baffle platform with baffle
wall. This is suitable for any discharge. The baffle wall is constructed
near the toe of the straight glacis at required distance in designed height.
The main purpose of the baffle wall is to create hydraulic jump from
straight glacis to baffle platform.
28 Explain in detail about types of dams. [13]
Various types of dams
Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of

classification of dams are mentioned below:
Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as follows:
Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy
season when there is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound
the spring runoff for later use in dry summers. Storage dams may also
provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They
may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a
flood control project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams
and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of
diverting water of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They
provide sufficient pressure for pushing water into ditches, canals, or
other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation,
and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A
diversion dam is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir
on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also
diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and
diversion dams are used synonymously.
[18]
Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A
detention dam retards the flow in the river on its downstream during
floods by storing some flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is
reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later
released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity
of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area
downstream of the dam is protected against flood.
Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand,
gravel, and drift wood flowing in the river with water. The water after
passing over a debris dam is relatively clear.
Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site
to exclude water so that the construction can be done in dry.
A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam constructed for facilitating
construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the upstream of the
main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the
construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during construction of
the dam is not much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and
pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is
also required.
Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from
concrete or stone masonry. They are designed to hold back large
volumes of water. By using concrete, the weight of the dam is actually
able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it. This is why
it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the
ground, stopping water from toppling it over.
Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow
gorge ways. Since gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold
back water, it is necessary that they are built on a solid foundation of
bedrock.
Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), ( Nagarjuna Sagar

Dam (India) and Itaipu Dam ( Between Brazil and Paraguay).
Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by

compacting successive layers of earth, using the most impervious
materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the
upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents
erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete,
protects against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the
dam. Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear
strength of the soil. Although the weight of the earth dam also helps in
[19]
resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely
different from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in
wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments).The foundation
requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence
they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong. They
can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam
will depend upon the strength of the foundation material.
Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia

Dam (USA).
Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of

large size. An impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the
upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam. The membrane is
usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In early rockfill
dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are
obsolete.
Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the
upstream side. An arch dam transfers the water pressure and other
forces mainly to the abutments by arch action. An arch dam is quite
suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of
resisting the thrust produced by the arch action.
Hoover Dam, USA
The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam

but the section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have a single
curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane. Generally, the arch
dams of double curvature are more economical and are used in practice.
Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki Dam (India)
[20]
Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii)
Multiple-arch type, and (iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam
consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses are
triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the
deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members.
Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre,
depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are
sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a
solid wall stretching across a river valley.The deck is usually a reinforced
concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually
equally spaced.
Buttress Dam
In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by

horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of
small span and made of concrete. In a massive-head type buttress dam,
there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the
buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance
between the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than
gravity dams. But they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams
because of extra cost of form work, reinforcement and more skilled
labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress dam are usually less
stringent than those in a gravity dam.
Examples of Buttress Dam: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson

Dam (Canada)
Steel Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin
plate on its upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types: (i)
Direct-strutted steel dams, and (ii)
[21]
Steel Dam
Cantilever type steel dams. In a direct strutted steel dam, the water
pressure is transmitted directly to the foundation through inclined struts.
In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting the upper part of
the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement
introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of
by anchoring it into the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested
that tension at the upstream toe may be reduced by flattening the slopes
of the lower struts in the bent. However, it would require heavier sections
for struts. Another alternative to reduce tension is to frame together the
entire bent rigidly so that the moment due to the weight of the water on
the lower part of the deck is utilised to offset the moment induced in the
cantilever. This arrangement would, however, require bracing and this will
increase the cost. These are quite costly and are subjected to corrosion.
These dams are almost obsolete. Steel dams are sometimes used as
temporary coffer dams during the construction of the permanent dams.
Steel coffer dams are supplemented with timber or earthfill on the inner
side to make them water tight. The area between the coffer dams is
dewatered so that the construction may be done in dry for the permanent
dam.
Examples of Steel Dam: Redridge Steel Dam (USA) and Ashfork-

Bainbridge Steel Dam (USA)
Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are

made of wood, primarily coniferous varieties such as pine and fir. Timber
dams are made for small heads (2-4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and usually have
sluices; according to the design of the apron they are divided into pile,
crib, pile-crib, and buttressed dams.
[22]
Timber Dam
The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the

sluice is very long it is divided into several openings by intermediate
supports: piers, buttresses, and posts. The openings are covered by
wooden shields, usually several in a row one above the other. Simple
hoists—permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise and lower the
shields.
29. Define Canal lining. Give its advantages. [13]
Canal lining
An impermeable layer is provided at the bed and sides of canal to
improve the life and discharge capacity of canal known as canal lining.
Generally seepage can result in losses of 30 – 40 % of irrigation water in
canals, so we can reduce the effect of seepage by providing lining to the
canal.
Advantages of Canal Lining:

An important reason for lining a canal can be the reduction in water
losses, as water losses in unlined irrigation canals can be high. Canals
that carry from 30 to 150 liters/sec can lose 10 to 15% of this flow by
seepage and water consumption by weeds. Lining a canal will not
completely eliminate these losses, but roughly 60 to 80% of the water
that is lost in unlined irrigation canals can be saved by a hard-surface
lining. 42 Canal lining Minimizing water losses is very important, and
especially so in schemes where irrigation water is pumped. Reduced
water losses means less water to pump and thus a reduction in pumping
[23]
costs.
Seepage reduction:
If canal banks are highly permeable, the seepage of water will cause very
wet or waterlogged conditions, or even standing water on adjacent fields
or roads. Lining of such a canal can solve this problem, since the
permeability of a lined canal bank is far less than that of an unlined bank,
or may even be zero, depending on the lining material.
Reduced canal dimensions:

The roughness – resistance to flow – of a lined canal is less than that of
an unlined canal, and thus the flow velocity will be higher in the lined
canal when the canal bed slope is the same. Moreover, the hard surface
of the lining material allows a higher velocity compared to an earthen
canal surface as it is not so easily eroded. As discussed earlier, canal
discharge is the product of the cross-section of a canal and the velocity
of the flow. Therefore, with the higher velocity allowable and obtainable
in lined canals, the canal cross-section for a lined canal can be smaller
than that of an unlined canal.
Reduced maintenance:
A surface lining, such as concrete, brick or plastic, on the canal prevents
the growth of plants and discourages hole-making by rats or termites,
and so the maintenance of a lined canal can be easier and quicker than
that of an unlined canal. Moreover, the higher velocity that can safely be
allowed in the lined canal prevents the small particles of soil carried in
the water from settling out, accumulating and causing siltation.
Above mentioned are the major uses of canal lining and some other uses
are:
 To avoid piping through and under channel banks

 To avoid water logging of adjacent land
 To reduce movement of contaminated ground water plumes
 To control vegetation in canals

[24]
30 Explain in detail about types of canal lining. [13]
Types of canal linings:
Mainly there are two types of canal linings:
1. Earthen type lining
2. Hard surface lining
Earthen type canal linings:

It is sub-divided into 2 major types:
Compacted earth lining
If suitable earthen material is available near the site of construction, or is
in-situ, a lining of compacted earth is an inexpensive and efficient means
of controlling seepage. Compaction reduces soil pore sizes by displacing
air and water. Reduction in void size increases the density, compressive
strength and shear strength of the soil and reduces permeability. This is
accompanied by a reduction in volume and settlement of the surface.
Proper compaction is essential to increase the stability and frost
resistance (where required) and to decrease erosion and seepage losses.
Soil cement lining

Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement
and water, which harden to a concrete-like material. The cement content
should be from 2-8% of the soil by volume. However, larger cement
contents are used. For the construction of soil-cement linings two
methods are in general use: (1) the dry-mix method and (2) the plastic
mix method. For erosion protection and additional strength in large
channels, the layer of soil-cement is sometimes covered with coarse soil.
It is recommended the soil-cement lining should be protected from the
weather for seven days by spreading approximately 50mm of soil, straw
or hessian bags over it and keeping the cover moistened to allow proper
curing. Water sprinkling should continue for 28 days following
installation.
Hard surface Canal linings:

It is sub divided into:
[25]
Cement concrete lining :
Concrete linings are widely used, with benefits justifying their relatively
high cost. They are tough, durable, relatively impermeable and
hydraulically efficient. Concrete linings are suitable for both small and
large channels and both high and low flow velocities. They fulfil every
purpose of lining.
There are several procedures of lining using cement concrete:
 Cast in situ lining

 Shotcrete lining
 Precast concrete lining
 Cement mortar lining
Brick lining:
The canal is said to be lined with bricks when the sides and bed are
protected with brick surfacing laid in cement mortar.
[26]
Plastic lining:
As a modern technique use of plastics in canal lining holds good
promise. There are three types of plastic membranes which are used in
canal lining, namely:
 Low density poly ethylene
 High molecular high density polythene
 Polyvinyl chloride
The plastic as a material for canal lining offers certain characteristic
advantages like negligible weight, easy for handling, spreading and
transport, immune to chemical action and speedy construction. The
plastic film is spread on the prepared subgrade of the canal. To anchor
the membrane on the banks ‘V trenches are provided. The film is then
covered with protective soil cover.
Boulder lining:
[27]
This type of lining is constructed with dressed stone blocks laid in
mortar. Properly dressed stones are not available in nature. Irregular
stone blocks are dressed and chipped off as per requirement. It makes
the type costly. When roughly dressed stones are used for lining, the
surface is rendered rough which may put lot of resistance to low.
Technically the coefficient of rugosity will be higher. Thus the stone
lining is limited to the situation where loss of head is not an important
consideration and where stones are available at moderate cost.
31 Write short notes on [13]

(i) Cash crops (ii) Available moisture (iii) Crop ratio (iv) Paleo
irrigation
(i) Cash crops
A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a
profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term
is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which
are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the
producer's family. In earlier times cash crops were usually only a small
(but vital) part of a farm's total yield, while today, especially in developed
countries, almost all crops are mainly grown for revenue. In the least
developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand
in more developed nations, and hence have some export value.
(ii) Available moisture

Available water capacity or available water content (AWC) is the range of
available water that can be stored in soil and be available for growing
crops.
Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a

material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, crops,
or wood. Water content is used in a wide range of scientific and technical
areas, and is expressed as a ratio, which can range from 0 (completely
dry) to the value of the materials' porosity at saturation. It can be given
on a volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis.
(iii) Crop ratio

Crop Ratio:- It is defined as the ratio of the land irrigated During the two
main crop season rabi and kharif.
Time Factor:- It is the ratio of number of days the canal has actually run
[28]
to the number of days of irrigation Period.
Capacity Factor:- It is the ratio of mean supply to the Full supply of a
canal.
(iv)Paleo irrigation
Paleo irrigation Sometims, in the initial stages before the crop is sown,
the land is very dry. Thisparticularly happens at the time of sowing of
Rabi crops because of hot September, when the soil may be too dry to be
sown easily. In such a case, the soil is moistened with water, so as to
help in sowing of the crops. This is known as Paleo irrigation.
32 Briefly explain about classification of canals? [13]

Classification of canals based on the function of canal
Classification of canals on the basis of their functions are given below:
1. Irrigation canal.
2. Navigation canal.
3. Power canal.
4. Carrier canal.
5. Link canal.
6. Feeder canal.
Irrigation canals
These are the canals which carry water to the fields. The canals
having outlets are called irrigation canals
For example
1. Distributory canals.
2. Minor canals.
These canals carry water to the fields. In these canals, the velocity of
flow is kept high so that the water may carry silt in suspension.
Navigation canal
These are the canals which are used to provide transport and voyage
facility from one city to the other or from one country to the other.
Main canal is navigation canal.
Power canal
The canals which are constructed to supply water with very high force to
[29]
the hydro electricpower station for the purpose of moving turbine to
generate electric power is known as power canal.
Main canal is also used as power canal.
Link canal
The canal that is from river to river is known as link canal.
For example
1. Sidhnai Malsi link canal in Pakistan.
2. Taunsa Panjand link canal in Pakistan.
These are the canals which are constructed to transfer water to the other
conveyance structure which contains in-sufficient quantity of water.
These transfer water from river to river system.
Carrier canal
Carrier canal is a canal which besides doing irrigation carries water for
another canal. It is a canal that is link canal and has outlet.
 Upper chenab canal in west Punjab in Pakistan is an example of
carrier canal.
These canals not only serve for irrigation but also provide the
link between two channels and serve to provide water to other
conveyance structure. The total flow through carrier canals is more than
the flow required for input to the other conveyance structure. The
excessive water is used to serve irrigation purposes.
Feeder canal
A feeder canal is constructed with the idea of feeding two or more
canals. When main canal is divided into two canals then it is called
as feeder canal.
Example
1. Lower chenab canal feeder.
2. Rajistan feeder canal and sidhnai canal.
These are constructed to provide water to other conveyance structures
and is not used for irrigation. These canals feed two or more canals.
***********
[30]

Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

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Agni College of Technology

1 What is rotation period?

23. What are the consumptive use of water? [13]

Consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth of water consumed by

(i) Gross command area

(ii) Cultivable command area

(iii) Intensity of irrigation

(iv) Crop ratio and base period

25. Write short notes on [8]

Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is the quantity of water

Calculations of irrigation water requirements are done while preparing

26 Briefly explain about Canal irrigation. [13]

They are planned to serve dual purpose effectively. They provide

The canal irrigation is of two types, namely: Inundation Canal and

Much more challenging than that of groundwater is the improvement of

The engineering concept of efficiency at different levels of a canal

Efficiency alone is not a sufficient indicator to define the performance of

27. Define Canal falls. Explain its types briefly. [13]

Location of Canal Falls

Types of Canal Falls and their Importance

Rapid Canal Falls

Stepped Canal Falls

Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls

Well Type Canal Falls

Simple Vertical Drop Falls (Sarda Type fall)

Montague Type Canal Falls

English or Baffle Canal Falls

28 Explain in detail about types of dams. [13]

Various types of dams

Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of

Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as follows:

Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), ( Nagarjuna Sagar

Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by

Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia

Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of

Hoover Dam, USA

The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam

In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by

Examples of Buttress Dam: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson

Examples of Steel Dam: Redridge Steel Dam (USA) and Ashfork-

Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are

The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the

29. Define Canal lining. Give its advantages. [13]

Advantages of Canal Lining:

Reduced canal dimensions:

 To avoid piping through and under channel banks

Earthen type canal linings:

Soil cement lining

Hard surface Canal linings:

There are several procedures of lining using cement concrete:

 Cast in situ lining

31 Write short notes on [13]

(ii) Available moisture

Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a

(iii) Crop ratio

32 Briefly explain about classification of canals? [13]

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