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UNIT III DIGITAL SIGNALING FOR FADING CHANNELS

Structure of a wireless communication link, Principles of Offset-QPSK, p/4-DQPSK, Minimum Shift
Keying, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, Error performance in fading channels, OFDM principle – Cyclic
prefix, Windowing, PAPR
PART A
1. List the advantages of digital modulation techniques. The advantages of digital modulation
techniques are:
i. Immunity to channel noise and external interference.
ii. Flexibility operation of the system. iii. Security of
information. iv. Reliable since digital circuits are used.
v. Multiplexing of various sources of information into a common format is possible.
vi. Error detection and correction is easy.
2. What are the factors that influence the choice of digital modulation?
The factors that influence the choice of digital modulation are:
i. Low BER at low received SNR.
ii. Better performance in multipath and fading conditions iii.
Minimum bandwidth requirement.
iv. Better power efficiency.
v. Ease of implementation and low cost.
3. Define offset QPSK and π/4 differential QPSK. (AU-Dec-2014) (Nov/Dec’17)
In offset QPSK the amplitude of data pulses is kept constant. The time alignment of the
even and odd bit streams are offset by one bit period in offset QPSK.
In π/4 QPSK, signalling points of the modulated signal are selected from two QPSK.
4. Define power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.
Power efficiency describes the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of
the digital message at low power levels.
ɳp = Eb/N0 = Bit energy / Noise power spectral density
Ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth is called
bandwidth efficiency. ɳB = R/B = Datarate / Bandwidth in bps/Hz
5. What is QPSK?
The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a 4-ary PSK signal. The phase of the
carrier in the QPSK takes 1 of 4 equally spaced shifts. Two successive bits in the data sequence
are grouped together. 1 symbol = 2 bits
This reduces bit rate and bandwidth of the channel.
Coherent QPSK = 2 x coherent BPSK system
The phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values such as π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and
7π/4 Constellations which are shifted by π/4 with respect to each other. It is differentially
encoded and detected so called π/4 differential QPSK.
6. What is meant by MSK? [AU May/June 2016]
A continuous phase FSK signal with a deviation ratio of one half is referred to as MSK. It
is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme.
7. List the salient features of MSK scheme. Salient features of MSK are:
i. It has constant envelope, smoother waveforms than QPSK.
ii. Relatively narrow bandwidth. iii. Coherent detection suitable for satellite communications.
iv. Side lobes are zero outside the frequency band, so it has resistance to co channel interference.
8. i.Why GMSK is preferred for multiuser, cellular communication? (AU-Dec 2014)

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It is a simple binary modulation scheme. Pre modulation is done by Gaussian pulse shaping
filter, so side lobe levels are much reduced. GMSK has excellent power efficiency and spectral
efficiency than FSK. For the above reasons GMSK is preferred for multiuser, cellular
communication. (or)
8. ii. Give the function of Gaussian filter in GMSK. (AU-Dec 2016)
GMSK, the side lobes of the spectrum are further reduced by passing the modulating NRZ
data waveform through a pre-modulation Gaussian pulse shaping filter. Base band Gaussian pulse
shaping is used to smooth the phase trajectory of the MSK signal and hence stabilizes the
instantaneous frequency variation over time. This has the effect of considerably reducing the side
lobe level in the transmitted spectrum.
9. How can we improve the performance of digital modulation under fading channels?
By the using of diversity technique, error control coding and equalization techniques
performance of the digital modulation under fading channels are improved.
10. Write the advantages of MSK over QPSK.
Advantages of MSK over QPSK:
i. In QPSK the phase changes by 90degree or 180 degree .This creates abrupt amplitude variations
in the waveform, Therefore bandwidth requirement of QPSK is more filters of other methods
overcome these problems , but they have other side effects. ii. MSK overcomes those problems.
In MSK the output waveform is continuous in phase hence there are no abrupt changes in
amplitude. 11. Define M-ary transmission system?
In digital modulations instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are
transmitted simultaneously. This is called M-ary transmission.
12. What is Quadrature modulation?
Sometimes two or more quadrature carriers are used for modulation. It is called quadrature
modulation.
13. What is QAM?
At high bit rates a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize the
errors in the received data. This method is known as “Quadrature Amplitude Modulation”.
14. Define QPSK
QPSK is defined as the multilevel modulation scheme in which four phase shifts are used
for representing four different symbols.
15. What is linear modulation?
In linear modulation technique the amplitude of the transmitted signal varies linearly with
the modulating digital signal. In general, linear modulation does not have a constant envelope.
16. Define non linear modulation.
In the non linear modulation the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regardless of the
variation in the modulating signals. Non-linear modulations may have either linear or constant
envelopes depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse shaped.
17. What is the need of Gaussian filter? (AU-Dec 2016) Need for Gaussian Filter:
i. Gaussian filter is used before the modulator to reduce the transmitted bandwidth of the signal.
ii. It uses less bandwidth than conventional FSK.
18. Mention some merits of MSK. (AU-May 2017) Merits of MSK:
i. Constant envelope ii.
Spectral efficiency iii. Good
BER performance. iv. Self-
synchronizing capability

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v. MSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and is particularly attractive for

use in mobile radio communication systems.
19. Give some examples of linear modulation. Examples of linear modulation:
i. Pulse shaped QPSK ii.
OQPSK
20. What are the techniques used to improve the received signal quality?
Techniques such as,
Equalization, Diversity, Channel coding is used to improve the received signal quality.

21. Define STCM.

Channel coding can also be combined with diversity a technique called Space- Time Coded
Modulation. The space-time coding is a bandwidth and power efficient method for wireless
communication.
22. Write short notes on OFDM. (or)
What is the basic advantage of using multicarrier schemes such as OFDM? (AU-May’17)
OFDM splits the information into N parallel streams which are modulated by N distinct carriers
and then transmitted. In order to separate the subcarriers by the receiver, they have to be
orthogonal. OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the many
advantages it provides,(a) Immunity to selective fading (b) Resilience to interference (c)Spectrum
efficiency
23. Why cyclic prefix? (Or) What is cyclic prefix? (AU-Dec 2016, AU Apr/May 2018)
In delay dispersive channel, inter carrier interference occur. To overcome the effect of inter
carrier interference and ISI, cyclic prefix is introduced. It is a cyclically extended guard interval
whereby each symbol sequence is preceded by a periodic extension of the sequence itself.
24. Find the 3-dB bandwidth for a Gaussian low pass filter used to produce 0.25 GMSK
with a channel data rate of Rb = 300 kbps (2 marks, AU Dec’2015). Sol: 0.25 GMSK is ,
T = (1/Rb) = (1/300*103) = 3.3 us.
25. An 900 MHz carrier signal is frequency modulated using a 100 kHz sinusoidal
modulating waveform. The peak deviation of the FM signal is 500 kHz. If this FM
signal is received by a superheterodyne receiver having an IF frequency of 5 MHz,
determine the IF bandwidth necessary to pass the signal (2 marks, AU Dec’2015).
Sol: Modulating frequency fm = 100KHz, Frequency deviation (∆f) = 500 KHz.
Modulation index (βf) = ∆f / fm = 500 k/ 100 k = 5. BT
= 2(βf + 1) fm = 2(5+1) 100 KHz = 1200KHz.
26. What is π/4 QPSK?
It is a Quadrature Phase Shift Keying technique which offers a compromise between
OQPSK and QPSK in terms of the allowed maximum phase transitions. It may be demodulated in
a coherent or non-coherent fashion. Here phase shift is limited to +/-135 degrees. It can be non-
coherently detected with a simple receiver. In presence of multipath spread and fading, π/4 QPSK
performs better than OQPSK.
27. What are widowing technique?
To reduce the PAP ratio, there are signal distortion techniques, which reduce the peak
amplitudes simply by nonlinearly distorting the OFDM signal at or around the peaks. The approach
is to multiply large signal peaks with a certain non-rectangular window. In Gaussian shaped
window is to minimize the out of band interference, ideally the window should be as narrowband
as possible.

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28. What is the PAPR? (or) Define PAPR. (AU Nov/Dec’17)

The peak power is defined as the power of a sine wave with an amplitude equal to the
maximum envelope value. A large PAP ratio brings disadvantage like an increased complexity of
the A/D and D/A converters and a reduced efficiency of the RF power amplifier. To reduce PAP
ratio, there are signal distortion techniques like clipping, peak windowing, peak cancellation,
forward-error correcting code and scrambling technique.
29. Draw the constellation diagram for offset QPSK modulation scheme. (AU-Apr/May’18)
PART B
1.i. Explain in detail the generation & detection of MSK technique? (16 Marks)[AU-Nov/Dec15]
Principle of MSK
MSK transmitter block diagram &explanation
MSK receiver block diagram &explanation.
(or)
ii.What is MSK? Also derive the expression of MSK signal as a special type of FSK signal
and explain its power spectral density. (AU-Dec 2016)(Nov/Dec’17)

2. Explain in detail the generation & detection of GMSK modulation? (16 Marks) (AU-Dec 2015)
[AU Nov/Dec 2015] [AU May/June 2016]
• Principle of GMSK
• GMSK transmitter block diagram &explanation
• GMSK receiver block diagram &explanation
3. Write short notes on M-ary QAM & M-ary FSK. (16 Marks)
• Principle & generation of M-ary QAM
• Principle & generation of M-ary FSK
4. Explain the performance of digital modulation in slow flat fading channel.(16 Marks)
Explanation & comparison of digital modulation
• Performance results for ASK,FSK,QPSK,MSK.
5. Draw and explain the structure of wireless communication link. (16 Marks)
6. Explain the generation, detection and bit error probability of QPSK technique.(16 Marks)
(or) Describe with neat diagram, the modulation technique of QPSK. List the advantages and
applications of BFSK. (15 Marks, AU Nov/Dec’17)
7. Explain in detail OQPSK and π/4-DQPSK linear digital modulation technique.
[AU May/June 2016] (or)
What is offset-QPSK? What is its advantage? Describe the offset-QPSK scheme.
[6 Marks, AU May 2017]
8. A zero mean sinusoidal message is applied to a transmitter that radiates an
AM signal with 10 kW power. Compute the carrier power if the modulation index is 0.6.
What percentage of the total power is in the carrier? Calculate the power in each sideband
(6 marks, AU Dec’2015)
9. Draw the basic arrangement of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing transceivers and
discuss its overall operation. (16 Marks)
10. Write short notes on OFDM principle – Cyclic prefix, Windowing and PAPR. (or) Describe
OFDM scheme and state the reason behind using cyclic prefix in OFDM scheme. What is
PAPR? Why is it normally larger in a OFDM technique? (8 Marks, AU May’17)
11. Explain the error performance in fading channels. (10 Marks, AU May’17)

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12. Why is constant envelope modulation schemes such as MSK and GMSK used in a wireless
communication system? Compare and contrast these two modulation techniques.
(8 Marks, AU May’17)
13. Prove that the OFDM system converts the delay spread channel into a set of parallel fading
channels, using the concept of cyclic prefix. (13 Marks, AU May 2018)
14. Derive bit error rate for binary phase shift keying modulation for frequency flat fading
channels. (13 Marks, AU May 2018)

UNIT IV MULTIPATH MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

Equalization – Adaptive equalization, Linear and Non-Linear equalization, Zero forcing and LMS
Algorithms. Diversity – Micro and Macro diversity, Diversity combining techniques, Error probability in
fading channels with diversity reception, Rake receiver,
PART A
1. How the link performance can be improved?
Link performance can be improved by various techniques such as
i. Equalization ii.
Diversity iii.
Channel coding
2. Why diversity and equalization techniques are used?
To reduce ISI, Equalization technique is used. Diversity is used to reduce fading effects.
3. What is diversity? Why is it employed? (AU-May 2017)
Signal is transmitted by more than one antenna via channel. It ensures that the same
information reaches the receiver on statistically independent channels. Diversity is used to
compensate the fading channel impairments and is usually implemented by using two or more
receiving antennas. Diversity improves transmission performance by making use of more than one
independently faded version of the transmitted signal.
1. What is Macro diversity? (AU-Dec 2016)
The diversity technique that combat large scale fading (i.e. fading due to shadowing effect)
is called macro diversity. The simplest method for macro-diversity is the use of frequency repeaters
that receive the signal and retransmit an amplified version of it.
5. Define spatial diversity. (AU Nov/Dec-2017)
The most common diversity technique is spatial diversity, whereby multiple antennas are
strategically spaced and connected to a common receiving system. While one antenna sees a signal
null, one of the other antenna may sees a signal peak, and the receiver is able to select the antenna
with the best signals at any time.
6. Define Switched Diversity
If the signal level falls below the threshold, then the receiver switches to a new antenna
which is called as switched diversity. 7. Define feedback or scanning diversity.
All the signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one signal is found to be above a
predetermined threshold. 8. Define temporal diversity.
Wireless propagation channel is time variant, so for sufficient de correlation, the temporal
distance between antennas must be at least the half of maximum Doppler frequency.
9. What is meant by frequency diversity?
Correlation is increased by transmitting information on more than one carrier frequency.
Frequencies are separated by more than one coherence bandwidth of the channel. So the signals
will not experience same fades.
10. What is transmit diversity?

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Diversity effect is achieved by transmitting signals from several transmit antenna.

11. What is an equalizer?
Equalizer is a linear pulse shaping circuit which is used to reduce ISI.
12. What is the need of equalization?
Equalization can be used to compensate the Inter Symbol Interference created by multipath
within time dispersion channel.
15. Define adaptive equalization? [AU May/June 2016] (or)
Why is adaptive equalizer required? (AU-May 2017)
To combat the effect of Inter Symbol Interference due to multipath, the equalizer
coefficients should change according to the channel status so as to track channel variations. Such
an equalizer is called an adaptive equalizer since it adapts to the channel variations
14. What is linear and non-linear equalizer? (AU-Dec 2016)
Linear equalizer: the current and past values of the received signal are linearly weighted
by the filter coefficients and summed to produce the output. No feedback path is used. Simple and
easy to implement. Not suitable for severely distorted channel. Noise power signal is enhanced.
Nonlinear equalizer: If the past decisions are correct, then the ISI contributed by present
symbol can be cancelled exactly, feedback path is used. Suitable for severely distorted channel.
Noise power signal is not enhanced. Complex in structure. channels with low SNR. Suffers from
error propagation.
15. Define diversity concept.
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong signal.
By having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the
receiver may be improved often by as much as 20dB to 30dB. The principle of diversity is to ensure
that the same information reaches the receiver on statistically independent channels.
16. Define training mode in an adaptive equalizer?
First, a known fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter then the receivers
equalizers may adapt to a proper setting of minimum bit error detection where the training
sequence is a pseudo random binary signal or a fixed and prescribed bit pattern.
17. What is tracking mode in an adaptive equalizer?
Immediately following this training sequence the user data is sent and the adaptive
equalizer at the receiver utilizes a recursive algorithm to evaluate the channel and estimate filter
coefficients to compensate for the distortion created by multipath in the channel.

18. Write a short note on linear equalizers and non linear equalizers?
Linear equalizers: If the output d(t) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer.
This type of equalizers is called linear equalizer.
Nonlinear equalizers: If the output d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the
equalizers is called non linear equalizers.
19. Why non linear equalizers are preferred?
The linear equalizers are very effective in equalizing channels where ISI is not severe. The
severity of the ISI is directly related to the spectral characteristics. In this case that there are spectral
noise in the transfer function of the effective channel, the additive noise at the receiver input will
be dramatically enhanced by the linear equalizer. To overcome this problem non linear equalizers
are used.
20. What are the nonlinear equalization methods used?
Commonly used non linear equalization methods are:

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i. Decision feedback equalization ii.

Maximum likelihood symbol detection iii.
Maximum likelihood sequence estimation
21. What are the factors used in adaptive algorithms?
Rate of convergence, Maladjustments, Computational complexity
22. List the different types of Channel coding techniques? (AU Dec 2014)
Channel coding protects digital data from errors by selectively introducing redundancies in the
transmitted data. Codes used to detect error – error detection codes, codes that can detect and
correct errors – error correction codes.
Block codes – Hamming codes, Golay codes, Cyclic codes, Bose-Chaudhuri- Hocquenghem
Codes (BCH), Reed-Solomon codes; Convolution codes, Trellis codes and Turbo codes etc.,
23. Differentiate between Macrodiversity and Microdiversity? (AU Dec 2014)
Macrodiversity Microdiversity
It is used to prevent deep fades produced due to It is used to prevent deep fades produced due to
large scale fading (fading due to shadowing small scale fading
effects).
Reception Methods: Selection and Combining Reception Methods: Spatial diversity, temporal
diversity. diversity, frequency diversity, angular diversity,
polarization diversity.

24. What is a RAKE receiver?

Since there is useful information in the multipath components, CDMA receivers may combine the
time delayed versions of the original signal transmission in order to improve the S/N ratio at
receiver. The receiver attempts to collect the time-shifted version of the original signal by
providing a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.
25. Recall LMS algorithm.
Since a adaptive equalizer compensates for an unknown and time-varying channel, it requires a
specific algorithm to update the equalizer coefficients and track the channel variations. LMS
algorithm is used to minimize the Mean Square Error (MSE) between the desired output and the
actual equalizer output.
30. Recall Zero-forcing algorithm.
Since a adaptive equalizer compensates for an unknown and time-varying channel, it requires a
specific algorithm to update the equalizer coefficients and track the channel variations. Here the
equalizer coefficients are chosen to force the samples of the combined channel and equalizer
impulse response to zero at all but one of the NT spaced sample points in the tapped delayed line
filter. By letting the number of coefficients increases without bound, an infinite length equalizer
with zero ISI at the output can obtained.
31. Remember diversity combining technique.
In combining diversity, all copies of the signal are combined and the combined signal is
decoded. Each signal copy is multiplied by a weight and then added up. There are two methods of
diversity combining technique, i. Maximum Ratio Combining ii. Equal Gain Combining.
32. What are the error probabilities in fading channels with diversity reception?
For large values of average S/N ratio, (Γ), the error probability equations are,
Pe,PSK=(1/4 Γ), Pe,FSK=(1/2 Γ), Pe,DPSK=(1/2 Γ), Pe,NCFSK=(1/ Γ),
Pe,GMSK=(1/2)[1- √(δΓ/ Γ+1)], δ = 0.68 for BT = 0.25, δ = 0.85 for BT = infinty
33. Define STCM. (AU Nov/Dec’17)

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Space-Time Coded Modulation combines channel coding with diversity technique. The
space-time coding is a bandwidth and power efficient coding for wireless communication. 34.
Design a three tap zero forcing linear equalizer so that the output is, (AU May 2018)

and for the input

35. Distinguish between diversity gain versus array gain. (AU Apr/May 2018)

PART B
1. Analyze various diversity techniques used in wireless communication. [AU May 2016] .[Nov’17]
2. Explain about linear, non-linear equalization technique. .[ AU Nov/Dec 2015] [AU
May/June 2016] .[ AU Nov/Dec 2017]
3. Explain the followings (i) Micro diversity (ii) Macro diversity (or) Diversity combining
techniques. (AU Dec 2014)
4. Explain in detail the speech coding techniques.
5. Explain the working principle of linear predictive coder
6. Explain the working principle of RAKE Receiver? [AU June 2016] (AU May 2017) (or)
With relevant diagrams explain Rake receiver. Also discuss how time diversity is achieved in
a CDMA technique using Rake receiver. (AU-Dec 2016)
7. Explain the Linear Equalizers and Decision Feedback Equalizers.
8. Consider a single branch Rayleigh fading signal has a 20% chance of being 6dB below some
mean SNR threshold (16 marks, AU Dec’2015)
(i) Determine the mean of the Rayleigh fading signal as referenced to the threshold. (5)
(ii) Find the likelihood that a two branch selection diversity receiver will be 6 dB
below the mean SNR threshold. (2)
(iii) Find the likelihood that a three branch selection diversity receiver will be 6 dB
below the mean SNR threshold. (2)
(iv) Find the likelihood that a four branch selection diversity receiver will be 6 dB
below the mean SNR threshold. (2) (v)
Based on your answers above, is there a law of diminishing returns (5)
when diversity is used?
9. Explain in detail the various factor to determine the algorithm for adaptive equalizer. Also
derive Least Mean Square Algorithm for adaptive equalizer. (AU-Dec 2016)
10. Describe briefly LMS and zero forcing algorithm used in equalization techniques.
11. Analyze the error probability in fading channels with and without diversity reception
techniques.( AU Nov/Dec’17)
12. Describe the role played by Equalization and diversity as multipath mitigation techniques.
Compare and contrast these two techniques. (10 Marks, AU May 2017)
13. Consider the design of the Indian digital cellular equalizer, where f=900 MHz and the mobile
velocity V = 80 Km/hr, determine the maximum Doppler shift, the coherence time of the
channel and the maximum number of symbols that could be transmitted without updating the
equalizer assuming that the symbol rate is 24.3 K Symbols/sec.
(6 Marks, AU May 2017)
14. Assume four branch diversity is used, where each branch receives an independent Rayleigh
fading signal. If the average SNR is 20 db, determine the probability that the SNR will drop

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below 10 dB. Compare this with the case of a single receiver without diversity. (4
Marks, AU May 2017)
15. Derive the expression for performance improvement due to maximal ratio combining. (6
Marks, AU May 2017)
16. With valid statements, analytically prove that the adaptive equalizers exhibit superior
performance over the conventional equalizers. (AU Nov/Dec’17)
17. Explain the principles of RAKE receiver in detail. (13 Marks, AU May 2018)
18. Consider uncoded spatial multiplexing over a MIMO channel with Mr>=Mt. Show that the
ML, MMSE and ZF receivers perform equally well if the channel is orthogonal, ie. H HH=
ῃIMR, Where ῃ is a constant. What is the per-stream SNR. (13 Marks, AU May 2018)

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