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m Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

m Synthesise the manufacture of ammonia and its salts.
m Understand alloys.
m Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymer.
m Apply the uses of glass and ceramics.
m Evaluate the uses of composite materials.
m Appreciate various synthetic industrial materials.
 SULPHURIC ACID

(H4SO4)

½    c
  
1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium
sulphate and

potassium sulphate, which are highly solu ble in water and can be easily absorbed by

plant.

2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which i s used as the electrolyte.

3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificia l silk-like fibres and
rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of
their component materials.

2) 
c
  
1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though 
2. The process contain 

½
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I. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide

SO2.

S(s)+O2(g) SO2(g)

sulphur

II. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.


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I. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over
vanadium(V) oxide
V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce
sulphur
trioxide SO3.

2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)

II. The optimum used are

a) Temperature: 450-500°C

b)Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres

 c)Catalyst:Vanadium(V) oxide

III. .Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is po ssible.

Sulphur dioxideand oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back
again over the catalyst inthe converter.


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I. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to

form oleum

H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2 S

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)ĺH2S2O7(l)

Oleum
H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)ĺ2H2SO4(aq)

II. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly
into water.

SO3(g)+H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

III. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the
reaction is very vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, alarge cloud of
sulphuric acidfumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air
pollution.
m    !      

.S l i i i ft t f t t . It i l l
i it t ll.
.S l i i i i t t i i ll ti .
.S l i i i i i i i l i t t f l i i ,
S .
I t t , l i i i l i t l t t f l
i i .

S l S

. i ti f l i l i i , S , i f ll t
t
t i i .S l ti i i l il i i i t i t f l
ti i .S l ti i i l i i t t l i i .

S l S
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1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.

2. It uses:

i.In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,

ammonia nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea.

ii.To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.

iii.In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.

iv.As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the

kitchen.

m c c
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1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:

i.It colourless and has a pungent odour.

ii.It is very soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.

iii.It less dense then water.

iv.It easily liquified (at about 35.5°C) when cool.

2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas:

a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become

alkaline. Thus aqueous ammonia solution:

i. Turns red litmus paper blue.

ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and wateri n neutralization reaction.

NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) NH
 2NHV+HVSO (aq)ĺ(NH )VSO (aq)

iii.Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)

(Form ammonia solution)

Dirty green precipitate

m 
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1.Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber

process. In thisprocess, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen
and hydrogen gas inthe volume ratio 1:3.

2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The
hydrogen gasis obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed
reaction of natural gas,CH4, with steam.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

3.The mixture of nitroge n and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst
under

controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.

i.Temperature: 450-500°C
ii.Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii.Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

4.Under these control op timum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into
ammoniagas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow
back over the catalystagain in the reactor chamber.

5.The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it

condenses into a

liquid in the cooling chamber.

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t ll i.

.M t l t t l t t it l i tl f t i lt it
i ti t i % . Pl t l l l it
f il t t i t .

. it ll l l it i lt, i i
lt

i f t i l f tili .

. ti f i it i i f tili .

A i it t
 3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq)ĺ (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq)ĺ (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium sulphate

c#

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1 .The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the metal to
have a
high density
2 .The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. ore heat
energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart
during the melting. This is why metals usually have high melting point.
3 .Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This
make metal good conduct of heat.
4 .The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal¶s structure are able to
conduct
electricity. etal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.

5.Since atoms o f pure metal are of the same size ,they are arran ged orderly in a
regular pattern. When a force applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one
another.This make pure metal soft, malleable and ductile

m ë c# 

1.Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low resistance to
corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily
. 2.To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another element
(usually metal) is added to form another an alloy.
3.An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non -metal) in a specific
proportion. For example:
a.Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b.Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)
4.The purposes of making alloys include the following:
 a) Increase the strength
i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is added to
iron, an alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel
becomes
ii.Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and
magnesium are added to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy call duralumin
is produced
b)Improving the resistance to corrosion
i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon,
18% of chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make stainless
steel suitable for making surgical instrument and cutlery.
ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which is
known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.
c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also has a
more beautiful white silvery appearance.
ii.When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an
attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins

    
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Hard, do not rust, aking of
Brass Copper 70%,Zinc bright appearance ornaments,
30% electrical wiring
and plug.
Hard, do not For casting bells,
Bronze Copper 90%,Tin corrode easily and medals, swords and
10% durable statues
Aluminium Light, strong and ‡ aking part of
Duralumin 93%,Copper durable aircrafts and racing
3%, agnesium cars
3%, anganese 1%
 ‡ aking of
Pewter Tin 96%,Copper Ductile and ornaments,
3%,Antimony 1% malleable, white souvenirs and
silvery appearance mugs
Strong,hard and ‡ aking of cutting
Steel Iron 99%,Carbon high wear resistance tools, hammers and
1% chisels

Stainless steel Iron 74%,Chromium Do not rust and ‡ aking of surgical

18%,Nickel 8% tarnish, strong and instrument, knives
durable forks and spoons
Attractive, silvery
Cupronickel Copper 75%, Nickel appearance, hard ‡ aking of silver
25% and coins
tough


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1. olecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units joined
together repeatedly are called polymer.
2.The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller
monomer.
3.The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain
polymer is called polymerisation.
4.Polymer can be naturally occurring or man -made (synthetic). Natural polymer are
found in plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose,
protein and rubber.
5 .Two type ofpolymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional
polymerisation.
6 Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition
polymerisation

Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s) Fomula onumer Properties Uses

%&&% -(CH„-CH„)n- Ethylene Soft, waxy solid

Low density CH„=CH„ Films wrap,
(LDPE) plastic bags
%&&% -(CH„-CH„)n- Ethylene Rigid, Electrical
High density CH„=CH„ translucent insulation
(HDPE) solid bottle, toys
%&&% -[CH„- Propylene Atactic: soft, Similar to
(PP) CH(CH
 CH„=CHCH3 elastic solid LDPE
Different grades Isotactic:hard, Carpet,
strong solid upholstery
%&-.(&% -(CH„-CHCI)n- Vinyl chloride Pipes, siding
%(+ CH„=CHCl Strong solid flooring
(PVC) rigid
%&-.(&%(+ -(CH„-CCI„)n- Vinylidene Seat covers,
%(+  chloride Dense, high films
-  CH„=CCl„ melting solid

%&& -[CH„- Styrene Hard, rigid, Toys, cabinet

(PS) CH(C6H5)]n- CH„=CHC6H5 clear solid packaging
 soluble in (foamed)
organic
solvents
%&&%((%
(PAN, Orlon,
Acrilan)