EE 101- ELECTRICAL

CIRCUITS 1
 ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICITY

• The universe is composed of atoms.

• Protons- positive electric charge
• Electrons- negative electric charge
• Neutrons- no electric charge
• Valence electrons and conductivity in solids.
• In chemistry, a valence electron is an outer
shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can
participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer
shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in
the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a
shared pair.
• They are, in conductors, generally free to move from atom to
atom, and it is this electron mobility that is responsible for
the conduction process.
SOLID MATERIALS MAY BE CLASSIFIED AS..

1. CONDUCTORS – in good conductors, there are less than four

valence electrons. Example, copper has one and aluminum has
three valence electrons
2. INSULATORS – poor conductors have more than four valence
electrons. Example, phosphorus has five valence electrons
3. SEMICONDUCTORS – neither good conductor nor a good
insulator, has exactly four valence electrons. Example,
Germanium.
1. COPPER 3. PHOSPHORUS

2. ALUMINUM 4. GERMANIUM
The fact that a metal such as copper is a good conductor
implies that the bonding valence electrons are not
permanently associated with particular atoms but easily
made to move freely from atom to atom when some form of
excitation is provided. This is because a minimum amount
of energy is required to transfer such electrons from their
normal orbits to higher level, the so called conduction
band.
 In summary, electric current , represented by a transfer of electric
charge, i.e electrons; also the extent to which conduction takes place is
determined by the number of electrons that are free to move.
The material is prolific in this respect, a comparatively large current
will be transmitted under the influence of a given applied electric
pressure. On the other hand, the number of free electrons is strictly
limited, the electric current will correspondingly low.
Copper, silver, and aluminum, for example are excellent conductors
because they have, respectively, the enormous numbers of 1.64x10^24,
1.68x10^24, and 10^24 electrons per cubic inch; in contrast hard rubber, an
extremely poor conductor of electric current, has about 3 free electrons
per cubic inch under normal conditions.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC
CURRENT
The application of an electric pressure to a conductor imparts lateral motion to its
free electrons because the latter are charged
The magnitude of the charge is commonly given in COULOMBS.
1C= 6.28 X10 ^18 electrons
Furthermore, when one coulomb of electric charge continuously passes a given point
every second the electric current is said to be one ampere.
I= Q/t
Where,
I= current (uniform)
Q=charge, coulombs
t= time in seconds during which electrons move
For a nonuniform current, the transferred charge will vary with current
changes; in such cases the electron motion will be constant only during such
short intervals as the current is steady.
q=it
i is plotted along y-axis and t is x-axis.

Example.
The current in a conductor changes uniformly from zero to 2 amp in 3
sec. remains steady at 2 amp for 6 sec. and then drops uniformly to 1.5 amp
in 8 sec. Calculate the total amount of charge transferred in the elapsed time
of 17 sec.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
Electric pressure or electromotive force or emf is a characteristic
of a device or machine that tends to create electron flow. When
an emf is applied is applied to the ends of a conductor it is
proper to refer to the existence of a potential difference between
such ends; also, since increments of emf are required for
successive increments of conductor, it is customary to regard a
potential difference as a drop in potential along the length of the
conductor. More commonly used than those already given, is
voltage; it too suggests the existence of force that tends to create
a current.
 KINDS OF CURRENTS
1. DIRECT CURRENT
• continuous direct current, is one which an energy transfer takes place
unidirectionally, with changes in value from instant to instant that are either zero or so
small that they may be neglected.
• Unidirectional direct current, when current does vary somewhat in
magnitude but does not reverse in direction
• Pulsating direct current, which the magnitude varies considerably and
pulsates regularly, there being no reversal in direction.
2. Alternating current
• Is one which the direction alternates
regularly and changes periodically in
magnitude as well as direction.
 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND
RESISTIVITY
Resistance - is a property of a substance due to which it opposes (or
restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e electrons) through it . The resistance is
measured in units of ohms (Ω). If we make an analogy to water flow in
pipes, the resistance is bigger when the pipe is thinner, so the water flow
is decreased.
The object possessing this property is designated as resistor.
RESISTIVITY- symbolized by the Greek letter ρ
- it merely indicates that it is the resistance of the
given conductor material having unit length and unit
cross section.
 CHAPTER 2-WIRES,
CABLES AND INSULATION
• RESISTIVITY
❖Is applied to the resistance of a substance having unit dimensions of
length and cross-sectional area
❖Conductors are round and small in diameters, it is convenient to
express in mils
❖0.001 in= 1 mil or 1000mils= 1 in.
❖Circular units rather than square units to denote cross-
sectional area
❖Area of a circle one “circular mil” if its diameter is one
“mil”
 RESISTIVITY

SI UNIT ENGLISH UNIT

❖𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 OR A=(п/4) d² ❖𝐴 = 𝑑2
❖d in cm, mm, etc ❖d in mils
❖ρ is in ohm-cm ❖A in circular mils
❖ρ is in ohm-circular mil/ft
RESISTIVITIES OF COMMON ELEMENTS AND ALLOYS
AT 20ºC
ELEMENTS
SILVER 9.9
COPPER, ANNEALED 10.37
COPPER, HARD-DRAWN 10.65
GOLD, PURE 14
ALUMINUM 17
MAGNESIUM 28
TUNGSTEN 33
ZINC 36
NICKEL 47
IRON, CAST 54
PLATINUM 60
IRON, COMMERCIAL 75
LEAD 132
MERCURY 577
 RESISTIVITIES OF COMMON ELEMENTS
AND ALLOYS AT 20ºC
ALLOYS
BRASS 42
GERMAN SILVER 199
MANGANIN 265
LUCERO 280
ADVANCE 294
CONSTANTAN 302
EXCELLO 550
NICHROME 600
NICHROME II 660
CHROMEL 625-655
REMEMBER:
➢ RESISTANCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO CONDUCTOR
LENGTH
➢RESISTANCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO CROSS-
SECTIONAL AREA

WHERE: R=RESISTANCE
L= LENGTH
A=AREA
OTHER FORMULAS

ρ𝑉
𝑅=
𝐴²
ρ𝐿²
𝑅=
𝑉