1

lntro duction

Elect c circuil theory had ils real be- This endlcss circulation of rent electricity was arimal eleeticily
ginning on March 20, 1800, when the the electtic fuid may caused by the organisms them-
llalian physicist Alessandro Volta an- appear paradoxical, but it solves. Volta, on lhe olher hand,
nounced his invention of the electic
h no less true and real, maintainod that curent €lectricity
battery. This magnificent device al- \uas molallic electicity,lhe source of
end you ntay feel it with
low6d Volta to produce culeri elec- which was the dissimilar metal
t.icity, a steady, conlinuous llow of probes atlached to lhe frogs' legs.
elgctricity, as opposed to static elec- Alessandro Voha Bolh mgn wor€ right. There is an ani-
lriclty, producgd in bursts by pr€vi- mal olectricity, and Galvani became
ous elsclical machinos such as the lamous as a founder of nerve physi-
Leyd€n iar and Volta's own electophotus. ology. Volla's great invgntion, however, revolulionjz€d
Volta was born in the ltalian city of Como, then the use of elecldcily and gave the world one ol its
a parl of the Austrian Empire, and at age 18 he was greatesl benelits, the olectric currenl. Volla was show-
performing electrical expadments and corresponding ered with honors durinq his lifetime. Napoleon mado
with well-known Europoan elect cal investigators. ln him a senator and laler a counl in the French Empire.
1782 he became professor ol physics at the UniveF Atter Napoleon's dgleat, the Austrians allowed Volta
sity of Padua, wh€ro he became involved in contro- to return lo his llalian eslate as a citizen in good
versy with anolhef well-known electdcal plon€€r, Luigi stead. Volta was rowarded 54 years alter his dealh
Galvani, prolessor ol analomy at Bologna. Galvani's when lhg unit ot eloctromo{ve lorce was otficially
experimenls with lrogs had led him lo beli€ve lhat cur- named the voll .
 E
LJlectric circuiL analyqis. in nearly every electrlcal engine€ring curriculum, is the
first course taken in the major area by an electrical engineering student. Virtually all
bmnches of electrical engineering, $rch as elechonics, power systems, communica-
tion systems, rotating machinery, aDd conool theoty, are based on circuit theory.
The orly topic in elect cal elgineering more basic than circuits is elecfomagneiic
field theory, and even there many problems are solved by means of equivalent elec-
tric circuits. Thus it is no exaggeration to say that the basic circuit tleory course a
student firut encounters in electrical engineering is the most impo ant cou$e in his
or her cu iculum.
To begin oul study of electric circrlits we need to know what an electric circuit
is, what we mean by its analysis, what quantities are associated with it, in what units
these quantities are measuled, and the basic definitions and conventions used in cir-
cuit theory. These are the topics we consider ill this chapter.
1.1
DEFINITIONS AND UNITS
An elecljic circuit, or elec*\c network, is a collection of electrical elements inter-
connected in some specified way. l,ater we shall define the electrical elements.in a
formal manner, but for the present we shall be content to represent a general tlro-
terminal element as shown in Fig. 1. 1 The terminals a and D are accessible for con-
nections with other elements. Examples with which we are all familiar, and which
we shall fdrmally consider in later sections, include resistors, inductors, capacitors,
batteries, and genemtors.

FtCURt t.r Cenemltwo terminal electricai element

More complicated circuit elements may have more than two terminals. Tmnsis_
tors and opemtional amplifiers are commor examples. Also a number of simple ele-
ments may be combined by interconnecting their terminals to form a single package
having any runrb€r of accessible terminals. We shall consider some multiterminal eI-
ements larel, but our main concern will be simple two-terminal devices.
An example of an electric circuit with six elements is shown in Fig. 1.2. Some
authors distinguish a circuit from a rctwork by requiring a circuit to contain at least
one closed path such as path abco. We sball use the terrns interchangeably, but we

Chapt€r 1 lnnoduction
 flcURt 1.2 tle.ri..ir.rit

may note that without al least one closen path the circuit is of little or no practical
intere\t.
To be more specific in defining a circuil element we need to consider certain
quantitles associated with it, such as votfaS? and ctDerl. These quaDtities and oth-
eis, vhen they adse, must be catefirlly defrcd. This can be done only if we have a
standard system of units so that when a quantity is described by measuing it, we
can all agree on what the mea$uement means. Fortunately, there is such a standard
srstem of units that is used today by vntua y al the professional engineering soci-
eties and the authors ol most modem engineering textbooks. This system, which we
shall use throughout the book, is the International System of Units (abbteviated SI),
adopM in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures
There are six basic units itr the SL and all other units are derived from them.
Four of the basic units, the meter, kilogla$, second, and coulomb, are impoltant to
ctcuit theorists. and we shall c.nsider them in some detail. The remaining two ba-
sic units are the kelvin and the candela, which are important to such people as the
electron device physicist 6nd the illiminatioo engine€r.
The SI units are very precisely defined in terms of permanent and reproducible
quanlities. However. the defnilions are hiShly esoteric and in some cases ate com-
prehensible only to atomic scieDlists.r Therefore, we shall be conlent to name lhe
basic units and relalq them to the very frmiliar Britisft '']stem o/ UnitJ, which in-
cludes inches, feet, pounds, aird so on.
The basic unit of length in the SI is the neter, abbrevialed m, which is related
to the British system by the fact that I inch is 0.0254 m. The basic unit of mass is
tl:r, kiloSrarn (kg), alld the basic unit of time is the secol (s). In terms of the Biitish
units, I pound-mass is e'Jictly 0.45359237 kE, ard the second is the same in both
systems.
The fourth unit in the St is tl\e coulonb (C), which is the basic unit used to
measuIp elect c charge. We shall defer the definition of this unit until the next sec-
tion when we consider chalge and qAretrt. The nafie coulomb was chosen to honor
the French scientist, inventor, aod army engineq Charles Augustin de Coulomb

rcomot.t€ &finttiotrs of rhe basic u[r$ may be found in r oumb.r of souce\, q(h a .IEEE Rerom-
mcnd;d PBr'e for Unib in Publish.d Sci.nd6c and Tehnical Wo*." by C H Page er al. (IEEE
Sp€.rrM, J, no. l. pp. 169-171, M$cn 1966)
"ol.

Section 1.1 Definitions and Unit!

 (1763-1806), who was an early pioned in the fields of friction, ele.tricity, ard
magnelism.
We might note at this point that all SI units named for famous p€ople have ab-
. heviations that are capitalized; otherwise, lowercase abbreviations are most ofteo
used. It is also worth mentioning that we could choose units other than the ones we
have selected to form the basic units. For example, instead of the coulomb lve cordd
take the ampere (A), the unit of electdc current to be conside.ed laler. h thk case
the coulomb could then be obtained as a derived urit.
There are three derived units in addition to the ampere that we shall find us€-
ful in circuit theory. They are the units used to measure force, work or energy, and
power. The fundamental unit of force is the reuon (N), which is the force required
to accelemte a l-kg mass by I meter per second per second (l m/s). Thus I N =
l kg-m/s'?. The newton is named, of cou$e, for the geat Engish scientist, as-
tronomer, and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-172?). Newton's accomplish-
ments are too numerous to be Iisteal in a mer€ chapter,
The fundamental unit of {,or* or energy is the jorre (J), named foi the British
physicist James P. Joule (1818-1889), vho shared in the discovery of the larr of
conservation of energy and helped establish the idea that heat is a form of energy, A
joule is the work done by a constant l-N forc€ applied through a l-m distadce. Thus
lJ:1N-m.
The last derived unit we shall consider is the udtt (W), which is the fundamen-
tal unit of power, the mte at which work is done o! energy is expended. Th€ watt is
defined lo be I J/s and is narned in honor ofJames Walr (1736-1819), the Scoltish
engineer whose engine design fust made steam power pmcticable.
Before we leave the subject of.units we should point out that one of the great-
est advantages the Sl has over the Blitish syslem is its incorporation of the de.imal
system to relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit. The vadous powers of 10
are denoted by standard prefixes, some of which are given, along with their abbievi-
ations, in Table l l.

. TABI-E l.l Prefixes in the 5l

Mulriple Symbol

l0' ziga G
M
ld I kilo k
l0 rnilli

As an example, a second was once thought to be a very short time, and frac-
tions such as 0.1 or 0.01 of a s€cond were unimaginably short. l.{owadays in some
applications, such as digital computers, the second is an impracticably large udit. As
a result, times such as I ftuosecond (l !s or l0_e s) are in commi}n !6e. Another
common example is I gram (g) = I0 I kg.

chapter 1 lntroduction
EXAMPLE 1.1 In the 1972 Olympics one of Mart spitz's seven gold medals was for $'inming
100 m in 51.22 s. Co[vert his average sFed to miles per hour. We begio by oot-
ing that
I
lm=oJ25i4-ln
/ t \/t fr\/ I mi\
= i"/ l.o;/\sxo r, /
\o-ozs+

1m=0.00062137mi
Therefore. the avemge speed is

#T- (#9(,*.',"lu)(,*;)
= 4.37 mph
we note that the units cancel in every step, ${ich may be used to irdicate what frc-
tors are needed in the conversion process.

EXERCISES
1.r.1 Find the number of nanoseconds in (a) 0.5 s, (b) 30 ms, and (c) 15 ps.
inswer (a) 5x 103; O) 3 x l0'; (c) 15,000
1.1.2 Find (a) the number of $econds in 22 ps, O) the number of kilometers in I milc,
and (c) the work done by a constant force of 200 pN adied to a mass of l0 g for a
distance of 50 m.
(a\ 2.2 x 10 '; (b) 1.609; (c) 10 rJ
1.1.3 ^nswer
Sebastian Coe broke three world track records in 1979 by rundng 800 meters in I
minute 42.4 seconds, the mile in 3 minutes 49.0 secodds, and 1500 meters h 3 Eh-
utes 32.1 seconds. Find his avenge speed in miles per hour for each eveot.
Answet l7.5, 15.'1. 15.8
l-t.4 Robert Hayes set a world record in 1963 by runring 100 yards in 9.1 seconds. Id tie
1988 olympics Bell Jobnson mn the lm-rneter dash in 9.79 seconds. He rras dis-
qualified ald Carl lewis declared the winner with a time of 9.92 se4onds; atr Amcr-
ican record. Find the average speeds in mph of erch ofthese thre€ ruorea!.
Answer tjayes, 22.48; Johnson, 22.85; l*wis, 22.55.

1.2
CHARGE AND CURRENT
We are hmiliar with gravitational forces of attractiod between Mies, which are tc-
sponsible for holding us on the earth and which cause ao apple dislodged ftom s Eec
to fall to the ground mther than to soar upward into the sky, There are Mi€s' ho*.

Section '1.2 Charge and Current

ever, that aifi"act eabh othgr by forces fir out of propoltion to their masses. Also,
sucb forces are observed to tre repulsive as well as attractive and are clearly not grav-
itatioDal forces.
We explain these forces by saying that they are electrical in naturo and caused
by the presence of elscfical charges. We explain th€ existence of forces of both at-
traction and repulsioo by po€tulating that there are two kinds of charges, positive
and negative, and that unlike charges attract aDd like charges repel.
As we know, according to modern theory, natter is rinde up of atoms, which
are composed of a numb6 of funda$ental particles. The most important of these
particles are protons (positive charges) and neuhons (neueal, with no charge) found
in the nucleus of the atom and electrons (negative charges) moving in orbit about the
nucleus. Normally, the atom is €lectrically neutral, the negalive charge of the elec-
troDs balaocing the positive charge of tne protons. Particles nray become positively
charged by losing electoons to other particles and become negatively charged by
gaining elecFons &om other parricles.
As an erample. we may Foduce a negative charge on a balloon by rubbing it
against our hai!. The balloon will then stick to a l,all or the ceiling, which are un-
charged. Relative to the aegativ€ly charged balloon, the neutral wall and ceiling are
opposirely charged.
We now define the cortorr, (C), discussed in the previous section, by stating
that the chaige of an election is a negative one of 1.6021 X 10 te coulomb, putting
x
it another way, a coulomb is the charge of about 6.24 10'3 electlons. These are:
of course, mind-boggling numbers. but their sizes enable us to use more manageable
numbers, such as 2 C, in the circuit theory to follow.
The symbol for charge will be taken as 0 or 4, the capital letter usually denot-
irg constant charges such as P = 4 C, and the lowercase letter indicating a tim€-
!"arying charge. In the latter case we may emphasize the time dependency by writing
{(t). This practice involving capital and lowercase letters will be carried over to the
other electrical qualtities as \rell.
Th€ prioary purpose of an elecric circuil is to move or [ansfer charges along
specified paON. This motion of charges constitutes .an electrb current, denoted by
the letters i or 1, taken from the French word "intensit6.,, Formally, curre{t is the
tirne rate of change of charge, given by

.dS
'-a ( 1.1)

I!e_ basic rltrit of cur€nt is tlrc anpere (A), mmed for Andi6 Marie Amp&e
(1?75-1836), a Rench mathematician and physicist who formulated laws of electro-
magnetics in the 1820s. Aa anpere is 1 coulomb per se.ond.
In circuit tbeory curent is genemlly thought of as the movement of positive
charges. This cotvetrtion stems from Benjamin Franklin (1706-l?90), *to guessed
lhat electricity traveled tom positive ro Degativg. We now know ,that in metal col-
ductors the curent is the moyement of elecrons that have been pulled loose ftom
the orbits of the atoms of the metal. Thus we should distinguish convearional current
(thc movement of positive charges), which is us€d in eleatric network theory, and

Chapler i lntroduclion
 ekctron a$reDf' Lnless otherwise stal€d, our coltcem will be with conventional
cunent.
As an example. suppose lhe curretrr in the wire of Fig. | .3(a) is 1 = j A. Thal
is, 3 CA pass some specific poiot in the wirc. This is symbolized by the arrow ta-.
beled 3 A, whose directiotr indicates that the motioa is from teft to right. This situa_
tion is equi lent to thal depicted by Fig. 1.3(b), which indicates
-3 a/s or -3 A in
the directiotr from right to left.

rr/ -la
-../
G) . (b)
FICURE 1.3 Two representations of $e same current

Figxre |.4 represenrs a geneml circuil element wirh a currenl i flowing from
. .
the left loward the right te.minal. The loral charge entering rhe element #tween
time ,o and t is found by integnting (1.1). The result is

b:.so)-ean=[iat (1.2)

We shotrid note at this point that we ale considering ihe network

_ _
be elecrrirally neurml.
elements to
That is. no net positive or negativJcharge can accumujate in
rhe element. A posirive charge entering must be aciompanied by an equal posilive
chaqe leaving (or, equivalently, an equal negative charge entering;. Tirus rtre cur-
rent shown entering the left tenxdai in Fig. i.+ must leive the rifit terrninal.

RGURT 1.4 Cun€nt flowing in a Benerat etement

EXAMPLT 1.2 Suppose that. the current ente ng a terminal of an element is i = 4t A, The total
charge entering the terminal between t :
0 and f :
3 is given by

'J" q,a,- Bc
n-l
There are seveml types of current in common use, some of which are shown in
Fig. 1.5. A constalt cuqent, as shown in Fig, 1.5(a), will be termed a alirect cur-
rent, or &. An ahernating cwrent, ot &, is a sinusoidal curetrt. such as that of
Fig. 1.5(b). Figure 1.5(c, and (d) iuusEale. respctively. an expon?ntial c$rem and
a rawtooth ctrtent,
There ate many commerciil uses for dc, such as in flashlights and power sup_
plies for elechonic citcuits, and, of cou$e, ac is the common house current found
all over the world. E\ponential currents appear quire oflen (whether we $.anl them
or nor:r when a swilch is actualed lo close a path itr atr energized circuit. Sawloolh
waves are useful in equipmelt, such as oscilioscopes, usdd ior displaying electrical
chamcteristics on a screen

Section 1.2 Charee and Curreot

 rICURE 1.5 (a) Dcj (b)ac; (c) exponential current; (d) saMooth cunent

EXERCISES
1.2.1 How many electrons are reprcsented by a charge of 0.64084 pC?
Answer 4 nillion
I.2.2 The total charge entedng a terminal of aE element is given by
o' *
Find the curent i at = o J r=:')'
An\wet 4,20 mA ^u ".
. 1.2.3 The current entering a terminal is given by
i:l+?'sin2ntA
Find the totai charge eltering the terminal between t= 0 and t= 1.5 s.
Ahs\t 2.5 C

1.3
VOITAGE, ENERGY, AND POWER
Charges in a condd,stor, exemplified by ftee electrons, may move in a mndom man-
Der. However, if we want some concerted motion on their part, Such as is the case
with an electric cu$ent, w€ must apply an exieftal or so-called eredromotire force
(EMF). Thus work is done on the chatges. We shall define ro'age "aqoss" an ele-
ment as the work done in moving a unit charge (+1 C) through the element ftom
one terminal to the othff. The unit of voltage, or potential ilifferehce, as itis sofie-
times called, is tle yolt (V), named ir honol of the Italian physicist Alessandro
Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (1745-1827), who invented the voltaic battery.
Since vohage is the number of joules of work pedormed on 1 coulomb, we
may say tlat I V is I J/C. Thus the volt is a derived SI unit, exptessible in terms of
other units.
We shall represent a voltage by o or V and use the +, polaity convention
-
shown in Fig. 1.6. That is, terminal A is r volts positive with lespect to terminal B.
Putting it another way in terms of potential differerce, l€tninal A is dt a potential ol

Chdpler I lnlroduclion
 FIGURE 1.6 Voltase polarity convention

o volts higher than teminal B. I! t€nns of work, it is clear that moving a unit charge
ftom B to A requires o joules of wor*.
Some authors prefer to describe the voltage acrocs an element in terms of
voltage drops aDd rr',rer. Referring m Fig. 1.6, a voltage drop of o volts occuls itr
moving ftom A to B. In contrast, a voltage dse of o volts occus in moving from B
to A.
As examples, Fig. 1.7(a) aDd (b) are two versions of e,\actly the siune voltage.
In (a), a terminal A iS +5 V above termiml B, and in (b), terminal A is -5 V above
A (or +5 V below A).

FICURE 1,7 Two equivalent voltage representatio

We may also ]use a double-subscript notation o", to denote the potential of

point a with respect to point D. In this case we have in geneml, od = -or,. Thus in
Fig. 1.7(a), o,$ = 5 V and 0,r -.5 V.
In transferring chage through a]] element work is being done, as we have said.
Or, putting it arother way, energy is being supplied. Ib know whether energy is be-
ing supplied ro the element or ,] the element to the rest of the circuit, \re must know
nol only the polariry of the voltage across the element. but also the direclion of the
cu.rent though the element. If a positive cudent enters the positive terminal, then
an extemal force must be drivitrg the current aDd is thus supplying or dekvering e\-
ergy to the element. TtP- de'rent is absorbing energy in this case. If, on the other
hand, a positive current leaves the positive terminal (enteN the negative terminal),
then the elametrt is delivering energy to the extemal cilcuit.
As examples, in Fig. 1.8(a) the elcrlelt is absorbing energy. A positive cur-
rent enterc the positive terminal. This is also the case in Fig. 1.8(b). In Fig. 1.8(c)

fIGURE 1.8 Various voltage-current rclatiorships

24. 24
-o--:= -
I -----\*-\
sv HA
iii I
sv ffi," rul
-. ' *"
(al (bl (c) (d)

Section 1.3 voltage, Energy, and Power

 and (d) a positive curreDt eoters the negative terminal,
aDd therefore tbe elemenl is
delrverrng energy in both caj€s.
ktus consider now lhe .at? at which energy is being delivered to
or bv a cir-
crrit elemenr. If lhe voltage aqoss the element iiu and a im"ff *rrg.
through. the. elemeat from the positive to the negarive terminal,
aq i. ;".d
sorbed by the elemeDt, say A!r, is given by
tdth" :;dy ;:
A}r,=aAs
Ifthe time involved is 4,/, then the mte at which the work is being done,
or the en_
ergy lr is being expended, is given by

.. Aw Aa
AFO AI . AH AT

(1.3)
7;=D;=Di
by definition the ftte ar which energy is expended is power, denoted
byp, we
;llc;e

We_might observe that (1.4) is dimensiotally conect since rhe units of

(tC)(C/s) or J/s, which is watts (W), defined eadier.
oi are

. .The gTntiri:: r, g]d i are generaly tuncdons of rime. which we may also de_
note by o(r) aDd i(t). Tberefore, p given by d.4.) is a rime_varyins
ouanrirv. It rs
somelimes called the instu)ntanaous Wwet because its value i" ti" io;., ui;" i;:
stant of time at which o and i are measured.

ftcURE r.9 Typical etement with vottage and cu.rent

Summarizing. tbe llp;cal element of fig. 1.9 ts absorbing Dower. Eiven bv

p -_ ui. If eilherrhe polariry of u or i fbu not borhr is reversed, ihin rh. .i"rn.nt j'.
detrvenng power. p -
oi. to the exlemal circuit, Of course. lo say that an element
d€livers a negativ€ power, say -10 W, is equivalent to saying that it absoOs
afosi_
tive power, in this case + l0 W.

EXAMPTE 1.3 In Fig. Ls(a) and O, lhe elemeor is absorbing power of p _ (5)(2) =
l0 W.
Lln FiB. 1..8ft, the 2 A leaves the nega!.ive rerminal. and ttrus 2 e enten *" p"r-lri".
terminal.l In Fig. 1.8(c) and (d) it is delivering tO W to tfre externat circuii, since
the 2 A leaves the positive termlnal, or, equilalently, p;*;;
terminal.
-2 A enters th"
10 Chaprer 1 lntoduction
 Before ending our discussion df power and energy, let us solve (1.4) for the en-
eryy rr delivered to an element between time to and t. We have, upon integrating
both sides between t, and t,
w(t) - w(a) =
f"vi
at (1.s)

EXAMPTE 1.4 1.9 i : 2t A arld o = 6 V, the energy delivered to the element between
If in Fig.
t=0andt:2sisgivenby
t'1
w(2) - w(0, - JrI \qQI) dt = 24 t

' Since the left member of (1.5) represents ihe energy delivercd to the element
between ro and t, we may interpret w(/) as the drcrgy deliveted to the element be-
twe€n the beginning of time and / and r (to) as the energy between the beginning of
time and to. In the beginning of time, which let us say is ! o, the energy deliv-
=
ered to the element was zero; that is,
x,( @)=o
If ro : -@ in (l.5), we shall have the energy delivered to the element ftom the be-
ginning up to t, gived by

*ttt - | ."'ix (1.6)

This is consistent with (1.5) since

wttt =
l_aidt
r
= l-ti dt f^"'o' t

By (1.6) lhis may be written

w@=wA";s+ oi dt
which is (1.5).
f^

EXERCISES
1.3.1 Findl) if t = E rnA and the element is (a) absorbing power of p : 40 mw and (b)
delivering to the external circuit a power p = 16 mW.
Answet \^) 5 V: lbl
2V

EXERCISt 1.1.1

Section 1.1 VoltaEe, Energ/, and Power 11

 1,3.2 Ifi = 5 Aando = 12 V in Exercise 1.3.1, find (a) the power absorbed by the ele-
ment and (b) the energy delivered to the elemeDt betwe€n 2 ard 4 s.
Arurer (a) 60 w; ft) 120 J
1.3-3 A two-terminal element absorbs an energy n as showtr. If the curent ettering the
positive terminal is
i = 100 cos 10007r mA
find the element volrage at r = I ms and at t = 4 ns.
Ansx,et -50, 5 y

txERctsE 1.3.3

1.4
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ETEMTNTS
We may classify circuit elements into two broad categoies, p4rriye elements and dc-
tive elemens, by conside ng the energy delivered to or by them.
A circuit element is said to be pd.rriye if tle total energy delivered to it ftom
the rest of the circuit is always nonnegative. That is, refering to (1.6), for all t we
have

,(i = | : (1.7)
-p(tyat f-,,* =o
The polarities of tr.and i are as shown in Fig. 1.9. As we shall see later, e/,adples of
passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
An dctiye element is one that is not passive, ol cou$e. That is, (1.7) does not
hold for all time. Examples of active elements are generators, batteries, and elec-
tronic devices that requhe power supplies.
We are not ready at this stage to begin a formal disculsion of the various pas-
sive elements- This will be done in later chapters. In this section ve give a brid dis-
cussion of two very important active elements, the independent voltage souce and
lhe independent currenl source.
i
A\ depeident voltage rource is a two-terminal element, such as a battery o!
a generator, that maintains a specified voltage between its terminals. The voltage is
completely independent of the curent through the element. The symbol for a
voltage source having o volts across its terminals is shown in Fig. 1.10. The polarit
is as shown, indicating that terminal d is 1, volts above terminal ,. Thus if o > 0.
terminal d is at a higher potential than terminalr. The opposite is hue, of course, if
u<0.
12 Chapte.l lnrroduction
 Fig. Ll0. the voltage D may be lime !ffying, or il rnay be coD_6rant.
...",-,ln
whrch case.we woutd in
probabty tabel ir v. Another syio"r ,f,.iii.rr""
i..'l
con$ant voltage source. such as a baner] *irt y
inFig. i..tl. ln lhe case ofconstant sources we shall
"otrs
u"ror. lilt;;;i;;", "lJ
il;;;
changeably.
use figr. l.l0;;;'i.lj";;;;;:

ftGURE 1.10 lndependent voltage source F|CUREl.tt Constant voltage source

We might observ€ at lhis poinl rhal lhe polarity
, marks on Fig. L II are redun_
danr since (he potarity coutd be denned uy ,f," p".ir.".
of iiti t".^;";
lines. We shall leave the polarity marks ofl in ";i;il.";;
most cases in ,n. fu;r.". Th";;;;
jrl*?;. oo*"r"., in anal)zing circuits when it i,
""rr""i""it i.";"';,".r1;
.
An indep?ndeir (urrent ,ource is a two_terminal element
specified currenr flows. The currenl is cnmptetely
through which a
t"a
tht element. The symbol lor an independenr cunent
soutce "il;d;;;ff;g;:il;
ir shdwn in Fi. I r)
wnere I js the specified current. The direction of rhe cunent i" i"Oi.""a"Uv ifr.

I
t
,(r)

l
ftcuRE t.12

Independent sources are usually meant

.
and nor ro absorb ir. Thus if o is the vottage
lo deliver power ro lhe exrernal circuit
across tle source and iE current i is
directed out of tbe positive terminal- then
p- = th: J;;i' ;;";i,:' 6;;;,'**'i:,:"$::,i:"ti;H'#
tig. l': ^,9 rhe";
L l3(a) batrery is deiiverinq 24 W
:l"iliJ # :l
batlery is absorbing 24 w, il"
t1t"tnlt
:iftui t lnFiS l.libr the
as would u" ,t .t1
tr,.,o*"., Bur *" iil:ffi;;:::::,-*l,,iJ:ff
considered tarer. are ideat etemcnB. That
J,:":lln";*"",,,, o.
proximate the actual or physical elemens
is. rhey arc nariii','trii ,iliiiinii
ple. qn ideal automobile batrery supplies
only under certainconditi."r.
a consrant 12 V. no maler *f,*
;.;;r;_^[
ir,".""f
Section 1.4 Passive and Adive flements
13
 (a) (b)
FIGURt 1.13 la) source-delivering and (b) source absorbing power

circuit is connected to it. since its curett is completely arbitrary, it could theoreti_
cally deliver an infinite amount of power. This, of coulse, is not possible in the case
of an actual device. A real l2-V automobile battery supplies approximately constant
voltage only as long as the current it delived is low. When the cutrelt exce€ds a
few hundred amperes, the voltage drops apPreciably from 12 V.
We shall consider pmctical sou.ces in a later chapter and see under what condi-
tions they may be apFoximated by ideal sources. Also later, we shall consider de-
pendenr sources whose voltage (or current) is confolled by another voltage o! cur-
rent somewhere else in the circuit.

EXERCISES
1.4.1 Find the power being supplied by the souces shown.
Ansver (a) 18; (b) 16; (c) -20; (d) -45 w

),n T
__l
I

EXTRC|SE 1.4.1

1.4.2 The terminal voltage of a voltage souce is u = 6 sin 2t V. If the charge leaving thp
positive terminal is q =2 cos 2r mC, find the power supptied by the source at any
time arld the energy supplied by the source between 0 and t seconds
Answer 24 sin'? 2t mW, 121 -
3 sin 4t mJ

1.5
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
kt us now look at the words circuit analJsis, which are contained in the title of the
book, and see what they mean Cenerally, if alr electic circuit is subjected to an it-
put or excitotion in tl.P- form of, say, a voltage or a curent provided by an indepen-

14 chdpre' I nrrodu(tion
 dent source, lhen an odpat or fttpor$" is produc€d. The ouFut
or resDonse maV also
0e a vo,tage or a current associated with some element in the
circuit.-There D;v be
of coirse, more than one input and Eore than oDe output.
There arc two main bmnches of circuit theoly, and they are derived
from the
followiDg rluee key words: ilput, output, and ct *i1. Th; tu;ib";;; ;.r;;";;_
yrrr, wtuch. gven the circuit and the input. is concerned with findhs
th€ outDut_
tne other branch is circuit Enth?sis. ot circuh design. which, given [e
- input ana
output. rs concemed wilh finding the circuit its€lf.
Mtwork synthesis is much more complex in general than analysis end will
probably.be encounreredby the studenr io a l;ter courie.
Circuit analysis t" ;;;
concero rn tfus book. We may be interesled only in fioding one
o! morc outouts-
such as a voftage or crmenr existing somewhere in *"
o, i" Li"rri"iiiii"
energy or power delivered lo one element or another. Or "lr"rii,
we mEf wish ro p"rtoirol
complete analysis. finding every unlno\r,I| current and voltage in tfr"
fn ao"
case- in succeeding chapters we d€v€lop slslematic mermas-of "ia"uit.
appued generaity lo any circuit of lhe type we consider. The
anatyJi;;; ;;
m€thods not onlv are
systemattc.and genelal, but are also simple ard sraightforward
to apply.
for the lnterested reader. some circuit design rheory aad exampies are siven in
Appendix_F. Hopetutty, rhese wi provide insight into the p-U..i'oi-nrilr.tt i
selecrion of rhe genemt form of thi cirorit to choosing rh!
"_lT.:j::-1 :":i,.,ft",r
lnOlvloual crrcurt elementr
1.6
SUMMARY
This chapter inuoduces us to the subject of circuit analysis and covers
the basic ter_
rnnology that we wjll need as we read lh.ough the book. We have defined
what an
ek.tti.c citcuit is, whal we mean by a two-tirminal elemrr, unt *" t
loi_ai-+
ete.d the .utrents and volrager associated with such elements. "ua abolrt
We also k|low
clr4r8€ related to a cllrrent ard tIrc energy arrrd. power associated with
ihe
hao"l""Ui"f*
ments. The SI units of ampercs, vobs, coulontbs, joules, una ,on"
ered and used to define passive and octive elenens-. Fina y. independenl
te* Ji-
lear current and volrage soarces have treen denoeA. as *eit rtr! conc iri- ^i-Lir-
,t7i*ri,
ar@/FiJ, our main corcern throughout the renainder of the "s book.
,

PROBTEMS
1 t In 1960 Don Srlron s€t a world record run^
ning the 220-yard dash in 2t.9 seconds. and in
the 1988 Olympics Florcnpe cdffrh Jovner set
a world record for women running 200 meters
in 21.34 seaods. Compare their averase
speds in miles per hour.
1.2 Roger Baonisrcr first broke lhe 4-minute bar-
ri€r by runniry the mile in 3 minutes 59.4 s€c-
onds in 1954. ?btyana . Kaz!trklm set a
rpome!'! world's record fo! l50O rreters in
1980 with a time of 3 minutes 52.47 sccords_
Mary Decker Slaney nn th€ mile in l9E5 in 4
ninute$ 16.7t s€conds, Comparc tteir averarc
speeds in miles per bour.
lf the fumtioD /tr) is thc cuncnl iD aspcr€g
etrtentrg the posjtive terminsl of an clerncnt ,i
rime r (secoods), fitrd (a) tll. toel charra 6rt
has etrtercd berween 4 and 9 r. (b) thc -cnargc
enrering al 8 s, alld (c) thc curreni at l,S, aDd
8 s. Take the cbaqe to bc 0 at , = O.

Chapter 1 Problemt
l5
 1.8 If the tunction gnphed in Prob. 1.6 is the
vohage D rvol6, across an elemenr versus lhc
lime {ms,. and lhe curfent enl€ring rhe posi-
tive rerminal i\ J rnA. find rhe power deliv-
ered to ibe element at 2 ms and at 6 ms.
1.9 Tf rhe tuDcrion graphed in Prob. Lo is rhe
voltage D rvoks, across an element rersus the
time rmsr. and rhe curreDr entering rhe posi
tive terminal is

i: rc-6 P
.lt
0 .1 6 7 9 12 rG) (i in amp€res. r in volts. 1 in secondsl, 6nd lh€
PROELTM I.3 powel delivered to the element ar 1 ms and ar
7 ms.
1.4 ff/(t) in Prob. 1.3 is the charge enrering the l.l0 Find the power delivered to an element ar r =
element in coulombs and r is in seronds, find 2 ms if the charge entering the positive termi
the charge eDtering the element berween 4 and nal is
9 s, thg curent at 6.5 s, and the cunent at 8 s.
q= 10 cos 125 ?'r mC
1,5 In kob 1.3, if the voltage across the elemont
is 6 V, find the pow€r delivered to the element and the voltage is
at r = l, 5, 8, and l0 s. Repeal for prob. 1.4. 0=6sin125dV
1.6 If the vohage across an element is 8 V and the 1.11 Fird the energy delivered to the el€ment of
cunent i enl€ring the posiiive terminal is as Prob. 1.10 between 0 and 8 ms.
shown, find the power delivered to the ele_
ment ar r - 7 ms ard rhe toral charge and to- 1.72 The power delivercd ro an element is
tal enerSy d€livered to the etement t€tweeD 0 p -24e 3' mW and the charge entering the
and l0 ms positive terminal is q : 2 - 2z-a' mC. Firld
(a) the voltag€ across tlrc olement and O) the
energy delivered to the element between O ard
0.25 s.
t4 l-13 The power delivered to an €lemenr is p =
12 sin 4t W and the voltage is o = 4 sin 2r V.
IO Find the cur€nt entering the posirive terminat
and the charge delivered to the elemenr be-
tween 0 and ?7'/4 s.
1.14 Th€ power delivered to an element is
p :16e ta W, ihe curent i is nonnegative,
and the voltage is 1) : 4t (o is in volts and i is
in amperes). Find rhe voltaae and the total
0 4 lo ,{m) charge delivered to the elemenr fiom 0 to
PROBLTM I.6 r >0.
1.15 The cunent ent€ring the positive t€rminal of
l-7 If the tunction Sraphed in prob. t.6 is the an element is i = 4e-' A. Find rhe power
charge (mC) entering tho positive terminal of delivered to the element as a function of time
th€ element versls lhe lime (ms). and lhe and the energy deliver€d to the element ftom 0
voltagc is 6 V, find (a) thc powcr delivered to to t > 0 if the voltage is (a) o = 3i, (1,)
thc element at 3, 6, and 8 ms, and (b) the loral
eneryy d€livercd to the element b€iueen 0 and D:2i, and {c, o=3lidr+6. lThe
l0 ms. voltage is in volts if the currert is in amperes.)
't6 Ch.pler 1 lnrrodu.non
 1.16 If rhe current entering the positive terminal of is D = ar, a > 0. taj Find rhe energy deliv.
an element is ered to the elemenr between 0 and f seconds,
i:4 sin 2rA. I > 0 (b) Fhd a dc cunent I :
b > 0 rhat detivers
the same energy as the ac current of (a) in
:0,r<0 Z= /l seconds.
fnd the power delivered to the elemenr d a
1.23 If the current entering th€ positiv€ terminal of
time r > 0 and the chaqe delivered to the el- atr elemenl is
ement bet$een 0 and 7r/4 s, if (a) i, = 2r, (b)
i = asinfr'A,, >0
, = 2fr, *a @) n : 2 !;r dr - 4 (D is in
:0,, <0
volts if i is in amperes).
1.17 If the cutent entering the positive terminal of and rhe voltage is
arr element is i = ,,1€-,
A and the vottaSe is
o = 4i V, find rhe energy delivered to th€ ele_
mert between 0 and I s. . ":u['J. ,0,,
1.18 Ifthe voltag€ whete a, b, k > 0, show rhat the €nergy de-
across an element is o= 6€-3, V
livered to rhe element between -6 and r > 0
and the current is i: Zr4e, nnd,t" po*". is
delivercd at time r and the charge delivered
ba'z
between0and4s. w = 2t? (cos ,tr - l), J
l.19 lJ a current r' -
0.4 A is entering rhe positive
rerminal of a bartery with terninal vohage and therefore lr > 0.
1) = 12 V, the battery is in the proc€ss of be_
ing cbarged. (tt is ab6orbing rarher than deiiv_
1.24 kr the current entering lhe posjtive rerminal
of an elemenl be
enng power.) Find (a) the energy supplied ro
the battery and O) the charge delivered to the i=2sin4rA,r>0
battery in 2 h (hou$). Nor€ the consistency of
theunitslV:lrC. =0,t <0
1.20 Find the curenr ne€ded in hob. l.l9 to de-
liver the same charge as iD part O) in 30 min.
(a) If the voltage is o - 3 # v, show that the
1.21 Suppos€ rhat the voltago in prob. l.l9 r"des energy delivaed to the element is non-
linearly from 6 !o 18 V as ,r"des ftom O to negtive for all ttne.
10 min. ff i = 2 A durirg tbis time, find (a) O) Repeat part (a) if o = 3 !; i dt v.
the total energy supplied and O) the total t-25 Rep€at Prob. 1.24(a) if
chage delivercd to the bartery.
1.22 A! altemating curent i=2(e-,-r\A.t>o
i=lsintrA,t >0 :O,r<O
=0,r<0 1.26 Itr Prob. 1.24(a), fnd the total charye deliv-
ered to the eleltrert at r = ?'/8 s and the
is supplyirg an element for which the voltage power absorbed by the element at r = s.
''/16

Chapter 1 Probtems
17