PEDOLOGY

Genesis and Classification

Submitted To: Dr. Seema Singh

By: Rohit Singh Rana, MSc. IInd Year

Department of Geology, Panjab University Chandigarh

 Pedology (from Greek: Pedon, “soil” and Logos, “study”)
It is the branch of soil science that integrates and quantifies the
formation, morphology and classification of soils in their natural
environment.

Acc. to H. Jenny & J. S. Joffe, Soil (from Latin: Solum, “ground”) is

described as a natural body consisting of horizons of minerals and/or
organic constituents of variable thickness which differ from their parent
material in their morphological, mineralogical, physical, chemical and
biological characteristics.
 Genesis
Soil develops through series of changes:
1. Weathering (disintegration of parent material)
2. Accumulation, decomposition and humification of organic matter
3. Soil horizons (removal and deposition of various mineral and/or
organic soluble constituents results in contrasting horizons)
4. Developed soil supports thick vegetation

Five key factors of soil formation have been long recognized by

pedologists: parent material, climate, organisms, topography and time.
 Factor Description
1. Parent Material (p) It is the dominant soil-forming factor,
includes all material (bedrock and
residual soil) which are exposed at
surface and has direct contact with
atmosphere.

2. Climate (cl) Climate that the soil reacts to is

influenced by biotic cover that lies
between soil and atmosphere depend on
different independent variables
(precipitation, temperature and surface
water). Thus, soil climate is quite
different thing than is regional
atmospheric climate.

3. Organisms (o) It is biotic factor which depend on the

regional vegetation i.e. more the
vegetation more will be the organic
matter content.
 Factor Description
4. Topographic Relief (r) It includes direction of slope faces (which
effect microclimate that varies from
landscape to landscape) and effect of
shadowing.

5. Time (t) It is necessary for degree of development

since the rock has been exposed at
surface. Soil chronosequences can
provide valuable clues to relative or even
numerical ages of various landforms.

Acc. to Dokuchaev and Jenny functional-factorial model (Afanasiev, 1927):

P = f (k, Φ, g, v) where P is soil, k is climate, Φ is organisms, g is subsoil and v is age.

Modified Jenny’s clorpt model (Stephens, 1947) is:

S = f (p, cl, o, r, t) where S is soil, p is parent material, cl is climate, o is organisms, r is
topographic relief and t is time.
 Fig. 1.1 Hierarchical level of organisation for soils in earth
system which vary with key factors of soil formation. (Source:
Fortunato J. 2014, Science of Soil Development, slideshare.net)
 Soil Nomenclature (Horizons)
Soils are characterized by horizons: distinctive weathered zones, approximately
parallel to the surface of the ground, that are produced by soil forming processes.
Soil profile consist of vertical arrangement of all soil horizons down to the parent
material.
Three type of symbols are used in nomenclature: uppercase letters for master
horizons and lowercase letters & Arabic numericals for subordinate horizons.

Master horizons Description

O Uppermost surface horizon, surface accumulation of
mainly organic matter and overlying mineral soil may
or may not be saturated with water.
A Topsoil surface horizon, accumulation of humified
organic matter mixed with mineral fraction and later
is dominant more. It is dark coloured and below O
horizon.
Master horizons Description
E Zone of maximum eluviation (leaching), light
coloured horizon usually lie under O & A horizon
characterized by less organic matter and/or few
sesquioxides (compounds of Fe & Al) and/or less
clay than underlying horizon.
B Zone of illuviation (accumulation) or subsoil horizon
underlies O, A, and E horizons show little or no
evidence of the original rock structure or sediment.
K Usually occur in semi-arid areas, subsurface horizon
impregnated with carbonate (authigenic, 50% or >
50% by volume) which depicts its morphology.
C Saprolite or unweathered horizon below the zone
of major biologic activity and lack the properties of
A and B horizons.
R Bedrock horizon, deepest soil horizon consist of
consolidated parent material and has colour original
those of parent material.
 Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram showing different soil horizons.
(Source: neiwpcc.org/ soil horizons and layers/ Spokas L. A./
University of Massachusetts)
Subordinate horizons Description
h Humus rich, alluvial accumulation of amorphous
organic matter.
s Sesquioxides are dominant which coat the grains or
form pellets or may occur as pore filling for
cementation.
o Residual concentration of sesquioxides.
t Alluvial accumulation of clay.
k Alluvial accumulation of alkaline earth carbonates.
q Accumulation of 2° silica.
y Accumulation of gypsum.
z Accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum i.e.
NaCl.
g Reducing soil horizon, gleyed horizon(dark color).
f Horizons cementing by permanent ice.
b Burried soil horizon.
c Concretion or nodules cemented by Fe, Al, Mn or Ti.
p Horizon disturbed by cultivation.
 Soil Structure
Soil horizons have different structures which depend on the organic matter
(spheroidal structure), clay content (blocky, prismatic and columnar structures). In
general gravel content impede the structure which is important for movement of
water through the soil.
Structure Diagram Description
Granular It involves bonding together into
aggregates of individual soil
particles. Individual aggregates are
known as peds.
Commonly found in A horizon and
best for most of the plants.
Structure Diagram Description

Blocky Soil particles aggregate together

angular or subangular shape. It is
dominant in soil with high clay
content i.e. typically in B horizon.

Platy Overlapping horizontal layers,

usually in E horizon or could be in
Km, Bqm and Bs horizons.
 Structure Description

Prismatic These are bounded by flat to round vertical faces.

Units are longer vertically and top of prisms are
normally flat. It is found in B horizon.
Vesicular In fine grain desert, basically in arctic A horizon.

Spheroidal Spheroidically shaped aggregates with faces that don’t

accommodate adjoining bed faces.

(Source of structure diagrams: Kashyap A. 2013, Soil properties and classification, slideshare.net)
 Classification
The nomenclature of the U.S. soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) is systematic.
The hierarchy of terms, in descending order of rank is order (11), suborder (55),
great group (230), subgroup (1240), family and series.

Fig. 1.3 Simplified 11 soil orders of U. S. soil taxonomy.

(Source : Geomorphology, Bloom, A. L., Pg. 137)
After Soil Survey Staff, 1975; 12 soil orders are defined, based on
presence or degree of development of various horizons in soil profiles.
Soil classification based on organic matter: > 25% organic matter i.e.
organic soils and < 25% organic matter i.e. mineral soils.

Organic soils ( > 25% organic matter)

Soil Diagram Description
Histosol (ist.) Organic (peat and muck) soil.
 Mineral soils ( < 25% organic matter)
Soil Diagram Description
Entisol (ent.) Soil with little profile development,
without B horizon and not
dominated by swelling clays.

Vertisol (ert.) Soil with little profile development,

without B horizon and dominated
by swelling and cracking dark clay
soil of semi-arid regions.
 Soil Diagram Description

Inceptisol (ept.) Soil with little profile development

and with weak B horizon or weakly
differentiated horizons showing
alteration of parent materials.

Aridisol (id.) Soil with little profile development,

mostly weak B horizon and low in
organic matter, usually dry.
 Soil Diagram Description

Mollisol (oll.) Soil with distinct B horizon and

nearly black, thick and organic-rich
surface horizon (A) and high base
supply.

Alfisol (alf.) Soil with silicate clay enriched B

horizon, thin A horizon over E
horizon, fertile C horizon and
medium to high base supply.
 Soil Diagram Description

Ultisol (ult.) Soil with B horizon enriched of clay

accumulation, thin A horizon over E
horizon, infertile C horizon and low
base supply.

Spodosol (od.) Soil that has an accumulation of

amorphous materials in subsurface
horizons, humus and compounds of
Fe & Al are dominant.
 Soil Diagram Description

Oxisol (ox.) Soil that is highly weathered,

relatively infertile and dominated
by a mixture principally of kaolin,
hydrated oxides and quartz.

Andisol (and.) Soil derived from volcanic ejecta,

dominated by allophane
(amorphous clay mineral derived
from weathered volcanic rock) or
Al-humic complexes.
 Soil Diagram Description
Gelisol (el.) Soils with permafrost within 100
cm of the surface.

(Source of soil diagrams: Soil taxonomy, Second Edition, 1999, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Department of Agriculture, United States)
Fig. 1.4 Global soil regimes. (Source: Soil Survey Division,
Department of Agriculture, United States)
 References
1. Bloom, A. L., Third edition, 2012, Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of
Late Cenozoic Landforms, 134-139.
2. Brady, N. C., and Weil, R. R., 1996, Nature and Properties of Soils, Eleventh
Edition, Fig. 3-19.
3. Anderson, S. and Schaetzl R., Published 2005, Reprinted 2006, Soils Genesis
and Geomorphology, 121-122, 296-320.
4. slideshare.net, Fortunato, J. 2014, Science of Soil Development.
5. neiwpcc.org/ soil horizons and layers/ Spokas, L. A./ University of
Massachusetts.
6. slideshare.net, Kashyap, A. 2013, Soil Properties and Classification.
7. Soil taxonomy, Second Edition, 1999, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Department of Agriculture, United States.
8. Soil Survey Division Staff 1951 & 1957, Soil Survey Division, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.