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ABSTRACT

This dissertation presents a growth and development study of prehistoric coastal

Peruvian populations. Previous research indicates considerable variability between

human populations in growth and development events. This research establishes growth

and development standards for two prehistoric coastal Peruvian populations. Both dental

and long bone standards are presented. Adult stature and sexual dimorphism are also

studied as a culmination of growth and development and as indicators of general

population health. Results indicate that dental and long bone subadult aging standards,

developed from North American Indian samples are not appropriate for prehistoric

Andean populations. These results support previous evidence of variability between

human populations and suggest that further research is necessary to establish better

subadult skeletal and dental age standards for other parts of the world.
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©Copyright by Catherine M. Gaither, 2004

All Rights Reserved

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author owes so many acknowledgements to so many people it is hard to know where

to begin. First, I wish to thank the members of my committee, John Verano, Trent

Holliday and Katharine Jack, for all of their hard work in helping me to get this into an

acceptable format and for their valuable contributions. They worked very hard and I want

them to know I appreciate everything they did. I would also like to thank John Verano for

everything he did in helping me to get access to the various Peruvian collections and for

introducing me to all of the people in Peru that have helped me in this endeavor. Also, I

would like to thank him for everything he has taught me. I would like to thank Guillermo

Cock for not only helping me with this research, but for going above and beyond the call

of duty to help me gain access to collections and for giving me a place to stay while I was

in Lima. For this also, I would like to thank my very good friend and colleague, Mellisa

Lund. I would also like to thank my good friend and colleague, Jonathan Kent, for all of

his support and for everything he has taught me. I would also like to acknowledge the

numerous people in Peru who have been my friends and colleagues and whose help has

been so very valuable. These include Elena Goycochea, Victor Vásquez, Teresa Rosales

Tham, César Gálvez, Regulo Franco, Santiago Uceda and Guido Lombardi. Additionally,

I would like to acknowledge my colleagues, Melissa Murphy of the University of

Pennsylvania and Trisha Biers of the San Diego Museum of Man who were working with

me on the Puruchuco-Huaquerones collection, for their camaraderie and valuable input.

Finally, I would like to thank my family, without whose support, encouragement and

love, I would never have been able to accomplish this task.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... ii

Table Of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... iii

List Of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................iv

List Of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………….…..…vi

Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter Two: Review Of Literature ...........................................................................................................7

Chapter Three: Materials ........................................................................................................................... 36

Chapter Four: Methods……………………………………………………………………………….…. 48

Chapter Five: Results Of Analyses……………………………………………………………………….59

Chapter Six: Discussion…………………………………………………………………………….……..92

Chapter Seven: Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...114

Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………...……………..…123

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………………..127

References Cited…………………………………………………………………………………...…..…128
 iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Breakdown of sample sizes for Puruchuco and El Brujo..…...……………………….……37

Table 4.1 (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, pp. 114-115): Skeletal Pathology Code Key………………..49

Table 5.1: Developmental Stages and their Meanings……………………………………………….….60

Table 5.2: Developmental stages for all teeth……………………………………………………………61

Table 5.3: Average ages of male and female means for each tooth type and developmental stage. …62

Table 5.4: Ages derived from this study compared with those derived using
Ubelaker’s (1999) charts………………………………………………………………………………......63

Table 5.5: P values for t test of differences between Ubelaker’s ages and the ages derived from
this study – age categories are the ages derived from this study………………….………………….…66

Table 5.6: Results of paired t tests comparing mandibular premolars

as reference teeth with other mandibular tooth types…………………………………………………...67

Table 5.7: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the samples of Puruchuco…………71

Table 5.8: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the samples of El Brujo……………71

Table 5.9: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the Arikara samples……………….71

Table 5.10: Ranges of long bone lengths for Peruvian samples and
Arikara samples (taken from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………………………………………..72

Table 5.11: Standard deviations for long bone lengths for Peruvian samples and
Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………………………………………………73

Table 5.12: Ranges of long bone lengths, humerus and radius, for coastal
Peruvian populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………………………………74

Table 5.13: Ranges of long bone lengths, ulna and iliac breadth, for coastal
Peruvian populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)……………………………………….74

Table 5.14: Ranges of long bone lengths, femur and tibia, for coastal
Peruvian populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………………………………75

Table 5.15: Ranges of long bone lengths, fibula, for coastal

Peruvian populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………………………………75

Table 5.16: Results of Statistical Tests of Differences of Means for

Long Bone Lengths between Arikara and Peruvian Populations…………….……………………….80
 v

Table 5.17: Results of Statistical Tests of Differences of Means for

Long Bone Lengths between Indian Knoll and Peruvian Populations……………………..…..…….80

Table 5.18: Descriptive statistics for stature in males and females at Puruchuco and El Brujo……84

Table 5.19: Comparison data for stature demonstrating no significant

differences in stature between the sites of Puruchuco and El Brujo………………………………….85

Table 5.20: Spearman Correlation Coefficients For

Ages Birth Five Years……………………….……………………………………………………………88

Table 6.1: Average differences in years between the premolars and other tooth types……………...95

Table 6.2: Comparison of long bone lengths for coastal Peruvian populations
and Indian Knoll (from Johnston 1962)………………………………………………….…………….101

Table 6.3: Stature means of various Mesoamerican and South American cultures…………………106
 vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Map of the Location of the Site of El Brujo ……………………….……………...………..37

Figure 3.2: Mural of sacrifice victims presumably being led to their doom…………………………...39

Figure 3.3: Drawing of the wall at the site of El Brujo demonstrating Moche iconography…...….….39

Figure 3.4: Map showing the location of Lima and Puruchuco

Huaquerones (Cock 2002)…………………………………………………………………………………40

Figure 3.5: Bundle burial being x-rayed. ……………………………………………………………..…43

Figure 3.6: Map of the site of Puruchuco-Huaquerones……………………….……………………......44

Figure 3.7: The location of Sector 8 (blue area) within the site of Puruchuco-Huaquerones……...…45

Figure 3.8: A close-up showing Sector 8, "The Children's Cemetery"………………………………..45

Figure 3.9: A child’s bundle as it is prepared for endoscopy………………………………………..…46

Figure 4.1: Setup for radiography of bundles……………………………………………………………51

Figure 4.2: Polaroid radiographs of two mandibles from Puruchuco ………………………...……….51

Figure 4.3: Developmental stages of the crown, root, and apex of deciduous
mandibular canines (left) and molars (right) taken from Ubelaker (1999, p. 65)……...….…………..55

Figure 4.4: Developmental stages of crown, root, and apex for permanent
mandibular molars (top) taken from Ubelaker (1999, p.66)……………………………..…………..…55

Figure 4.5: Stages of root resorption for deciduous

mandibular canines and molars (Ubelaker 1999, p. 66)………………….……………………..………55

Figure 5.1: Dental Charts for Coastal Peruvian Populations……….………………………………….68

Figure 5.2: Ubelaker's (1999) Dental Charts…………………………….………………………………69

Figure 5.3: Humeral growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)…………………………………….………………………76

Figure 5.4: Radial growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)………………..…………………….…………………….76

Figure 5.5: Ulnar growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)…………………………………………….……….77

Figure 5.6: Iliac breadth growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)…………………………………………………...…77
 vii

Figure 5.7: Femoral growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)……………………………………………..……….78

Figure 5.8: Tibial growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)…….……………………………………………..…78

Figure 5.9: Fibula growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)……………………………………………..……….79

Figure 5.10: Humeral, radial and ulnar growth curves for

Arikara and Indian Knoll samples (Ubelaker 1999, p. 72)…………………………………………..…81

Figure 5.11: Femoral and tibial growth curves for

Arikara and Indian Knoll samples (Ubelaker 1999, p. 73)……………………………………………..82

Figure 5.12: Fibula length and iliac breadth growth curves for
Arikara and Indian Knoll samples (Ubelaker 1999, p. 73)……………………………………………..83

Figure 6.1: Humeral growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….102

Figure 6.2: Radial growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….102

Figure 6.3: Ulnar growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….103

Figure 6.4: Femoral growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….103

Figure 6.5: Tibial growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….104

Figure 6.6: Fibula growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the
Indian Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)…………………………………………………….104
 1

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Since the founding of the discipline of anthropology, the study of human growth

has played a significant role in the interpretation of human behavior and how it relates to

successful survival strategies. Early practitioners studied how humans respond

biologically to changes in the physical, socioeconomic and cultural environments to

which they are constantly subjected (Boas 1911, 1912). In doing so, they have been

successful in demonstrating that human beings are both biological and cultural entities.

Because of this, modern anthropological demography can be defined broadly as the study

of the biosocial characteristics of human populations and their changes through time

(Bogin 2001). Sometimes, distinguishing between the biological influences on the human

form and the social influences can be a difficult task, and nowhere is this more apparent

than in growth and development studies.

Human growth and development is unique "among many animals" in that it

includes an extended period of dependency that provides for brain development, the

acquisition of technical skills and time for socialization that includes the development of

complex rules and cultural behavior (Bogin 2001). This is possible without creating a

significant handicap for the parents and has resulted in a more adaptable species (Jolly

1985). This growth and development is accomplished in five stages: 1) infancy, 2)

childhood, 3) juvenile, 4) adolescence, and 5) adulthood. These stages are marked by

 2

variations in growth velocity and certain developmental events such as the eruption of

deciduous and permanent teeth, cessation of brain growth, acquisition of efficient

locomotion and sexual maturation (Bogin 2001).

Infancy is the stage between birth to about three years of age. It is characterized

by both the most rapid velocity in growth early in the stage and a steep decline in growth

rate towards the end. It ends, and childhood begins, when the child is weaned, which

occurs at approximately three to five years of age in traditional societies (Bogin 1988).

The deceleration in the rate of growth levels off during this stage until about six years of

age, when a modest acceleration known as the midgrowth spurt occurs. During

childhood, a number of significant events occur. These include the eruption of the first

adult molars, which allow the child to process an adult-type diet, the cessation of brain

growth which decreases nutritional demands, and, by the end of this stage, the acquisition

of an adult-style efficiency in locomotion (Bogin 2001; Bogin 1988). This occurs at about

seven years of age when the juvenile stage begins. This stage is characterized by the

slowest growth rate since birth. It ends in girls approximately two years earlier (at about

the age of 10) than in boys. This reflects the earlier onset of adolescence in girls, which is

defined as the stage in which social and sexual maturation take place. Adolescence is

characterized by a rapid acceleration in growth known as the adolescent growth spurt.

This acceleration in growth takes place in all of the major long bones of the body. At the

completion of this growth spurt, and after the attainment of adult stature and the

achievement of reproductive maturity (both physical and psychosocial), adolescence ends

and early adulthood begins. The attainment of adult stature means that the long bones of
 3

the skeleton have lost their ability to increase in length due to epiphyseal union (Bogin

2001).

Numerous studies indicate that a number of factors can influence these stages,

resulting in the wide range of variability in morphology observed in different human

populations (Bogin 2001, 1999; Holliday 1997; Larsen 1997; Lampl and Johnston 1996;

Tompkins 1996a, 1996b; Ruff 1994; Harris and McKee 1990; Angel 1984; Meiklejohn et

al. 1984; Rathbun 1984; Kennedy 1984; Collins Cooks 1984; Goodman et al. 1984;

Perzigian, Tench and Braun 1984; Larsen 1984; Ubelaker 1984; Allison 1984; Benfer

1984; Cohen and Armelagos 1984; Moore and Regensteiner 1983; Loevy 1983; Owsley

and Jantz 1983; Hassanali and Odhiambo 1981; Cherktow 1980; Demirjian et al. 1973;

Sapoka and Demirjian 1971; Meredith and Goldstein 1952). Aside from genetic

differences that can result from population isolation, genetic drift and gene flow, various

environmental factors - both in the physical and cultural environments - can either

improve or worsen conditions for growth. It is important, therefore, to understand these

influences given the possible impact they may have on the interpretation of

archaeological or paleopathological data, particularly for establishing age at death.

Age at death is a critical factor in the study of the paleodemography and health

status of archaeological populations. The accurate determination of subadult (all growth

stages preceding adulthood) age at death is especially important as juvenile mortality is

considered a sensitive measure of community health in communities where inadequate

nutrition and contaminated environments put children at high risk of succumbing to

diseases (Milner 1991). This is especially true for young children (<5 years) who have

immature immune systems. Subadult mortality has provided insights into many aspects of
 4

life in past societies including weaning stress (Saul 1976), social status and its correlation

with health (Powell 1991), and the occurrence of epidemics (Roberts and Manchester

1997; Cohen 1989). Such research is ultimately dependent, however, on the accuracy of

age estimation. Wood et al.‘s (1992) criticism of the ability of paleopathologists to

interpret the health status of past populations underscores the importance of accuracy of

osteological measurements (please see Chapter Two, Review of Literature for a more in-

depth discussion of this criticism).

The most accurate and preferred method for subadult age at death estimation in

archaeological samples is dental calcification and eruption (Saunders 2000; Johnston and

Zimmer 1989; Fanning 1962, 1961; Lewis and Garn 1960; Schour and Massler 1940).

Teeth, as the hardest substance in the human body (Sinclair 1989), are more likely to

survive in the archaeological record than other skeletal elements, and their formation and

eruption are events that are less affected by possible stressors such as malnutrition or

disease (Ubelaker 1999). Dental age estimation has to be as accurate as possible because

the other main method of age at death estimation in subadults, i.e. long bone lengths, is

based directly on dental calcification and eruption. The interpretation of discrepancies

between these two age indicators is dependent on accuracy as well. A child with

divergent dental and skeletal age indicators (long bone lengths) might be interpreted as

having suffered from nutritional or disease stresses. If standards from another population

sample are used to estimate these indicators, however, it will be difficult to know if the

discrepancy is real or an artifact of variation in growth parameters between populations.

Adult stature estimation formulae have been developed for various populations

based on the recognition that there is significant variance between groups (Ubelaker
 5

1999). Evidence suggests caution should also be used when extrapolating subadult

skeletal age estimates using standards established for other populations. Moorrees,

Fanning, and Hunt (1963) established one of the most widely used set of standards for

estimating the age of children based on dental calcification and development utilizing a

population sample of white American children of known age from Ohio. They recognized

that other populations might vary in the rate of dental development and suggested that

researchers using these standards should be aware of this limitation. Other studies have

demonstrated considerable variability of dental formation (Lampl and Johnston 1996,

Tompkins 1996a) and researchers have attempted to establish population-specific

standards in a variety of samples, including fossil hominids (Bermudez de Castro and

Rosas 2001; Ubelaker 1999, Tompkins 1996b, Owsley and Jantz 1983). In the New

World, studies of skeletal and dental age indicators have been done for only a few

archaeological populations - North American Archaic (Indian Knoll), Protohistoric

(Arikara), and Eskimo (Owsley and Jantz 1983; Merchant and Ubelaker 1977; Johnston

1962, Stewart 1954) – all of which have demonstrated considerable interpopulation

variability. Indeed, the variability demonstrated in these studies has prompted researchers

to call for further examination of dental development in as many population samples as

possible (Saunders 2000). Dental and skeletal age standards developed from North

American Indian samples, therefore, may not be appropriate for native Andean

populations, but this is a research question that has not been previously addressed and

such standards continue to be applied uncritically in the Andean region. Once dental

standards are established, long bone lengths at various ages can then be more accurately

determined, which will give the physical anthropologist more flexibility in estimating age
 6

at death since dental elements might not always be present. It will also permit for

additional studies of the relationship between childhood growth and health status, since

discrepancies between age indicators could suggest exposure to disease or nutritional

stresses. As with dental development, however, it is important to establish and utilize

standards that are appropriate for the population in question.

The most widely used methods for aging subadult Amerindian skeletal remains

are 1) Ubelaker's modifications of Moorrees, Fanning, and Hunt's (1963) dental charts, 2)

Merchant and Ubelaker's (1977) long bone lengths for the protohistoric Arikara and 3)

Johnston's (1962) long bone length charts developed from the Indian Knoll skeletal

material. Ubelaker developed dental charts for Amerindian populations by modifying the

charts produced by Moorrees, Fanning, and Hunt (1963). He based his modifications on

studies that demonstrated advanced dental development in Native American populations

over that of European American populations. Since little data is available from living

Native American populations, Ubelaker had to use the earliest age of dental development

for the white children (developed from Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt 1963) and use that

as the median age for Native American dental development. Owsley and Jantz (1983)

demonstrated that precocious dental development did occur in the Arikara and they were

able to pinpoint which teeth were significantly advanced in their development as well as

the amount of time by which they were advanced. Their study supported the use of

Ubelaker's standards of advanced development in the Arikara. The long bone studies

(Merchant and Ubelaker 1977; Johnston 1962) utilized dental remains to establish the

ages of the individual cases and then established standards for the long bone lengths

based on these ages. The standards established in these populations form the basis for the
 7

aging methods now recommended in standard osteology field and laboratory manuals

(Bass 1995, Ubelaker 1999, White 1991, Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). It is not clear,

however, whether these methods of age estimation should be applied uncritically to

prehistoric Mesoamerican and South American populations, which may show differences

in dental development timing and skeletal growth.

This study attempts to address this question by establishing growth and

development standards for prehistoric Andean South American populations. The

objective is to establish standards for deciduous and permanent tooth calcification and

eruption in pre-contact cultures of the north and central coast of Peru, and to use these

data to develop age standards based on long bone lengths. Additionally, the present study

will attempt to address discrepancies between these dental and long bone ages by noting

any correlation with evidence of disease or malnutrition. Secondary research questions

will address adult stature variation and stature-based sexual dimorphism as a culmination

of growth and development and possible indicators of differential access to nutritional

and/or health care resources.

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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Dental Calcification and Eruption

There are a number of studies that demonstrate strong genetic control over dental

development (Bogin 2001; Saunders 2000; Smith 1992). Recent studies (Smith 1991,

1992) demonstrate the correlation of dental development with various growth and

maturation variables. Smith (1991) found a strong correlation between adult brain weight

and the age of eruption of the first molar (r = 0.98). Other studies, based on

measurements of victims of disease and accidents, demonstrate that human brain growth

in weight is complete by about age seven (Bogin 2001, Cabana et al. 1993). For most

human populations the average age of eruption of the first molar is between 5.5 and 6.5

years (Bogin 2001). The significance of this is that the child becomes capable of dentally

processing an adult type diet, which requires that some adult teeth be in place, at about

the same time that nutritional requirements for brain growth diminish (Bogin 2001). This

is also the age, on average, that humans are able to master walking with adult-type

efficiency and style of gait. Kramer (1998) notes seven to eight year-old juveniles have

more than 90% the efficiency of adults. These growth factors, taken together, mark the

end of childhood, and this event is believed by some researchers (Bogin 2001) to be

accompanied by a small increase in growth velocity, also known as a midgrowth spurt.

Thus, the timing of these growth and development events is correlated with the changing

nutritional needs of the maturing child. Smith (1991) found a correlation between M1
 9

eruption and age at weaning [r = 0.93] as well as sexual maturation [r = 0.93 for both

males and females] and the aforementioned adult brain weight correlation with the

eruption of M1 [r = 0.98]. Bogin (2001) suggests that given this high correlation between

maturity events, a change in the timing of one of these events would probably result in a

change in them all.

While these studies may explain, in evolutionary terms, the similarities in growth

and development in the human species in general, there is considerable evidence that

specific human populations vary significantly in the timing of growth and development

events, including tooth formation and emergence (Bogin 2001, 1999; Lampl and

Johnston 1996; Tompkins 1996a, 1996b; Harris and McKee 1990; Loevy 1983; Owsley

and Jantz 1983; Hassanali and Odhiambo 1981; Cherktow 1980; Demirjian et al. 1973;

Sapoka and Demirjian 1971). Lampl and Johnston (1996) demonstrated as much as a 3.5

year variability in dental maturational rates. Their sample consisted of 1446 boys and

1482 girls, between the ages of 2 to 20 years, who were examined at the Ste. Justine

Hospital and the Growth Center in Montreal. They were all free from any disorder that

would retard growth and they were all of French-Canadian descent (Demirjian et al.

1973). Interestingly, Tompkins' (1996a) study utilized the same sample in a comparison

of dental development with samples of southern Africans and prehistoric Native

Americans. The results indicate the French-Canadians are delayed in the development of

the second and third mandibular molars when compared with the other two populations.

While Sapoka and Demirjian (1971) note that French-Canadians appear slower in dental

maturation than other North American children, the pattern of advancement in the

development of certain teeth in Native American, Asian, and African populations over
 10

their European counterparts is consistently supported (Harris and McKee 1990; Loevy

1983; Owsley and Jantz 1983; Cherktow 1980). Freitas and Salzano (1975), in a study of

302 white and 904 black Brazilian children at ages 6, 9, and 12, found that the black

children were advanced in tooth emergence over the white children early in the process,

but by ages 9 and 12, the dissimilarities disappeared. They noted that the differences in

timing were not large, but they were consistent. They also noted that the black children

were, in general, from a lower socioeconomic level than the white children, and thus, it

does not appear that the environment played a significant role in affecting eruption timing

since if timing were affected by nutritional deficiency, etc., it would have been delayed.

Harris and McKee (1990) found a similar pattern in African-Americans when compared

to European-Americans, both populations of which were residing in the middle southern

United States. They found mid-south African-Americans to be advanced in the

development of all teeth over mid-south European-Americans. Hassanali and Odhiambo

(1981), in a study utilizing 2847 children aged 4-14 years, found that Kenyan Africans

are advanced in the eruption of permanent teeth when compared with Kenyan Asians.

This pattern also holds true for third molar emergence as demonstrated in Hassanali's

(1985) study on 1343 African and 1092 Asian students between 13 and 23 years of age.

When the Kenyan data were compared with those of several other studies, Hassanali and

Odhiambo (1981) found a general pattern indicating African populations are advanced in

tooth emergence over Asians, American Whites, and British populations. The Asian

populations were advanced over American Whites and the British.

A number of other studies consistently demonstrate the advancement in tooth

development and emergence in Native American populations in comparison with

 11

European populations. Owsley and Jantz (1983), in their study of the protohistoric

Arikara, found that the development of maxillary incisors and mandibular second molars

in the Arikara was advanced over that of the white children in the study by Moorrees,

Fanning and Hunt (1963). They found these teeth were advanced in their development by

as much as 0.5-1.1 years and that third molar development was advanced by more than

two years. They concluded that the systematic occurrence of these observations was the

result of more than just individual variability; that it reflected genuine population

differences in tooth development. Garn and Moorrees (1951) found the emergence of

permanent teeth in Aleutian children to be advanced over that of white children,

particularly in the early years. Their study was conducted on Aleutian children who had

suffered a number of stressful experiences, including being held as prisoners of war,

being relocated to emergency camps and eventually being returned to their partially

destroyed homes. Their diet changed during this process from a high protein, low

carbohydrate diet to the opposite and back again. Despite these disruptive influences, it

appears their growth was not retarded either in tooth emergence or expected stature. The

authors attribute this to an increase in caloric intake despite a decrease in the general

quality of their diet. Additionally, they note consistent population patterns in tooth

emergence. The patterns reflect the general advancement of Native Americans over white

populations for this development parameter. Steggerda and Hill (1942) and Hellman

(1943) also found this to be the case. Steggerda and Hill (1942) found Navajo

populations to be the most advanced in tooth eruption when compared to Maya, black

and white population samples. They also found, as did Hellman (1943), that tooth

eruption was latest in European whites.

 12

While these studies demonstrate interracial variability, there is also evidence for

environmentally influenced variability within populations of the same race. A

comparison of the modern data gathered by Harris and McKee (1990) on mid-south

European-Americans with those for Ontario European-Americans, demonstrates

advancement in tooth development of the Ontario samples over the mid-south samples

(Bogin 2001). The interpretation is of regional differences in both environmental and

genetic components in dental calcification. Clearly, the physical environment of Ontario

differs significantly from that of the mid-south in the United States. This is one factor that

could affect tooth development, particularly considering differences in food types and

availability. Other environmental components might include cultural factors, such as

economic status, which would affect access to resources. It is also reasonable to conclude

that genetic components have an influence over tooth development given that the people

within these two regions would be more closely related to other people within each of

their respective regions than they would to other regional groups outside of their

environments. Thus, the fact that people within each of these regions were closer

genetically with each other than with people outside of their region might be reflected in

the differences seen between the groups, even though all were of similar racial descent

(Harris and McKee 1990). Additionally, Garn et al. (1961) found tooth formation to be

delayed in lineages where third molar agenesis (i.e. failure of the third molar to form)

occurs. Using a sample of 172 white children from Ohio, they found the development of

the premolars and the first and second molars was significantly delayed in children who

demonstrated third molar agenesis and also in their unaffected siblings (i.e. siblings

whose third molars did form). They also found differences in the sequence of tooth
 13

formation between affected and unaffected lineages. Another study by Garn et al. (1973)

did, however, demonstrate delays in tooth emergence in low-income groups when

compared with medium-income groups. This study also indicated the delay is more

significant in boys than it is in girls. Their study utilized 5788 white children and 3868

black children. They were divided according to income level. While the authors note that

tooth emergence was earlier in the black children in general, both groups demonstrated

delayed emergence in the lower income bracket as compared to their higher income

peers. This delay was most evident in boys regardless of race. They also noted that other

growth events were delayed or stunted as well. These include height, weight,

subcutaneous fat, hemoglobin levels and skeletal maturation. Interestingly, despite the

fact that tooth emergence was delayed in poverty-level black children relative to non-

impoverished black children, they were nonetheless advanced in comparison to middle-

income whites. The authors attribute this to the genetic factors involved in tooth

emergence; however, it appears that population affiliation may not be the only factor in

tooth development and emergence. Holman and Jones (2003) studied patterns of sex

differences in deciduous tooth emergence in Japanese, Javanese, Guatemalan and

Bangladeshi children. They found that there was no evidence that ethnicity mediated sex

differences in the emergence of deciduous teeth; however, they did find that the patterns

seen corresponded to the overall impression of the health and nutritional status of the four

samples.

Not only have studies addressed the variability in dental development of

anatomically modern humans, several researchers have also attempted to study variation

in fossil hominids. Koski and Garn (1957) attempted to address the problems with
 14

determination of growth and development standards in fossils, noting that previous

studies focused on the difference between the fossils and modern humans. They argue

researchers failed to make basic distinctions such as tooth eruption through the gum

versus past the alveolar ridge. They argue, when such distinctions are made, the fossil

hominids aren't much different from modern humans in their tooth emergence. Tompkins'

(1996a) study compared dental development in modern French-Canadians, southern

Africans, and prehistoric Native Americans with that of early modern Upper Paleolithic

children from sites in Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the Middle East, and a

mixture of Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens. Utilizing a modification of Demirjian

et al.'s (1973) system, Tompkins (1996b) scored the dental development of each case and

found, in general, that the Neanderthal/archaic H. sapiens samples and the Upper

Paleolithic early moderns were comparable with southern Africans. That is to say, the

fossil samples were advanced over the recent French-Canadian samples in the

development of the second and third molars. The Neanderthals/archaic H. sapiens were

advanced over the southern Africans in third molar development, but the author feels that

the inclusion of one particular specimen, Rabat 1, may have skewed those results. When

this specimen is excluded from the analysis, the difference between the

Neanderthals/archaic H. sapiens and the southern Africans does not rise to the level of

statistical significance. The fossil samples are delayed in the development of the first

incisor and premolar (Tompkins 1996b).

Tompkins (1996b) offers two hypotheses for the differences reported in this

study. The first concerns the variation in tooth/jaw size relationships. Basically, this

postulates that the more space available in the jaw, the more advanced the molar
 15

development will be. The second hypothesis concerns the correlation of all growth and

development events. Basically, this states that the advancement in dental development is

reflective of a general pattern and correlated with a potential for advanced skeletal

maturation as well. Indeed, advanced maturation in both males and females is associated

with significantly taller and heavier individuals as compared with those individuals

whose maturation is delayed (Frisancho and Housh 1988). Since dental development is

less affected by environmental factors than skeletal maturation, it is not unexpected to see

some populations with advanced dental development despite delayed or retarded skeletal

maturation, particularly where the populations exist in challenging environments. Thus,

the advanced dental development reflects the potential for precocious development in

general, whether that potential is achieved or not. While Tompkins (1996b) doesn't argue

for one hypothesis over another, he does note that the Neanderthals and early moderns

share similar patterns of dental development and these patterns have continued from the

Upper Pleistocene to the present.

In terms of ultimate cause, precocious development may be beneficial in two

ways. First, as Tompkins (1996) points out, all else being equal, natural selection favors

individuals who reproduce earlier because their genes enter the gene pool sooner than

their non-reproductive peers and may become predominant. This is particularly true if

nothing else acts to counterbalance the advantage of reproducing earlier. Additionally,

unlike non-human primates, humans are unique in that they wean their young prior to the

eruption of M1 (Bogin 2001). This is when the period of infancy ends and childhood

begins. The effect of this is a shortened interbirth interval. Women in traditional societies

wait an average of three to five years between births rather than the six years that would
 16

be expected based on the eruption of M1 (Bogin 2001). Studies indicate the interbirth

interval in traditional societies is the result of several factors including postpartum taboos

on sexual activity and postpartum amenorrhea associated mainly with the duration of

lactation (Ogan et al. 1976; Gage et al. 1989). In more complex societies, studies indicate

a decline in the duration of lactation and postpartum amenorrhea and typically a

shortened interbirth interval as well (Gage et al. 1989; Wetterstrom 1986). Because of the

shortened birth interval, even in traditional societies, it is possible for humans to give

birth to and raise two offspring in the amount of time it takes other apes to produce and

rear one. This gives humans a greater potential, with respect to lifetime fertility, than any

other ape; however, it presents a paradox in that childhood dependency in humans is

longer and development is slower. In order to assure that the birth of another child will

not result in the death of an earlier born child, humans completely provision all of their

children with food, something that is rarely seen in non-human primates (Lancaster and

Lancaster 1983). Non-human primates may share food with their young, but complete

provisioning is non-existent (Lancaster and Lancaster 1983; Bogin 1989). Another part of

ensuring the survival of multiple offspring may be the use of other children and

adolescents as caretakers, which provides for the enculturation and caretaking of the

young while freeing the adults to provide the necessities of life. All things are not always

equal, however, and there may be advantages to both delayed reproduction and prolonged

birth intervals. Using resources to fight disease and starvation rather than reproduce is

one example. The reduction of the infancy period and evolution of the childhood period

seen in humans gives the species more flexibility in adjusting birth rates during times of

difficulty or the alleviation thereof, which is where the real advantage lies (Bogin 2001).
 17

Thus, because it contributes to this flexibility, precocious development (as may be

evident in dental formation and eruption timing) can be seen as selectively advantageous.

Long Bone Lengths

Skeletal age based on long bone length is useful, albeit not as accurate, in the

absence of dental elements and as an indicator of health when compared with dental age.

Additionally, age standards based on postcranial measurements can be established for

fetal skeletons (Weaver 1998; Fazekas and Kosa 1978) where dental formation is difficult

to assess since the teeth are unerupted and not readily visible without the aid of

radiography. Comparative studies of long bone lengths demonstrate considerable

variability between populations. Johnston (1962) measured the long bones of infants and

children up to five years of age from Indian Knoll, a 5000-year old archaic site in south-

central Kentucky. This study utilized the remains of 165 infants and children up to

approximately 5.5 years of age, including 9 skeletons considered to be fetal. The author

used both dental and osseous criteria to establish the age at death. The use of dental

standards established on other populations may be a limiting factor for the study,

however, as those standards may not be appropriate for use on prehistoric Native North

American populations. Despite this possible problem, the results indicate that while the

children of Indian Knoll showed similar growth curves to American white children, their

rates were slower with the mean differences becoming statistically significant after two

years of age. Johnston also analyzed limb proportions and found differential growth rates

with the lower extremity growing faster. Johnston (1962) argued that environmental

factors were generally responsible for the depressed growth rate, but these may have

acted in conjunction with genetic tendencies toward 'population shortness'. He refers to

 18

other studies that have demonstrated differences in growth rates in populations inhabiting

dissimilar environments, with the more rigorous environment limiting growth potential,

despite similar hereditary backgrounds (Meredith and Goldstein 1952).

Merchant and Ubelaker's (1977) study of the Arikara Indians yielded similar

results to that of Indian Knoll. These authors studied skeletons excavated from the

Mobridge Site cemetery in South Dakota. The cemetery is believed to represent the

occupation by the protohistoric Arikara, an agricultural group present in the area during

the first half of the 18th century. They utilized 193 skeletons estimated to be between the

ages of birth and 19 years. These estimates were based on dental development using the

standards of Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt (1963). The results are very similar to those of

Indian Knoll in that the growth rates are lower despite similar curves when compared

with white children from the United States. The authors of this study recognized that the

use of dental development standards developed on white children may tend to over-age

the skeletons and thus underestimate the growth of the Arikara and Indian Knoll samples.

Studies of modern Amerindian children do demonstrate that they lag behind their Asian

counterparts, and well behind European children, in almost all indicators of growth

including height, weight and skinfold thickness, although this is most certainly tied to

impoverished socioeconomic conditions and resultant inadequate nutrition (Eveleth and

Tanner 1990). Another limitation noted by Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) was that white

samples examined radiographically were composed of normal healthy children while the

skeletal samples may contain children who died from diseases or health conditions that

could have affected growth. This problem is considered particularly relevant by Wood et

al. (1992) who question the validity of paleodemographic interpretation of skeletal

 19

samples, particularly in the case of subadults, because they are individuals who died

young and are not representative of healthy or even normal childhood growth.

Wood et al. (1992) question the ability of paleopathologists to effectively interpret

the health status of a given population based on the remains of those individuals who

died. They state that an examination of individuals who died at any given age yields very

little information about the risk, to the population as a whole, of death at that age.

Furthermore, they argue that skeletons with more evidence of stress, such as enamel

hypoplasia or porotic hyperostosis, are actually indicative of a healthier individual

because these stressors indicate the individual survived the event at least long enough to

form a skeletal response. They give numerous examples, but of particular relevance to the

present study is their implication that during times of high mortality, more individuals of

varying stature die and thus raise the average stature seen in the skeletons from that time

period. During times of lower mortality, the frail, i.e. the short-statured individuals, are

more likely to die, and therefore, the skeletal samples seen are non-representational of

population stature averages. As pointed out by Goodman (1993), however, the flaw in

this analysis is the failure to examine the relationship between the environment and

stature and mortality. Wood et al. (1992) seem to be saying that the short-statured

individuals, at any age, are frail because of their stature. They ignore the environmental

link that affects both frailty and stature. They are not frail because they are short, rather

they are both frail and short because of their exposure to certain environmental conditions

that have resulted in a stressful living situation. "Stunting" is seen as a growth-sparing

response to certain environmental conditions such as malnutrition (Acheson 1960; Tanner

1986; Goodman 1993). Thus, groups of skeletons from a sample that demonstrate
 20

shortened statures can be interpreted, particularly in combination with other information

about the site, to indicate that at least a portion of the population faced stressful living

conditions. Of particular importance is that none of the analyses are done in isolation.

Paleopathological analyses involve more than simply the study of a disease or condition

and how it relates to mortality. The cultural context, the physical environment and the

impact of diseases/conditions in ways other than causing death are all among several

important factors (Goodman 1993).

Adult Stature and Health Status

Stature has long been recognized as a cumulative measure of nutritional status and

generally indicative of population health (Goodman 1993; Bogin 2001). One area of

study where stature has been examined as an indicator of population health is the

transition worldwide from hunting and gathering economies to agriculture (Angel 1984;

Meiklejohn et al. 1984; Rathbun 1984; Kennedy 1984; Collins Cooks 1984; Goodman et

al. 1984; Perzigian, Tench and Braun 1984; Larsen 1984; Ubelaker 1984; Allison 1984;

Benfer 1984; Cohen and Armelagos 1984). The general results of these studies suggest a

decline in health with the rise of agriculturally dependent economies; however, the

findings for stature are more ambiguous. Decreases in stature among Neolithic

populations were evident in many parts of the world (Kennedy 1984; Angel 1984; Larsen

1984; Meiklejohn, Schentag and Venema 1984), but not in others (Allison 1984;

Ubelaker 1984; Rose et al. 1984). Most researchers agree that stature reflects population

health in general, but that specific causes of changes in stature may be difficult to

pinpoint (Meiklejohn, Schentag and Venema 1984; Cohen and Armelagos 1984).
 21

Meiklejohn, Schentag and Venema (1984) found a trend of decreasing stature

from the Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic in samples from western Europe with

this trend more strongly manifest in females. They also found a coastal-inland dichotomy

in stature with coastal samples demonstrating a shorter stature than inland populations.

While the differences didn't reach the level of statistical significance, the authors suggest

the possibility of shortened stature due to trace element imbalances caused by

dependence on marine resources. Angel (1984) also found decreased stature in the

eastern Mediterranean during the Mesolithic. He lists among the possible causes the

substitution of fish and seafood for land mammal meat, which resulted in a lower caloric

intake. Not every region of the world, however, demonstrated a decline in stature at the

rise of agriculture. Ubelaker (1984) found no clear trend in Ecuador through time. He

notes, in fact, that prehistoric statures are very close to published data on modern

indigenous populations. Likewise, Allison (1984) only found a decline in stature after

colonial occupation among natives in Peru and Chile. He studied samples from Ancash in

Peru to Tarapaca, Chile ranging in age from 6000-400 B.P. All of the individuals studied

died on the coast although mountain/inland populations were represented. These studies

suggest that the causes of changes in stature may be more complex than previously

thought.

Stature has been viewed as an indicator of nutritional status and many researchers

link stature to the availability of protein (Garn and Moorrees 1951; Rose et al. 1984;

Larsen 1995); however, they also note the influence of non-dietary factors as well. The

availability of protein may not be the only nutritional factor as the kind of protein or its

caloric value may be equally important. As mentioned previously, Meiklejohn, Schentag

 22

and Venema (1984) suggested trace element imbalances may result from a marine

dependent diet despite the fact that marine resources are generally considered a good

protein source. Furthermore, Angel (1984) suggested the possibility that a reliance on

seafood and fish, which are lower in calories than red meat, could be responsible for

shortened stature. Other studies suggest that differential access to nutritional resources

may be reflected by stature variation within populations (Bogin and Keep 1999; Mascie-

Taylor 1991; Faulhaber 1984; Jordan and Gutierrez-Muniz 1984). Stature variation can

be seen within the context of economic, social and political environments suggesting that

these culturally created environs are impacting access to resources. Bogin and Keep

(1999) found that stature changes in Latin America can be tied to various political events

that either benefited or harmed the economy. They note a general increase in stature in

Latin America between the years of 1940 and 1989, which they argue is due to the

economic benefits from the after-effects of World War II. In a study of the association of

women's stature and sexual dimorphism with the sexual division of labor, type of

subsistence, and polygyny, Holden and Mace (1999) found that the stature of women was

positively correlated with an increased contribution to food production and that sexual

dimorphism decreased correspondingly. Numerous studies of prehistoric Latin American

cultures indicate stature varied by social status. Elite Mesoamerican males were taller

than non-elite males and the elite shamans from the Maitas-Chiribaya culture (ca. 2000

BP) in Chile were taller than other non-elite males (Allison 1984; Haviland 1967). The

implication with all of these studies is that as the general economy of a culture, or the

status of a particular group, either improves or declines, there is a corresponding

improvement or worsening of access to resources. These resources include a number of

 23

items that may affect stature, such as nutritional resources, access to health care, and

better living conditions where exposure to disease is reduced.

Still other factors that affect stature include altitude and climate. Studies such as

those conducted by Ruff (1994) and Moore and Regensteiner (1983), demonstrate that

body shape is influenced by these environmental factors. Moore and Regensteiner's

(1983) analysis of populations living at elevations above 2500 meters in four regions of

the world (the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Ethiopian Highlands, and the

Himalayas) demonstrated smaller body size in general, including shorter stature in some

highland populations, but an equivocal picture emerged in other highland populations.

Height and weight were lower in highland Andean populations, as compared with

lowland populations, due to a late, poorly defined growth spurt. Despite the fact that the

growth period was prolonged into the third decade of life, as is common in individuals

whose growth spurt is retarded or even absent (Bogin 2001), the highland populations

still did not attain the stature levels of lowland populations (Moore and Regensteiner

1983). This was also the pattern seen in children of both Amerindian and European

ancestry. The authors attribute this to a response to high altitude hypoxia rather than poor

nutrition or lack of medical care. They also note it is developmental rather than genetic as

high altitude attributes are evident in people of low altitude ancestry and vice versa

(Moore and Regensteiner 1983).

The pattern is not universal, however, indicating other factors may influence

stature. In Ethiopian populations living at 3000 meters, advanced growth is characteristic

among the children, and in a study of high altitude Nepalese Sherpas compared with low

altitude Tibetans, both groups demonstrated similar body and chest dimensions. The
 24

authors suggest that better nutrition and health care than their lowland counterparts might

explain the Ethiopian results and the Nepali study may have been complicated by the fact

that the low altitude dwelling Tibetans have high altitude ancestors (Moore and

Regensteiner 1983). This is somewhat contradictory, however, as they were suggesting

the body shape differences seen in the Andes were due to high altitude hypoxia and not

the condition, common to the region, of poor nutrition and health care. Whereas, they

believe poor nutrition was not a factor in the Andean study, resulting in shorter stature,

they now suggest good nutrition played a role in the Ethiopian populations resulting in a

taller stature. They also state that differences were developmental rather than genetic in

the Andean case, but are basically arguing that genetics played a role in the results seen

in the Nepali study.

It appears there may be significant difficulty in "teasing out" the specific causes of

stature variation. There is considerable evidence, however, that environmental factors

such as health care and nutrition, do significantly affect stature and that short stature can

be passed on to children for reasons other than genetic inheritance. An undernourished

girl in poor health makes compromises, physically speaking, in order to survive. This

generally means that her growth, including that of her reproductive system, will be

reduced. If she later becomes pregnant, she will not be able to supply the fetus with

normal levels of nutrients or oxygen because of her small reproductive system. This

causes the fetus to grow more slowly and the woman is more likely to give birth to a low-

birth-weight baby (Bogin 2001; Bogin 1988). This is supported by a study on

Guatemalan women, who with a mean stature of 142.4 cm, are among the shortest

samples of women in the world (Bogin 1988). The shortest of these gave birth to babies
 25

with an average birth weight of 2.85 kg versus an average of 3.02 kg for the tallest among

them. There was also a higher infant mortality rate for the babies born to shorter women,

who averaged 2.7 surviving children as compared to the 3.2 surviving children of the

taller women (Bogin 1988). Low-birth-weight babies (<2500g [5.5 lbs.]), tend to

continue their slow growth pattern throughout their childhood and are usually

significantly shorter than people of normal birth weight by the time they reach their teens.

This has been demonstrated in monozygotic twins who are identical genetically, but were

unequally nourished in utero (Bogin 2001; Falkner 1966; 1978). In one case, Falkner

(1966; 1978) reports that full term monozygotic twin boys, one of whom was nourished

by only 40 percent of the placenta in utero, demonstrated birth weights of 1,460 and

2,806 grams and birth lengths of 43 cm and 50 cm respectively. Not only were their birth

weights and lengths affected, but the difference in size persisted through 16 years of age

despite some initial catch-up growth on the part of the smaller twin. At 16 years old, their

heights and weights were 161.9 cm and 50.6 kg for the smaller twin and 167.3 cm and

58.5 kg for the larger twin. Bogin (2001) notes that while within group stature variation

may be largely due to genetic effects, the much larger between population variation is

mostly due to the impact of the environment on growth. The question remains, however,

as to which environmental factors may be at play in any given situation.

Ruff (1994) argues that body shape is an indicator of human adaptation to

changes in climate. Shortened limbs, increased body width and weight are adaptations to

cold climates because these changes reduce relative surface area, thereby increasing the

body's ability to conserve heat. The opposite is true in warm climates. This is supported

by what are known as Bergmann's and Allen's Rules. These rules state that in a
 26

morphologically variable endothermic species inhabiting a wide geographic range, larger-

bodied variants and variants with shorter extremities will be found in colder climates, and

smaller-bodied variants with longer extremities will be found in warmer climates (Mayr

1956, 1963). Recent studies indicate, however, that differential changes in nutrition in

tropical, developing world populations are moderating the influence of climate on body

size and morphology (Katzmarzyk and Leonard 1998). Katzmarzyk and Leonard (1998),

in a study utilizing 223 male samples and 195 female samples, found that, in general,

humans do conform to Bergmann's and Allen's Rules, but secular trends in body mass,

particularly in tropical populations, have weakened the association between climate and

body proportions. Their study seems to demonstrate that nutritional influences can

moderate genetic tendencies. These kinds of studies indicate that numerous factors may

influence stature both between and within populations and over time and suggest that

population-specific standards for as many populations as possible are necessary.

ANTHROPOMETRY AND GROWTH RESEARCH IN ANDEAN

POPULATIONS

Anthropometric studies in the Andean region that have focused on cranial

variation have included such topics as the frequency and range of variation (Howells

1973) or population affiliation based on microvariation (Verano 1987). Studies of

postcranial variation have predominantly focused on highland versus lowland body shape

and size (Eveleth and Tanner 1990; Moore and Regensteiner 1983; Tanner 1978) or the

effects of the economy on growth and development (Bogin and Keep 1999; Faulhaber

1984; Jordan and Guitierrez-Muniz 1982). Specific questions, such as the relationship

between sexual dimorphism and stature (Valenzuela et al. 1977), variation in body
 27

measurements within and between specific communities (Lasker 1962) or between the

offspring of immigrants and those of natives (Lasker 1960), have also been addressed.

The majority of these studies have focused on living populations. They provide data on

stature, both of adults and subadults, that indicate highland populations, in general, are

shorter in stature than lowland populations. They also demonstrate that stature is affected

by a number of factors including diet, health, climate and altitude (Moore and

Regensteiner 1983), but may be stunted in highland environments because of hypoxia,

cold, and increased energy requirements. Tanner (1978) suggests that small body size

may be more adaptive under these conditions. These studies also indicate that stature

fluctuates in response to the economic well-being of the study area, increasing during

times of plenty and decreasing during times of economic crisis (Bogin and Keep 1999;

Eveleth and Tanner 1990).

A number of studies have examined the relationship between growth and altitude.

As discussed previously, Moore and Regensteiner (1983) found ambiguous results for

stature. In the Andean region, they found shorter statures in highland populations as

compared to their lowland counterparts. While they attributed this to high altitude

hypoxia, it is unclear what role malnutrition and poor health care may play. They did,

however, find that high altitude Andean populations have a higher incidence of

congenital malformations, fewer live births, higher childhood mortality and lower infant

birth weights than lowland populations. They also found a possible modest reduction in

fertility, an increase in mortality from emphysema, an increase in the incidence of high

altitude pulmonary edema and chronic mountain sickness. The latter is characterized by

excessive polycythemia (an increase in red blood cell production and content), occurs
 28

more frequently in males and can result in stroke or heart failure at an early age (Moore

and Regensteiner 1983). Frisancho et al. (1995) studied the aerobic capacity at high

altitude and found that subjects acclimatized to high altitudes since birth have a greater

aerobic capacity than those acclimatized in adulthood. They found that approximately 20-

25% of the variability in capacity can be explained by genetic factors, but the expression

of these genetic factors is mediated by environmental factors, such as body fat and

occupational activity level. For individuals acclimatized after birth, greater capacity was

seen in individuals acclimatized before age 10 as compared to those after age 10. In an

earlier study, Frisancho, Velasquez and Sanchez (1975) found that in shorter Quechua

subjects the maximum oxygen intake per unit of body weight was greater and that

residual lung volume, thoracic elasticity and mean hemoglobin concentration were

positively correlated with maximum oxygen intake. They argue these results support the

idea that the differences in high altitude populations, with respect to body size, are

adaptive in nature.

Research conducted by Leonard et al. (1995) on growth in general found highland

Ecuadorian children were significantly shorter, although not lighter, than their coastal

peers. This longitudinal study examined socioeconomic and ecological determinants of

growth and nutritional status of children in rural agricultural communities. The

researchers found a number of interesting results including the fact that linear growth was

more compromised than that of body weight, the "faltering period" for both height and

weight occurred generally during the first 24 months of life, and that high altitude

hypoxia plays a relatively small role in shaping growth during the first five years of life.

They also found little or no "catch-up" growth in height, although it did occur with
 29

weight, particularly among highland females. Furthermore, the timing and degree of

growth retardation mirrors that of other impoverished areas of the world, which suggests

it is more likely due to nutritional and disease stressors. This is supported by the fact that

urban Ecuadorian children are significantly taller and heavier than these rural children

(p<0.001 for highland populations, rural vs. urban and p<0.005 for height and p<0.001

for weight in coastal populations). The greater weight gains in the highland females

might reflect greater disease loads in coastal areas. Some 53% of coastal mothers

reported a sick child in the previous 5 days as compared to 30% of highland mothers. The

authors suggest that, in particular, diarrheal diseases may explain the differences in

weight. The authors conclude, therefore, that high rates of infection, poor nutrition and

other factors associated with poverty are shaping growth in these groups, more so than

altitude (Leonard et al. 1995).

Frisancho (1976) found different results in a study of growth and morphology

among high altitude Quechua natives in the Peruvian town of Nuñoa. The research

demonstrated unquestionably slow physical growth with poorly defined adolescent

growth spurts and a prolonged growth period (to the age of 22 years in men and 20 years

in women). Furthermore, adolescent maturation was delayed as indicated by delayed

prepubescent darkening in skin color, skeletal maturation and mineralization. Frisancho

(1976) found, however, that protein and caloric intake was not correlated with stature

during either growth or in adulthood. He also found that differences in weight and

subcutaneous fat did not parallel differences in stature. Using parent-offspring

correlations, he concluded the genetic contribution to variation in height is less than that

for western populations, and given the experimental evidence derived from animal
 30

studies and other research done on human populations at high altitude, high altitude

hypoxia may offer the best explanation for the differences. He argues growth retardation

due to hypoxia can be distinguished from that due to nutritional deficiencies by an

examination of the cellular pattern. Hypoxic conditions result in growth retardation

because of a low number of cells as compared to a low mass of cytoplasm produced with

conditions of nutritional deficiency. He does note, however, that despite the lack of

correlation between protein and caloric intake and stature, nutritional influences cannot

be ruled out given that dietary intake as reported by the subjects may not be truly

reflective of their total nutritional status. He therefore concludes that the retarded growth

and development reflects a synergic influence of high altitude hypoxia, hypocaloric

stress, and genetic factors (Frisancho 1976).

In studies of the genetic structure of the Quechua, Garruto and Hoff (1976) and

Dutt (1976) found complementary results. Garruto and Hoff (1976) studied several

genetic markers, including digital/palmar dermatoglyphic patterns, ABO and Rh blood

groups, PTC-tasting ability and lingual rotation, in 362 male Quechua Indians from five

populations of varying ecozones. These zones ranged from 4,400 meters above sea level

to sea level. The researchers concluded that the southern Peruvian Quechua are a

relatively homogenous population. They note the probable existence of gene flow

between these populations, but argue that moderate to strong selection pressures are at

play in these groups. They suggest, therefore, that there may be strong directional

selection pressures in all Altiplano Quechua populations that are responsible for specific

genotypes. This, combined with genetic communication between the various Quechua
 31

communities, has reduced genotypic variability and resulted in the maintenance of group

similarities.

Dutt (1976), in a study of population movement and gene flow, also found the

Quechua population of Nuñoa to be isolated and genetically homogenous, but he argued

that the isolation was recent and not great enough for genetic drift to be an important

influence in the genetic structure of the population. He argued, therefore, that the

differences between this population and those of the surrounding area are likely due to

the effects of local differences in selection pressure or genetic differences in the

populations that originally settled the area. Dutt (1976) notes, however, the gene flow

into this population was probably greater in size in the past than it is today. There is a rate

of gene flow into the modern population of between 10 and 15 percent per generation and

an emigration rate of approximately 2.5% per year. Thus, it seems, with greater gene flow

in the past, it would be expected that the genetic structure of the modern population

should show significant differences from that of the founding population. In a more

recent study of the area, Leatherman, Carey and Thomas (1995) found very little change

in patterns of growth in the region over the past 30 years. They found only that

adolescents were taller, heavier and somewhat fatter and that age of maturation and

cessation of growth came one to two years sooner, although none of this translated into

taller, heavier or fatter adults. They concluded, therefore, that despite social and

economic changes, differential access to the benefits of that change was still apparent.

Lasker (1962), in a study of three communities on the north coast of Peru near the

town of Chiclayo, found significant differences in anthropometric measurements between

two of the towns with the third being intermediate between those two. He notes that
 32

measurements of immigrant-parents as compared to native-parents indicates that

migration is reducing the differences. These communities include people of European

admixture as well as those described by Lasker (1962) as being the "most Indian in

appearance." Of the latter, he notes the similarity with high altitude communities and

suggests that the same "type" occurs in both the mountain regions and along the coast.

Furthermore, he suggests that while some studies (Newman 1960) demonstrate

significant differences in height and weight in response to climatic differences where

wide bands of latitude are concerned, this is not the case when nearby mountain and

lowland populations are compared. He suggests other factors, such as the recency of

occupation, diet, and inbreeding, may be more important in that case (Lasker 1960). In

another study examining the effects of migration, Lasker (1960) found significant

differences in body measurements between offspring with one or more immigrant parents

and those of natives. He notes variance is higher among the immigrant offspring and

concludes that one of the effects of migration is to increase variability in succeeding

generations.

Studies on skeletal populations have demonstrated much the same for prehistoric

groups with societal stressors including the rise of agriculture (and a concomitant decline

in dietary variety with over-reliance on foods that may block the absorption of iron),

social stratification, and contact with European populations (Bogin and Keep 1999;

Larsen 1997; Ubelaker 1994; Webster et al. 1993; Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Ubelaker

(1994) found a decline in stature with the rise of agriculture in prehistoric cultures of

Ecuador. He attributes later within-group variation in stature to social stratification and

notes a significant reduction in stature after contact with Europeans (pre-contact mean =
 33

163.4 cm for males, 152.9 cm for females; post-contact mean = 159.5 cm for males,

148.6 cm for females). In an earlier study, however, Ubelaker (1984) didn't find any clear

trend in Ecuadorian samples in stature. In fact, the only notable difference he found

between non-agricultural hunting and gathering populations and agricultural samples was

an increase in alveolar abscesses. Even the rates of caries and tooth loss remained

constant at the different archaeological sites, regardless of mode of subsistence. This led

Ubelaker (1984) to conclude it wasn't possible to identify exact correlations between

skeletal changes and changes in subsistence.

Benfer‘s (1984) study at the coastal site of Paloma in Peru demonstrates that as

the population there adapted to sedentary life, nutrition and health improved and stature

increased. While not dealing directly with agriculture, Benfer (1984) analyzed the

adaptation to sedentism and food production at this large site in Peru dating to between

8000 and 4500 BP. Benfer (1984) found several indicators that health improved through

time. These indicators include an increase in stature, and a decrease in mortality,

diminished sexual dimorphism and a decrease in the frequency of Harris lines. The earlier

levels at the site indicate a mixed hunting and collecting economy utilizing the nearby

river valleys and western flanks of the Andes. The middle levels demonstrate a possible

cultivation or management of various plant species including the bottle gourd, lima beans

and squash. The upper levels demonstrate a greater reliance on marine resources. The

skeletons with the most indicators of stress are found in the lowest levels. Benfer (1984)

argues that this reflects adaptation to sedentism and food production, as is demonstrated

in other parts of the world, over time.

 34

Cohen and Armelagos (1984) argue that the economic and political forces

necessary to organize and maintain intensive agriculture efficiently increases social

stratification, which adds to the stresses of a restricted diet that results from reliance on

agriculture, resulting in a decline in health, particularly for the lower class. This is

evidenced by a decline in stature in populations in Ecuador, dating to ca. 1000 BP, as

compared to the pre-ceramic Paloma site in Peru. Webster et al. (1993) note that warfare

and military conquest common in the Andean region at this time would have further

exacerbated the plight of the lower class. The plight of the lower class is usually

associated with the restricted diet and particularly an over-reliance on certain agricultural

products such as maize in the New World. Maize contains substances called phytates that

inhibit the absorption of iron in the intestines and can result in an iron deficiency anemia

(Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Ubelaker, Katzenberg and Doyon (1995) found evidence

at the Ecuadorian site of La Florida, however, that elites were consuming more maize

than non-elites, probably in the form of chicha beer. Their stable isotope analysis of nine

high status individuals, as compared to 23 low status individuals, demonstrated a

statistically significant difference in δ 13C for both protein and mineral sources of carbon

indicating more maize consumption in the high status group. Thus, it appears that

generalizations for stature and other growth indicators, cannot be assumed at any site.

Therefore, it is necessary to analyze as many populations as possible.

In a more comprehensive study, Bogin (2001) and Bogin and Keep (1999)

examined changes, mainly in stature, over time in Latin America in general. They

analyzed stature in various cultures spanning an 8000-year period. They used data

collected from Mesoamerica and South America from various archaeological sites and
 35

living cultures. They found a number of increases and decreases through time with stature

changes mirroring social, economic and political changes and how those changes affected

access to resources. General trends indicate that hunting and gathering cultures were

taller in general than cultures that relied on intensive agriculture. Not all sedentary food

producers, however, relied on intensive agriculture and some of these groups

demonstrated increasing stature over time as they adapted to sedentism. Other trends

include significant post-contact declines in stature in native populations. This, of course,

corresponds to significant changes, mostly detrimental, in native population lifeways.

Throughout all times, periods of warfare are "mirrored" by a decrease in stature, even in

high status individuals, as the resources of cultures involved in conflict focus on

militarization and away from food production and public building. In other words, as the

resources focus away from societal improvements that promote growth. An improvement

in the state of a society can sometimes be seen post-conflict. This is the case, Bogin and

Keep (1999) argue, for post WWII Latin America where stature is seen to increase

between the years of 1940 and 1989. The researchers argue this is due to the benefits

derived in the post-war world. Thus, the research indicates a complicated picture, but it

does provide strong support for the hypothesis that it is the quality of the environment

that most affects stature (Bogin 2001).

As indicated by the studies cited above, much of the research in the Andean

region has focused on various measurements on living people or on stature in skeletal

populations and the effects of cultural change and/or stress on these groups. No study has

attempted to establish the dental formation timing and postcranial anthropometric growth

and development standards for specific archaeological cultures. The present study
 36

attempts to do this for coastal pre-contact cultures of Peru. It includes adult stature and

sexual dimorphism as a culmination of growth and development and an indicator of

population health. Future studies can now address these biological parameters in other

cultural areas, such as in highland populations, and during other time periods, such as

post-contact. The results of this work could then be compared to that of similar studies in

other parts of the Americas and added to the database for prehistoric populations

worldwide.
 37

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS

The extraordinary preservation in the arid coastal areas of Peru has resulted in

large skeletal samples, particularly as compared to highland sites where skeletal

preservation is often poor and articulated burials are rare. Nevertheless, other than a few

anthropometric studies on living cultures (Eveleth and Tanner 1990; Moore and

Regensteiner 1983; Lasker 1962, 1960), little metric data are available for coastal

population samples. Thus, the large sample size, excellent preservation and paucity of

data are the principle reasons for the focus of this study on coastal sites in Peru. The

materials for the present study come from two prehispanic coastal sites in Peru. These

sites were chosen because of their large sample sizes, excellent preservation, and well-

defined archaeological context. Please see Table 3.1 for a breakdown of the samples

utilized for this study. Note that not all cases examined were utilized. For example,

skeletons that did not have any teeth or that had too few teeth were excluded. On the

north coast, skeletons come from the site of El Brujo, and are associated with the

Lambayeque (AD 1000-1300) culture. On the central coast, data were gathered from

skeletons excavated from the site of Puruchuco, which has yielded material from the Late

Intermediate Period and the Late Horizon (ca. AD 1000-1530) (Cock 1999, Borja 1973).

The skeletal material utilized in this study is all associated with a Late Horizon cemetery

(Cock 1999). Approximately 100 subadult skeletons are available from El Brujo alone

and at least as many adult skeletons have also been excavated. Some 1400 bundles have
 38

been excavated from the site of Puruchuco (Cock 1999). Permission for access to these

collections was arranged by Professor John Verano of Tulane University, Cesár Galvez

of Peru's Instituto Nacional de Cultura in Peru, Regulo Franco, Co-Director of the site of

El Brujo and archaeologist Guillermo Cock in Lima. In addition to arranging for access

to skeletal collections, Verano also made available osteological data from his previous

field seasons at El Brujo.

Table 3.1: Breakdown of sample sizes for Puruchuco and El Brujo

Total sample size # of samples dentally Samples examined Samples examined
aged radiographically visually
Subadult Puruchuco El Brujo Puruchuco El Brujo Puruchuco El Brujo Puruchuco El Brujo
remains
138 43 133 39 94 0 39 39
Total Sample Size
Adult Puruchuco El Brujo
remains
Males Females Males Females
41 33 35 22

EL BRUJO

The archaeological complex of El Brujo is located in the Chicama Valley near the

mouth of the Chicama River (7º 17' 45" latitude south and 79º 17' 45" longitude west)

approximately 50 kms to the north of the city of Trujillo. See Figure 3.1 for a map of the

location of the site. Three

mounds located at this site

encompass a time frame of

some 4500 years. These

include Huaca Prieta to the

extreme south, and Huaca

Cao Viejo and Huaca El

Brujo, which are the most

Figure 3.1: Map of the Location of the Site of El Brujo
 39

prominent structures at the site. Huaca Cao Viejo is the pyramid from which the skeletal

remains used in this study were excavated. There are also a number of important minor

structures, cemeteries and domestic areas at this site. The size of the entire site is

approximately 1.5 km2 (Franco, Gálvez and Vásquez 1994). In 1990, the site began to be

investigated as part of one of the largest archaeological projects in Peru in recent decades.

The project includes the participation of The National University of Trujillo, the National

Institute of Culture, and the financial support of the Augusto N. Wiese Foundation. It is a

multidisciplinary study and involves archaeologists and anthropologists from many

different countries, including the United States, France, and Peru.

Excavations have demonstrated that the site was initially occupied in the

Preceramic period as evidenced by the site of Huaca Prieta (2500 BC). It was then more

or less continuously occupied until the arrival of the Spanish. During the Moche

occupation (AD 200-750), the complex appears to have played an important role in the

ceremonies conducted by the elites in honor of various deities. Following the Moche

occupation and abandonment of Huaca Cao Viejo, the north façade of the pyramid was

then utilized as a cemetery.

The evidence of this use is found on top of the Moche architecture and includes

more than 300 burials. The skeletal samples in the present study were excavated from this

cemetery between 1991 and 1995 by the Proyecto Arqueologico Complejo El Brujo. The

demographic composition of the cemetery does not demonstrate age or sex bias, and this

appears to be a representative mortuary sample. The presence, for example, of mostly

adult males would hardly be representative of the general population utilizing this site as

a cemetery. The same would be true if only adult remains were found. The lack of any
 40

such bias suggests that the remains are demographically representative of the population

utilizing the site at the time.

PURUCHUCO - HUAQUERONES

The site of Puruchuco- Huaquerones is located on the central coast of Peru in the

Figure 3.2: Map showing the location of Lima and Rimac Valley near the city of
Puruchuco Huaquerones (Cock 2002)
Lima (Figure 3.2), between the

following UTM coordinates: 8

667 250 - 8 668 500 North by 290

250 - 290 750 East (Cock 1999).

Excavations led by archaeologist

Guillermo Cock have yielded

materials from the Late

Intermediate Period and the Late

Horizon, although all of the

approximately 1400 funerary

bundles excavated from this site

are contemporary with the Inca

time period (AD 1465-1532). The

ceramic evidence recovered to date indicates that the principal occupation of this site

corresponds to the Late Horizon (Cock 1999). It is important to note, however, that some

of the ceramics found at this site demonstrate a mixture of characteristics including

attributes of a local tradition generally termed by other investigators as Ychma. The

ceramics associated with this tradition typically have a globular form with a brown paste
 41

and relatively scant decoration. They often demonstrate a white paint brushed on over the

surface of the vessel, particularly on the borders, the shoulders, at the union of the neck

and the body of the vessel, and around the handles. It is common to find this type of

vessel forming part of the funerary collection along with the ceramics associated with the

Inca epoch. Although Guillermo Cock does not consider Ychma a validly defined

cultural horizon, the finds of these earlier styles, however they may be identified, is one

indicator of cultural continuity at this site. Other objects that suggest cultural continuity

in this region include the recovery of weights made of wood that are decorated with

designs of birds or entwined serpents. These designs are typical of the local iconographic

tradition seen on the central coast prior to the Inca conquest. Additionally, there are not

large numbers of ―exotic‖ artifacts present at this site, which might indicate the presence

of a community that had been uprooted from somewhere else and moved to this location.

Such communities, known as mitmaquna, were part of the conquest strategy practiced by

the Inca (Moseley 1992). Overall, there is no evident age or sex bias indicating a non-

representative mortuary sample, and the cemetery corresponds to a single occupational

phase. There are, however, some areas of the cemetery where primarily subadult burials

were found. The cultural significance of this is not clear at the moment, but studies are

ongoing in the attempt to explain this finding.

The burials themselves typically include an individual in a seated, flexed ―fetal‖

position. Included in the burial are various objects, which were probably used in life. The

bodies were wrapped in a series of textiles, either fine or coarse, presumably in

accordance with the rank or social importance of the individual, and any free space filled

with plant leaves or unprocessed native cotton. Bundles were covered with a plain,
 42

woven cloth secured with a rope, the handles of which were used to lower it into the

grave or funerary structure. Ceramic offerings containing food, such as maize, potatoes,

fish, or camelid meat, were often then deposited at the foot of the bundle. This type of

burial is known as a falsa cabeza because of the superior portion of the bundle that

appears as though it would contain the head of the individual, but does not, in fact,

contain much of anything other than cotton. There are other types of burials at this site,

some of which involve wrapping individuals, but not including the "false head" and some

of which include a stretcher or "small bed" known as a camilla. Some of the bundles

include multiple individuals and others only one. The tomb was then closed by filling it

with earth or clay. In many cases, different objects, such as rocks or wood, have been

found associated with the mouth of the tombs, and it is believed that these may have been

markers signaling the presence of a grave. Figure 3.3 is a photograph of a typical bundle

burial from this site as it is readied for radiography.

The samples used in this study were those of children. Typically, these burials did

not include the false head, but were wrapped in various layers of textiles or were laid on a

camilla. The majority of the samples were excavated from the area known as Sector 8, an

area also referred to as the ―children‘s cemetery‖ because of the high number of child

burials. Figures 3.4 - 3.6 are maps of the site of Puruchuco-Huaquerones, the location of

Sector 8 within the site, and a close-up of Sector 8 or the "children's cemetery". As can be

seen in Figure 3.7, which shows the bundle of a child as it is prepared for endoscopy. As

is evident from the photograph, the bundles of the children are much less complex than

those of the adults. This may be simply because they had not lived long enough to

acquire the status and material goods of adults, but there is a question of why these
 43

children were buried separately while other children were included in the bundles of the

adults. Hypotheses include the possibility that the adults with whom these children would

have been buried had not yet died by the time the cemetery was no longer being used. It

is possible that these children simply were interred temporarily with the intent of later

exhuming them for inclusion in a larger bundle. It is hoped that the numerous ongoing

studies of this population sample may help to answer these questions.

Figure 3.3: Bundle burial being x-rayed

 44

Figure 3.4: Map of the site of Puruchuco-Huaquerones

 45

Figure 3.5: The location of Sector 8 (blue area) within the site of Puruchuco-
Huaquerones

Figure 3.6: A close-up showing Sector 8, "The Children's Cemetery"

 46

Figure 3.7: A child’s bundle as it is prepared for

endoscopy

SUMMARY

The coastal desert environment where El Brujo and Puruchuco-Huaquerones are

located has produced excellent preservation of the skeletal remains. Prehistoric

populations of South America, and particularly Peru, constitute a unique source of data

for studies of human physical adaptation and microevolution. The excellent preservation

of these samples, their well-defined archaeological context, and their large sizes make

them of unique value for studying mortuary practices, material culture, physical

characteristics, diet, health, and demography in these populations. These samples provide

physical anthropologists with the opportunity to study large, well-preserved collections

and to establish fundamental physical parameters for these populations. New growth and
 47

development standards will give physical anthropologists the ability to better analyze

osteological data collected from the Andean area. These data will also provide a

significant addition to the data base in general for comparison studies with other

collections worldwide.
 48

CHAPTER FOUR
METHODS

Osteological methods

The methods used in this study can be divided into two categories: osteological

and statistical. The osteological methods include visual, radiologic, and metric

observations collected from the skeletons. Long bone measurements were drawn from

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Ubelaker (1999). Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994)

provided the basis for which diseases and other skeletal abnormalities were recorded and

scored. Skeletal pathologies were coded in accordance with the code key seen in Table

4.1 (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, pp. 114-115). Measurements taken on the bones of

children included maximum diaphyseal length without epiphysis of the left and right

humeri, radii, ulnae, femora, and tibiae and iliac breadth (Merchant and Ubelaker 1977).

using an osteometric board and sliding calipers. Left sided measurements, when present,

were utilized in the statistical analyses. Measurements of the right side were used to teest

for lateral asymmetry. Adult skeletons were measured following guidelines in Buikstra

and Ubelaker (1994).

Dental data included both visual and radiological observations. Visual

examination is preferred and whenever possible, teeth were visually examined and

assigned a developmental stage in accordance with the methods presented in Moorrees,

Fanning and Hunt (1963). Abnormalities of the teeth were recorded and scored in

accordance with methods presented in Buikstra et al. (1994) although in some instances,
 49

such as that of enamel hypoplasias, abnormalities were simply scored as present or

absent. When teeth or their roots were not readily visible, Polaroid dental radiographs

were taken using a technique developed and used by Jerry Conlogue and Andrew Nelson

on the site of San José de Moro on the north coast of Peru (Conlogue and Nelson 1999).

Radiography equipment was not available at El Brujo, and therefore, those samples were

examined visually. This did not present a problem because in the majority of samples

from El Brujo, the teeth were not in the alveoli and were therefore readily accessible for

visual examination.
 50

Table 4.1 (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, pp. 114-115):

Skeletal Pathology Code Key
 51

Table 4.1 continued

 52

Figure 4.1 is a photograph of the setup for taking radiographs. This included taking three

shots of the mandible, and whenever possible the maxilla, of each individual. This

Figure 4.1: Setup for radiography of bundles technique allows for a visualization of

the teeth in the alveolus, and therefore,

an assessment of their individual

developmental stages. Figure 4.2

presents a scan of radiographs taken on

individuals from the site of Puruchuco.

Skeletal pathologies were

recorded according to the following

definitions and standards:

Figure 4.2: Polaroid radiographs of two
mandibles from Puruchuco
Nonspecific Indicators of Stress

Nonspecific indicators of stress are

visible skeletal lesions that cannot be

directly related to a single causal factor.

These are frequently used as indicators of

childhood health and are of particular

interest to the present study because of

their possible effect on childhood growth.

The nonspecific lesions examined in the

present study include the following:

Abnormal bone loss, abnormal bone

formation (including periostitis and endocranial periostitis), and anemia indicators (cribra
 53

orbitalia/porotic hyperostosis). Specific lesions were also identified wherever possible.

These include fractures and specific infectious disease processes.

Abnormal bone loss

Bone loss was measured in terms of the observable bone structure and recorded in

accordance with the codes indicated in Table 4.1. Additionally, lesions were identified as

focal or diffuse, with focal changes defined as those that are clearly visible even though

size and marginal definition may vary. Diffuse changes are those defined as having

multiple sites of resorption, some of which may not be clearly visible. Margins were

assigned categories based on whether or not they were clearly defined and whether or not

they demonstrated sclerotic reaction. Cortical thinning was assessed visually in

association with diffuse bone loss and recorded according to the procedures in Buikstra

and Ubelaker (1994). Structural collapse was also recorded when present. Bone loss,

particularly cortical thinning and osteoporosis, is seen in a number of disease processes

and dietary deficiencies, many of which could affect growth and development. These

include rheumatoid arthritis, scurvy, and rickets/osteomalacia (Larsen 1997, Roberts and

Manchester 1997).

Abnormal bone formation

Abnormal bone formation was recorded in accordance with Buikstra and

Ubelaker (1994). Lesions were observed and recorded as either lamellae or sclerotic

additions to intact external surfaces. Endocranial periostitis was recorded here in

accordance with the procedures presented in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) with the

exception that a code was added to the original Table 6 in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994,

pp. 114-115) defining 0 as the code for the endocranial surface under the 'Aspect'
 54

heading. The extent of the involvement was noted as <1/3, 1/3-2/3 and >than 2/3. Bone

formation, particularly apposition that is a result of surface inflammation (periostitis) is a

common finding in the archaeological setting and may result from a variety of conditions

including varicose veins, trauma and specific infectious agents such as treponematosis

(Roberts and Manchester 1997). Tibial periostitis has been suggested as a stress indicator

(Goodman et al., 1988).

Anemia indicators

Anemic indicators, including both cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis, were

recorded in accordance with the surface on which they occurred and the severity of the

lesions as per the methodology given in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Both these

skeletal lesions are considered indicative of anemia, which is the result of an iron

metabolic imbalance. This could be caused by several factors including low dietary iron

content, parasite infestation or other specific disease processes (Mensforth et al., 1978;

Stuart-Macadam 1992). There is some consensus that cribra orbitalia (anemic lesions

occurring in the orbits of the eye sockets) is caused by either dietary deficiency or

parasitic infestation, while porotic hyperostosis appears to have more possible causes

including localized periostitis, malnutrition, infantile scurvy, parasitic infestation and

others (Angel 1964, 1967; Blumberg and Kerley 1966).

Fractures

Fractures were identified according to whether they were complete or partial, the

type of fracture (simple, spiral, compression, depressed and pathologic), and the degree

of healing. As fractures in children are not commonly described in the literature, their

presence is of particular interest. Additionally, incomplete healing or deformation

 55

associated with healing may affect the growth of the affected limb, and pathologic

fractures may be associated with disease processes that affect growth and development

(Roberts and Manchester 1997).

Specific Infectious Disease

Specific infectious diseases can be defined as those for which a causal element can be

identified or is known, such as in the case of tuberculosis. Infectious diseases identified

previously in the Andean region include tuberculosis, blastomycosis, leishmaniasis, and

Chaga's disease (Ortner and Putschar 1981).

Statistical methods

A developmental age was assigned to each individual tooth by utilizing the

calcification and root resorption stages presented in Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt (1963).

Figures 4.3-4.5 present these stages of tooth development (taken from Ubelaker 1999).

The state of tooth eruption past the alveolar ridge was documented by visual inspection

and polaroid dental

Figure 4.3: Developmental stages of the crown, root, and apex of deciduous
mandibular canines (left) and molars (right) taken from Ubelaker (1999, p. 65)
radiographs. Subadults

were analyzed as a

pooled sex sample. A

summary age

estimate for each

skeleton was derived

from averages of

individual tooth calcification, root resorption and eruption scores (Moorrees, Fanning,

and Hunt 1963).

 56

Figure 4.4: Developmental stages of crown, root, Any individual that did not have at least
and apex for permanent mandibular molars (top)
taken from Ubelaker (1999, p.66)
three teeth from which to derive an age

estimate was discarded from the sample.

Using the first and second premolars as

reference teeth, within-individual

variation in tooth ages was tested for

statistical significance in order to

Figure 4.5: Stages of root resorption for
deciduous mandibular canines and molars establish the existence of timing
(Ubelaker 1999, p. 66)
differences in calcification and eruption.

Any differences were considered in the

establishment of skeletal dental ages.

Premolars are selected as reference teeth

because they demonstrate very little

variability between the southern African,

French Canadian, and Native American samples utilized in Tompkins‘ (1996a) study, and

sex-related timing differences are less than those for mandibular canines. Additionally the

standards established by Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt (1963) are most complete for the

postcanine dentition and premolar development overlaps with most of the other tooth

types for a considerable amount of time during dental development (Owsley and Jantz

1983, 468). Sinclair (1989) also notes that sex-related timing differences are greatest for

the canine teeth. Pairwise contrasts were used to compare the age assigned to each tooth

with the reference teeth and tested for significant differences using the paired t test. This

was done in order to establish differential growth and development rates within
 57

individuals between the various tooth types so that accurate dental charts could then be

established. Dental charts depicting the calcification, root resorption, and eruption status

of the dentition from infancy through adulthood were produced from these data.

Variation between the two Peruvian sites was tested for statistical significance using a

standard t test. In order to reduce the possibility of a Type I error, wherever multiple t

tests were run, a modified Bonferroni technique was applied to correct the alpha level

(Rice 1989, Sokl and Rohlf 1995).

The methods utilized for the long bone portion of the study followed those used

by Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) in their work on the protohistoric Arikara. The

maximum diaphyseal length of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, and the

width of the ilium was taken without epiphyses utilizing an osteometric board and/or

sliding calipers. Whenever possible the left side was measured and utilized in the

statistical analyses of the samples, however, in order to fully utilize the samples available,

right side measurements were taken and used (and noted as such) in the absence of bones

from the left side. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation and range) were

calculated at one-year intervals. Cross-sectional growth curves were produced by plotting

the mean measurements against the midpoint of each age category. These curves were

compared with those produced by Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) for the Arikara, the

Indian Knoll samples from data published by Sundick (1972) and Johnston (1962), the

Late Woodland populations published by Walker (1969), and the measurements of

Eskimo femora by Stewart (1954). Discrepancies between the dental and long bone age

estimates were noted as were any correlation with skeletal or dental pathology. Utilizing

the measurements taken on the long bones for subadults and those taken on adult long
 58

bones (specifically the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula), it was possible to

calculate the brachial and crural indices were calculated according to the following

formulae:

BI = Radial Length / Humeral length X 100

CI = Tibial Length / Femoral length X 100

The purpose of calculating these formulae for the long bone measurements was to

compile this information for possible future studies of body shape variation in these

populations. The results are presented in Appendix A and descriptive statistics for these

results are presented in Appendix B.

Adult stature was calculated using the Genovés formulae for the maximum length

of the femur as this stature formula has been shown to be appropriate for native Andean

populations (Verano 1997, 1994). The formulae are as follows (Ubelaker 1999):

Males

Femur: Stature = 2.26 Fem + 66.379 +/- 3.417

Females

Femur: Stature = 2.59 Fem + 49.742 +/- 3.816

Means, standard deviations, and ranges were calculated for both males and females, and

these data were used to measure sexual dimorphism in these population samples. Within

group variation (between the sexes) was tested for significance using a paired t test. Any

patterns with respect to skeletal pathology were noted.

Correlation of any abnormalities, such as short stature, with the presence of

disease or nonspecific indicators of stress (NSIS) was achieved by first separating the

cases into their age categories. Each case was then assigned a simple ranking based on
 59

whether a disease or nonspecific indicator of stress was noted in the skeleton and then as

to whether there was more than one disease or NSIS evident. This was done according to

the following scale:

1 = no evidence of disease or NSIS

2 = one disease or NSIS

3 = more than one disease or NSIS

The diseases and conditions seen in these skeletons were then ranked according to the

number of abnormalities seen in each case. The long bone measurements for each case

were then scored as normal, above normal, or below normal and Spearman's

nonparametric correlation statistics were run on each case for the simple presence of

disease and then for each of the specific diseases or stress markers seen.
 60

CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of the various analyses completed on these

skeletal collections. The results are divided into two categories: dental analyses and long

bone analyses.

Dental Analyses

As described in the chapter on methods, each tooth was assigned a developmental

stage (Table 5.1) following the methods described in Moorrees, Fanning, and Hunt

(1963). The stage was converted to an age by using these workers' dental development

charts for both males and females. As was suggested in cases where the sex of the

children is unknown, the male and female mean for each developmental stage was

averaged.

Table 5.1: Developmental Stages and their Meanings

Symbol Developmental Stage Diagnostic Features
Cco 2 Crown Coalescing
Coc 3 Crown Outline Complete
C1/2 4 Crown 1/2
C3/4 5 Crown 3/4
Cc 6 Crown Complete
Ri 7 Root Initial
Cli 8 Cleft Initial (Molars only)
R1/4 9 Root 1/4
R1/2 10 Root 1/2
R3/4 11 Root 3/4
Rc 12 Root Complete
A1/2 13 Apex 1/2
Ac 14 Apex Complete
 61

An age estimate for each individual skeleton was derived by averaging the ages of all

teeth. Each tooth from the same individual was then compared with the first and second

premolar to establish within-individual timing variation in dental development. The

average developmental stages for each tooth in each age group were then used to

establish dental charts. Table 5.2 presents the results of the analyses for each of the age

groups in terms of the stage of dental development for each tooth type. Table 5.3 presents

the average ages of the developmental stages generated by averaging the male and female

mean for each developmental stage and tooth type using data from Moorhees, Fanning

and Hunt (1963). Comparison between the dental ages established with these data and the

ages indicated using Ubelaker‘s (1999) charts, using a paired t test, demonstrate that

Ubelaker‘s charts consistently and significantly over-age the skeletons from these

Peruvian samples. This is particularly true for those individuals between the ages of 1 and

5 years. After five years, the sample numbers for the present study are too small to

produce statistically meaningful results (n = 2 for 7 years, 3 for 10 years and 2 for 12

years). Prior to age 1, statistically significant differences in tooth development were seen

between birth and 6 months and then, once again, small sample sizes prevented accurate

analyses between the ages of 6 months and 1 year. There was no statistically significant

difference demonstrated between the samples from El Brujo and Puruchuco. This is in

line with expectations as dental development is primarily under genetic control (Bogin

1999, Larsen 1997; Glasstone 1963, 1938), and it was expected that these populations

would have a high enough degree of genetic relatedness such that they would not

demonstrate significant differences from one another. Table 5.4 presents the ages derived

by the methods used in this study with those derived by using the charts developed by
 62

Ubelaker (1999). Table 5.5 presents the results of the analyses comparing the ages

derived from these two methods. The asterisks indicate significant results.

Table 5.2: Developmental stages for all teeth

AV* = Stages averaged using 1 month, 2 month and 4 month stages
Teeth:
Maxillary
di1 di2 dc dm1 dm2 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3 n
1 Month 7 6 5 3 2
2 Months 7 6 5 4 2 8
3 Months 7 6 5 3 AV*
4 Months 7 7 6 5 4 12
5 Months 7 7 5 6 4 6
6 Months 8 8 5 6 4 5
7 Months 8 8 5 6 4 2 4
8 Months 9 9 7 8 6 2 2
9 Months 9 9 7 8 6 2 2
10 Months 9 9 9 8 6 2 2 3
11 Months 9 9 8 9 7 4 3 4 5
1 Year 11 10 9 10 8 4 4 3 4 21
2 Years 13 13 11 11 10 5 5 4 2 6 4 24
3 Years 14 14 12 12 11 6 6 5 3 2 7 22
4 Years 14 14 13 14 14 7 6 6 5 3 7 2 5
5 Years 14 14 14 10 9 9 7 6 10 8 5
7 Years 14 11 11 9 7 11 9 2
10 Years 14 13 11 13 11 13 11 3
12 Years 14 14 14 14 14 14 11 7 2
Mandibular
di1 di2 dc dm1 dm2 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3 n
1 Month 7 5 4 2
2 Months 6 6 4 4 2 8
3 Months 7 7 5 4 3 2 AV*
4 Months 7 7 5 5 4 2 12
5 Months 7 7 5 6 4 2 6
6 Months 8 8 6 7 4 2 5
7 Months 8 8 5 6 4 2 4
8 Months 10 10 9 8 7 2 2
9 Months 10 10 9 9 8 2 2
10 Months 10 10 9 9 7 2 3
11 Months 10 10 9 9 7 5 5 3 4 5
1 Year 11 10 9 10 8 5 4 4 4 21
2 Years 13 13 11 12 10 6 6 5 2 2 6 24
3 Years 14 14 12 13 12 8 7 6 3 2 8 2 22
4 Years 14 14 14 14 14 9 8 7 5 4 8 5 5
5 Years 14 14 14 14 14 10 10 7 7 6 10 7 5
7 Years 12 12 10 9 9 11 7 3 2
10 Years 14 14 11 12 13 11 4 3
12 Years 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 2
 63

Table 5.3: Average ages of male and female means for each tooth type and developmental stage. Ages
are in years.
dc1 dm1 dm2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3
Cco (2) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 2.4 3.5 0.3 3.5 9.9
Coc (3) 0.2 0.0 0.1 1.2 3.0 4.4 0.6 4.4 10.5
C1/2 (4) 0.3 0.2 0.3 2.0 3.7 4.9 1.3 5.0 11.1
C3/4 (5) 0.4 0.3 0.5 2.9 4.4 5.3 1.8 5.4 11.5
Cc (6) 0.7 0.4 0.7 4.0 5.1 6.3 2.3 6.4 12.1
Ri (7) 0.8 0.5 0.9 4.7 5.9 7.1 2.8 7.0 12.9
Cli (8) 0.0 0.6 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 7.9 13.3
R1/4 (9) 1.0 0.7 1.3 5.5 6.7 7.8 4.7 9.2 14.7
R1/2 (10) 1.4 0.8 1.6 7.5 8.3 9.3 5.2 9.9 15.4
R3/4 (11) 1.8 1.2 1.9 8.9 9.6 10.5 5.7 10.9 16.2
Rc (12) 2.0 1.3 2.0 9.5 10.3 11.2 5.9 11.3 16.6
A1/2 (13) 2.5 1.6 2.4 10.9 11.7 12.5 6.9 12.3 18.0
Ac (14) 3.0 1.9 2.9 11.9 12.6 13.8 8.6 14.3 20.0

Table 5.4: Ages derived from this study compared with those derived using Ubelaker’s (1999) charts
ID# Age Estimate using Ubelaker's (1999) Gaither age estimates
charts
PCH-01-01 1 year - 18 months 9 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-02 6-8 years 4 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-03 1 year +/- 4 months 9 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-04 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-05 6 years +/- 24 months 5 years +/- 23 months
PCH-01-06 4 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 9 months
PCH-01-07 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 6 months
PCH-01-08 Birth +/- 2 months Birth
PCH-01-09 Birth +/- 2 months Birth
PCH-01-10 9 months +/- 3 months 11 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-11 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-12 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-13 4 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 4 months
PCH-01-14 9 months +/- 3 months 8 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-15 1 year +/- 4 months 11 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-16 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 6 months
PCH-01-17 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years +/- 23 months
PCH-01-18 9 months +/- 3 months 7 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-19 6 months +/- 3 months 3 months
PCH-01-20 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 2 months
PCH-01-21 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 2 months
PCH-01-22 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 7 months
PCH-01-23 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 5 months
PCH-01-24 Birth +/- 2 months 4 months
PCH-01-25 Birth +/- 2 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-26 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 6 months
PCH-01-27 1 year +/- 4 months 9 months
PCH-01-28 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 9 months
PCH-01-29 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 10 months
 64

ID# Age Estimate using Ubelaker's (1999) Gaither age estimates

charts
PCH-01-30 5 years +/- 16 months 4 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-31 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 5 months
PCH-01-32 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years
PCH-01-33 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 5 months
PCH-01-34 6 years +/- 24 months 5 years +/- 23 months
PCH-01-35 6 months +/- 3 months 5 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-36 5 years +/- 16 months 2 years +/- 9 months
PCH-01-37 9 months +/- 3 months 6 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-38 1 year +/- 4 months 10 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-39 9 months +/- 3 months 1 year +/- 3 months
PCH-01-40 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-41 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-42 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-43 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-44 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 12 months
PCH-01-45 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 12 months
PCH-01-46 18 months +/- 6 months 18 months
PCH-01-47 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 5 months
PCH-01-48 9 months +/- 3 months 7 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-49 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 6 months
PCH-01-50 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-51 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 8 months
PCH-01-52 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 8 months
PCH-01-53 1 year +/- 4 months 1 year +/- 2 months
PCH-01-54 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-55 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 12 months
PCH-01-56 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-57 Birth +/- 2 months 3 months
PCH-01-58 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 8 months
PCH-01-59 6 months +/- 3 months 6 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-60 9 months +/- 3 months 10 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-61 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-62 1 year +/- 4 months 11 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-63 1 year +/- 4 months 8 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-64 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 8 months
PCH-01-65 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 9 months
PCH-01-67 Birth +/- 2 months Birth
PCH-01-68 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-69 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-70 1 year +/- 4 months 1 year +/- months
PCH-01-71 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 7 months
PCH-01-72 9 months +/- 3 months 5 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-73 9 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-74 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 9 months
PCH-01-75 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months
PCH-01-76 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 10 months
PCH-01-77 9 years +/- 24 months 7 years +/- 16 months
PCH-01-78 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 7 months
 65

ID# Age Estimate using Ubelaker's (1999) Gaither age estimates

charts
PCH-01-80 2 years +/- 18 months 1 year +/- 5 months
PCH-01-81 9 months +/- 3 months 10 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-82 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years +/- 13 months
PCH-01-83 9 months +/- 3 months 6 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-84 9 months +/- 3 months 11 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-85 Birth - 6 months 1 month +/- 2 months
PCH-01-86 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 13 months
PCH-01-87 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-88 3-4 years 3 years
PCH-01-89 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years +/- 19 months
PCH-01-90 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-91 5 years +/- 16 months 4 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-92 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 10 months
PCH-01-93 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years
PCH-01-94 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 12 months
PCH-01-95 6 years +/- 24 months 4 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-96 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 3 years
PCH-01-97 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 7 months
PCH-01-98 1 year - 18 months 1 year +/- 2 months
PCH-01-99 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 5 months
PCH-01-100 9 months +/- 3 months 6 months +/- 3 months
PCH-01-101 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-102 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-103 18 months +/- 6 months 7 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-104 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 11 months
PCH-01-105 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 14 months
PCH-01-106 9 years +/- 24 months 8 years
PCH-01-107 12 years +/- 30 months 10 years +/- 22 months
PCH-01-108 18 months +/- 6 months 1 year +/- 2 months
PCH-01-109 6 months +/- 3 months 4 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-110 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-111 4 years +/- 12 months 3 years +/- 12 months
PCH-01-112 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-113 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years
PCH-01-114 6 months +/- 3 months 2 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-115 Birth +/- 2 months 2 months +/- 1 month
PCH-01-116 6 months +/- 3 months 2 months +/- 2 months
PCH-01-117 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 6 months
PCH-01-118 2 years +/- 8 months 2 years +/- 8 months
PCH-01-119 5 years +/- 16 months 4 years +/- 17 months
PCH-01-120 9 months +/- 3 months 5 months +/- 1 month
L00-03 13 years +/- 30 months
L00-07 18 mos +/- 6 mos 2 years +/- 4 months
L00-10 9 mo +/- 3 mo 9 months
L00-11 5-7 years 8 years +/- 19 months
L00-16 1 year +/- 4 months 9 months
L00-18 fetus/newborn Birth
L00-20 6-9 mon. 7 months +/- 2 months
 66

ID# Age Estimate using Ubelaker's (1999) Gaither age estimates

charts
L00-24 18 months +/- 6 months 10 months
L00-25 2-4 years 2 years +/- 4 months
L00-26 18 mo +/- 6 mo 1 year +/- 6 months
L00-36 4 years +/- 12 months 3-4 years
L00-41 3 years +/-12 months 2 years
L99-01 1-1.5 yrs 1 year +/- 2 months
L99-03 18 mos. 1 year +/- 3 months
L99-10 8 years 7 years +/- 25 months
L99-11 6-9 months 4 months
L99-18 18 months 1 year
L99-21 7-8 years 5 years
L99-23 10-14 years 13 years +/- 10 months
L99-24 18 months 1 year
L99-25 2-3 years 1 year +/- 1 month
L99-26 18 months 1 year +/- 6 months
L99-27 3 years 3 years
L99-29 1 year 1 year +/- 3 months
L99-30 18 months - 2 years 10 months
L99-37 12-15 years 12 years +/- 22 months
L99-40 12-15 years 10 years +/- 12 months
L99-43 13-15 years 12 years +/- 20 months
L99-46 6 months 5 months +/- 1 month
L99-47 9-12 months 9 months
L99-48 4 years 3 years
L99-49 6 months 5 months +/- 1 month
L99-54 Birth Birth
L99-55 2-3 years 1 year +/- 3 months
L99-56 9 months 11 months +/- 4 months
L99-58 4 years 3 years
L99-59 3 years 2 years +/- 3 months
L99-63 Birth 3 months
L99-64 5 years 2 years +/- 2 months
PCH-02-03 12 years +/- 36 months 10 years +/- 7 months
PCH-02-04 10 years +/- 30 months 9 years +/- 6 months
PCH-02-05 5 years +/- 16 months 3 years +/- 14 months
PCH-02-06 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 4 months
PCH-02-07 3 years +/- 12 months 2 years
PCH-02-08 4 years +/- 12 months 2 years +/- 3 months
PCH-02-09 3 years +/- 12 months 3 years
PCH-02-11 6 months +/- 3 months 6 months +/- 1 month
PCH-02-12 Birth +/- 2 months 1 month +/- 2 months
PCH-02-13 9 months +/- 3 months 5 months +/- 1 month
PCH-02-14 2 years +/- 18 months 1 year +/- 1 month
PCH-02-15 6 years +/- 24 months 4 years
PCH-02-16 6 years +/- 24 months 3 years +/- 7 months
PCH-02-17 6 years +/- 24 months 6 years +/- 16 months
PCH-02-18 7 years +/- 24 months 5 years
 67

Table 5.5: P values for t test of differences between Ubelaker’s ages and the ages derived from this
study – age categories are the ages derived from this study * = significant results
Age Category P value (two tail) Average difference n
1 Month 0.0032* 1 month 2
2 Months <0.00001* 1.99 months 6
4 Months 0.01 1.75 months 12
5 Months 0.01 2.5 months 6
6 Months 0.07 1.8 months 5
7 Months 0.27 3.5 months 4
8 Months 0.34 2.5 months 2
10 Months 1 0 months 3
11 Months 0.34 0.8 months 5
1 Year <0.0001* 5.29 months 21
2 Years <0.0001* 11.25 months 24
3 years <0.0001* 1.09 years 22
4 Years 0.005* 1.4 years 5
5 Years 0.003* 1.6 years 5
7 Years 0.20 1.5 years 2
10 Years 0.0003* 2.03 years 3
12 Years 0.5 0.5 years 2

The paired t tests, which were performed on the mandibular teeth using the

premolars as reference teeth, demonstrated that in general the adult teeth are advanced in

their development relative to the deciduous teeth. Premolar #1 (P1) is significantly

advanced over the development of M1, but is significantly slower in its development than

M2. Interestingly, the development of the mandibular first premolars demonstrated no

significant difference with that of the mandibular canines. The second mandibular

premolars, however, did demonstrate statistically significant differences in development

with that of the mandibular canines with the premolars being advanced in their

development over the canines. They showed no significant differences with the

development of the mandibular second molars; but as was the case with the first

premolars, they were advanced in their development over the mandibular first molars.

Table 5.6 presents the results of these paired t tests for each of the mandibular tooth

types.
 68

Table 5.6: Results of paired t tests comparing mandibular premolars as reference teeth with other
mandibular tooth types * = significant results
Tooth P1 P--value P2 P-value
Left dc1 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Right dc1 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Left dm1 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Right dm1 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Left dm2 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Right dm2 <0.00001* <0.00001*
Left C 0.82 <0.0001*
Right C 0.5 0.0003*
Left P2 (or P1 in the case of the P2 values) <0.00001* <0.00001*
Right P2 (or P1 in the case of the P2 values) <0.00001* 0.0001*
Left M1 0.003* <0.00001*
Right M1 0.003* <0.00001*
Left M2 0.002* 0.71
Right M2 0.005* 0.91
Left M3 0.34 0.32
Right M3 0.34 0.32

Results of this study are generally consistent with the differences in tooth

development and timing found by Owsley and Jantz for the Arikara (1983) particularly

with respect to which teeth were advanced. Owsley and Jantz discovered that premolars

were advanced in development over the canines and first molars, and delayed in

development in comparison to the second and third molars. The present study found

significant advancement by the first and second premolars over M1. There was also

significant advancement in the development of P2 over the canines. While the difference

in development between P1 and the canines was not significant, the general trend is one

in which the premolar is advanced, albeit slightly, over the canine. The same is true for

M2. While P1 was significantly delayed in development when compared with M2, the

comparison between P2 and M2 was not significant, but the general trend is one in which

the second premolar is delayed in comparison to M2. Both studies demonstrated

statistically significant differences between the premolars at the 0.01 level or better,

although Owsley and Jantz (1983) discount this difference as substantively unimportant
 69

given that the mean difference in ages was less than 0.25 years. Data in the present study

reveal an average difference of 0.48 years, which is notably larger that that found by

Owsley and Jantz (1983).

Table 5.7: Average differences in years between the premolars and other tooth types in the Peruvian
populations
Permanent Mandibular Teeth C P2 (or P1) M1 M2 M3
Average difference in years with P1 -0.03 0.48 -0.50 0.68 2.00
Average difference in years with P2 -0.69 -0.48 -1.28 0.09 1.35

Table 5.7 presents the average difference in years for the other tooth types. It

should be noted that the incisors were not compared in this study. The reason was that the

canine and postcanine dentition was used to establish the ages of these individuals since

the developmental stages in Moorhees, Fanning, and Hunt (1963) are most complete for

these tooth types. Once the ages were established using these teeth, the developmental

stages for the incisors were established by averaging the incisor stages of the individuals

that fell within that age range. Thus, it would be inappropriate to use the incisors in this

comparison. Owsley and Jantz (1983) found the maxillary incisors to be advanced

relative to the premolars, while the mandibular incisors demonstrated no significant

difference.

Based on the results of the statistical analyses presented above, dental charts

depicting the development and eruption of both the deciduous and adult teeth for these

Peruvian populations were generated (Figure 5.1). Each stage of dental development is

accompanied by an error factor. While these are standard error factors, is it important to

realize that an individual estimate may be off by as much as 5 years, particularly in the

older age categories. This chart can be compared with the chart generated by Ubelaker

(1999), which can be seen in Figure 5.2. It should be noted that the statistical tests
 70

indicating significant differences between Ubelaker‘s charts and these samples were run

on the ages established with Ubelaker‘s charts and the ages arrived at in this study. From

the comparison in the present study, it appears that Ubelaker's dental charts tend to over-

age the Peruvian children by as much as 2 years in some cases.

Long Bone Analysis

Descriptive statistics were generated from the measurements taken on all long

bones without epiphyses, both left and right. As mentioned in the section on methods, the

left side measurements were used in the statistical analyses in accordance with standard

osteological procedure. Right-sided measurements were taken for use in the absence of

left-sided bones and in order to examine the symmetry of the left and right side. The

mean for each of the major long bones and the ilium (humerus, radius, ulna, iliac breadth,

femur, tibia and fibula) are presented in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 for each of the population

samples. For comparison purposes, Ubelaker‘s (1999) data for the Arikara are presented

in Table 5.10. Table 5.11 presents the ranges for each of the populations and Table 5.12

presents the standard deviation for each of the major long bones for each population. The

age ranges for El Brujo and Puruchuco with respect to long bone length were combined

to produce the chart for long bone growth and ages in general for coastal Peru seen in

Tables 5.13-5.16. This chart was modeled after that of Ubelaker (1999, pp. 70-71). From

these data growth curves were generated by plotting the mean length for each bone

against the mid-point of each age range (derived from the ages assigned in this study).

These growth curves are shown along with those of the Arikara (Ubelaker 1999) for each

of the major long bones and the ilium in Figures 5.3-5.9. These curves include the data

for the combined Peruvian samples.

 Figure 5.1: Dental Charts for Coastal Peruvian Populations
71

*Developed by estimation
 Figure 5.2: Ubelaker's (1999) Dental Charts
72
 73

Table 5.8: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the samples of Puruchuco

Age in Iliac
years Humerus n Radius n Ulna n breadth n Femur n Tibia n Fibula n
0-0.5 68.37 30 55.9 28 64.04 27 37.08 28 82.17 29 69.34 30 65.67 21
0.5-1 86.43 19 68.33 18 76.75 16 50 15 106.98 15 88.87 14 87.68 12
1 92.34 12 70.23 11 79.88 11 51.93 9 114.19 9 93.55 9 93.66 8
2 114.75 19 89.33 18 98.39 18 61.39 18 144.76 18 121.45 15 119.32 16
3 122.46 17 94.38 17 105.8 19 67.2 16 157.74 15 131.06 15 127.56 14
4 140.31 3 104.76 4 117.3 4 73.63 4 180.25 4 153.18 4 150.9 4
5 154.75 4 118.25 4 130 3 79.5 4 215.75 4 179 4 176 4
6
7 184 1 255 1 212 1 205 1
8 184 1 143 1 158 1 97 1 261 1 214 1 208 1
9 182 1 145 1 157 1 90 1 248 1 210 1 203 1
10 222 2 173.5 2 188.5 2 110 2 307.5 2 258.5 2 257 2

Table 5.9: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the samples of El Brujo
Age in Humerus n Radius n Ulna n Iliac n Femur n Tibia n Fibula n
Years Breadth
0-0.5 67.5 6 54.67 6 62.67 6 38.2 5 81.17 6 69 6 66.33 6
0.5-1 85.4 5 69.2 5 78.2 5 51.2 5 107.6 5 89.6 5 88.8 5
1 96 9 78.88 8 87.5 8 57.22 9 124.25 8 105 8 102.78 9
2 114.5 4 88 4 94 2 63.75 4 153.67 3 124 3 122.33 3
3 124.33 3 96 3 107 3 68.67 3 167.67 3 143 3 137.33 3
4 150 1 116 1 83 1 206 1 176 1 172 1
5 188 1 127 1 136 1 91 1 229 1 195 1 193 1
6
7 175 1 133 1 146 1 85 1 234 1 199 1 193 1
8 163 1 130 1 137 1 91 1 224 1 190 1 183 1
9
10 208 1 158 1 171 1 106 1 305 1 255 1 246 1
11
12 217 2 156.5 2 181.5 2 106.5 2 302.5 2 247.5 2 239 2
13 241 1 184 1 205 1 117 1 336 1 285 1 274 1

Table 5.10: Means for each of the long bone measurements from the Arikara samples
Age in Humerus n Radius n Ulna n Iliac n Femur n Tibia n Fibula n
Years breadth
0 - 0.5 70.5 49 57.4 47 66.1 47 37 38 82.2 51 71.6 47 68.9 37
0.5-1.5 102.3 37 81 31 92.1 22 55.8 34 126.9 37 104.8 30 103 27
1.5-2.5 129.5 11 97.1 14 108.5 13 69.3 13 167.1 14 138.6 11 133.2 13
2.5-3.5 139.5 10 106.3 9 117.9 9 73.4 7 185.1 9 153.8 9 152.3 7
3.5-4.5 156.5 2 118.3 2 129.8 2 80.3 2 213 2 170.5 2 168.5 2
4.5-5.5 167.6 4 128.1 4 142.8 4 83.5 5 234.3 3 190.8 3 185.8 3
5.5-6.5 180.1 7 140.6 5 153.8 6 92.8 5 248.6 8 201.6 8 194.4 6
6.5-7.5 192.1 4 149.5 3 167.1 4 97.4 4 262 4 221.4 4 216.9 4
7.5-8.5 211.8 2 168 1 180 2 108.5 2 292.8 2 242.5 2 246 1
8.5-9.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9.5-10.5 228.6 5 185.7 3 201.5 3 119.2 3 321 2 272.3 3 264 3
10.5-11.5 245 1 189 1 0 123 1 342 1 285 1 280 1
11.5-12.5 254 2 190.9 4 217.5 2 119.1 4 344.5 4 287.5 4 285 3
12.5-13.5 0 0 0 137.8 4 0 299 1 291.5 1
 74

Table 5.11: Ranges of long bone lengths for Peruvian samples and Arikara samples (taken from
Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Puruchuco
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
Birth- 55.73-85.8 50.34-69.6 58.42-77.72 25.58-50.11 65.35-105.51 57.23-88.98 53.82-85.83
0.5
0.5-1 73.94- 58.93- 67.77-86.33 41.63-57.91 92.58-119.46 77.62-99.42 74.04-98.70
96.60 75.90
1 79.93- 53.29- 64.41-92.08 46.56-56.46 102.08- 83.64-108.59 84-105.66
104.14 81.89 128.68
2 99.09-135 77-101.70 86-112 50.93-71.50 125.48-163 99.70-140 95.81-140
3 101.83-138 83.57-109 94.06-121 57.61-76 130.81-181 110.34-147 104.57-146
4 124.84-151 93.95-118 106.53-132 72-77.34 166-194 136.73-169 136.63-167
5 143-169 111-126 126-133 75-84 199-241 164-204 163-199
6
7 184 255 212 205
8 184 143 158 97 261 214 208
9 182 145 157 90 248 210 203
10 219-225 172-175 187-190 110 302-313 252-265 257
El Brujo
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
Birth- 59-77 48-63 56-70 29-46 66-97 58-80 53-79
0.5
0.5-1 81-91 66-74 73-85 48-58 103-110 85-94 83-94
1 69-108 71-85 80-94 52-65 102-141 94-115 92-114
2 107-127 81-98 91-97 57-73 141-173 114-137 114-136
3 118-128 88-103 99-114 67-71 158-175 129-151 129-142
4 150 116 83 206 176 172
5 188 127 136 91 229 195 193
6
7 175 133 146 85 234 199 193
8 163 130 137 91 224 190 183
9
10 208 158 171 106 305 255 246
11
12 217 156.5 181.5 106.5 302.5 247.5 239
13 241 184 205 117 336 285 274
Arikara
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
0 - 0.5 63.5-89.0 49-73.5 60-82.5 32.5-44.5 62.5-106 59.5-94 60-88
0.5-1.5 84-119 67-92 74.5-103 46-65 92.5-161 81-131.5 75-122
1.5-2.5 121-138 84-104 94-116 60-74.5 141-186 125-151 111.5-142.5
2.5-3.5 118-157 93.5-119 100-129.5 64-82 155-215 127-184 124-182
3.5-4.5 154-159 116-120.5 126.5-133 79-81.5 208-218 165-176 163-174
4.5-5.5 161-179.5 125-132.5 140-145.5 69-89 225-243 181-201.5 178-193.5
5.5-6.5 172.5-192 134.5-149 145-166 90.5-96 236-277 191-222 188-201
6.5-7.5 187.5-204 146-153 161-175 95-98.5 252-274 212-229.5 209-227
7.5-8.5 206.5-217 176-184 105-112 285-300.5 227-258
8.5-9.5
9.5-10.5 225-235 178-196 194.5-213 117-122 320-322 261.5-284.5 255-275.5
10.5-11.5
11.5-12.5 251-258 169.5-200 216-219 114-126 339-350 279-296 273-292
12.5-13.5 129.5-148
 75

Table 5.12: Standard deviations for long bone lengths for Peruvian samples and Arikara samples
(from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Puruchuco
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
Birth- 6.4 5.0 5.6 5.8 9.9 7.9 7.7
0.5
0.5-1 7.4 5.7 6.8 5.3 9.4 8.3 9.1
1 8.4 8.8 8.2 3.7 9.6 9.0 8.6
2 10.2 7.0 7.4 6.1 12.8 12.3 13.1
3 7.7 6.4 6.7 5.2 13.1 11.5 12.3
4 13.7 11.7 12.6 2.5 13.8 15.3 15.3
5 10.8 6.3 3.6 3.9 17.9 17.6 15.9
6
7
8
9
10 4.2 2.1 2.1 7.8 9.2
El Brujo
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
Birth- 6.8 6.1 6.0 6.5 11.4 8.5 10.0
0.5
0.5-1 4.8 3.1 4.9 4.2 3.4 3.9 4.3
1 11.5 5.3 5.3 4.2 13.4 7.1 7.7
2 8.8 7.2 4.2 6.7 17.0 11.8 11.9
3 5.5 7.5 7.5 2.1 8.7 12.2 7.2
Arikara
Age Humerus Radius Ulna Iliac breadth Femur Tibia Fibula
0 - 0.5 5.2 4.9 5.0 3.0 8.7 7.2 6.6
0.5-1.5 8.9 6.1 7.7 4.4 14.6 11.3 11.7
1.5-2.5 5.9 5.5 6.8 4.5 12.2 7.8 9.1
2.5-3.5 12.8 9.8 10.9 6.1 20.7 18.8 19.9
3.5-4.5 3.5 3.2 4.6 1.8 7.1 7.8 7.8
4.5-5.5 8.8 3.4 2.9 8.3 9.0 10.3 7.8
5.5-6.5 6.5 5.4 7.9 2.2 14.5 10.1 5.3
6.5-7.5 7.9 3.5 6.1 1.6 9.2 7.2 7.9
7.5-8.5 7.4 5.7 5.0 11.0 21.9
8.5-9.5
9.5- 4.2 9.3 10.0 2.6 1.4 11.6 10.5
10.5
10.5-
11.5
11.5- 5.0 14.3 2.1 5.0 5.8 8.3 10.4
12.5
12.5- 9.7
13.5
 76

Table 5.13: Ranges of long bone lengths, humerus and radius, for coastal Peruvian
populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Humerus Radius
Age Mean Standard Range n Mean Standard Range n
deviation Deviation
Birth- 68.55 6.7 55.73-85.8 36 55.68 5.2 48-69.6 34
0.5
0.5-1 86.21 6.9 73.94- 24 68.52 5.2 58.93- 23
96.60 75.90
1 93.91 9.8 69-108 21 73.87 8.6 53.29-85 19
2 114.71 9.7 99.09-135 23 89.09 6.9 77-101.7 22
3 122.74 7.3 101.83-138 20 94.62 6.4 83.57-109 20
4 142.73 12.2 124.84-151 4 107 11.3 94-118 5
5 161.4 17.6 143-188 5 120 6.7 111-127 5
6
7 179.5 6.4 175-184 2 133 1
8 173.5 14.8 163-184 2 136.5 9.2 130-143 2
9 182 145 157 90 145 1
10 217.33 8.6 208-225 3 168.3 9.1 158-175 3
11
12 217 1 156.5 9.2 150-163 2
13 241 1 184 1

Table 5.14: Ranges of long bone lengths, ulna and iliac breadth, for coastal Peruvian
populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Ulna Iliac Breadth
Age Mean Standard Range n Mean Standard Range n
deviation Deviation
Birth- 63.79 5.6 56-77.72 33 37.26 5.8 25.58- 33
0.5 50.11
0.5-1 77.1 6.3 67.77- 21 50.3 5 41.63-58 20
86.33
1 83.09 7.9 64.41-94 19 54.57 4.7 46.56-65 18
2 97.96 7.2 86-112 20 61.82 6.2 50.93-73 22
3 105.94 6.6 94.06-121 22 67.43 4.9 57.61-76 19
4 117.27 12.6 106.53-132 4 75.4 4.7 72-83 5
5 131.5 4.2 126-136 4 81.8 6.1 75-91 5
6
7 146 1 85 1
8 147.5 14.9 137-158 2 94 4.2 91-97 2
9 157 1 90 1
10 182.67 10.2 171-190 3 108 2.8 106-110 2

11
12 181.5 6.7 177-186 2 106.5 10.6 99-114 2
13 205 1 117 1
 77

Table 5.15: Ranges of long bone lengths, femur and tibia, for coastal Peruvian
populations (modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Femur Tibia
Age Mean Standard Range n Mean Standard Range n
deviation Deviation
Birth- 82 10 65.35- 35 69.28 7.9 57.23- 36
0.5 105.51 88.98
0.5-1 107.13 8.3 92.58- 20 89.07 7.3 77.62- 19
119.46 99.42
1 118.93 12.3 102-141 17 98.94 9.9 83.64-115 17
2 146.03 13.4 125.48-173 21 121.87 11.9 99.7-140 18
3 159.39 12.8 130.81-181 18 133.05 12.2 110.34- 18
151
4 185.4 16.6 166-206 5 157.75 16.7 136.73- 5
176
5 218.4 16.6 199-241 5 182.2 16.9 164-204 5
6
7 244.5 14.8 234-255 2 205.5 9.2 199-212 2
8 242.5 26.2 224-261 2 202 17 190-214 2
9 248 1 210 1
10 306.67 5.7 302-313 3 257.33 6.8 252-265 3
11
12 302.5 29 282-323 2 247.5 30.4 226-269 2
13 336 1 285 1

Table 5.16: Ranges of long bone lengths, fibula, for coastal Peruvian populations
(modeled after Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)
Fibula
Age Mean Standard Range n
deviation
Birth-0.5 65.82 8 53-85.83 27
0.5-1 88.01 7.9 74.04- 17
98.70
1 98.49 9.2 84-114 17
2 119.79 12.6 95.81-140 19
3 129.29 12 104.57-146 17
4 155.13 16.3 136.63-172 5
5 179.4 15.7 163-199 5
6
7 199 8.5 193-205 2
8 195.5 17.7 183-208 2
9 203 1
10 251.5 7.8 246-257 2
11
12 239 31.1 217-261 2
13 274 1
 78

Figure 5.3: Humeral growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara samples
(Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Humerus Growth Curves

300

250

200
Mean Length (mm)
length (mm)

150
(mm)

100
Mean
Mean length

50

0
Birth- 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
0.5
Age in Years Puruchuco Data
Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Age in years Combined Peruvian Data

Figure 5.4: Radial growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara samples
(Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Radius Growth Curves

250

200
Mean Length (mm)

150

100

50
Figure 4.21: Femoral growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara
samples (taken from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Age in Years Puruchuco Data
Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data
 79

Figure 5.5: Ulnar growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara

samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Ulna Growth Curves

250

200
Mean Length (mm)

150

100

50

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Age in Years Puruchuco Data
Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data

Figure 5.6: Iliac breadth growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara
samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Iliac Breadth Growth Curves

160

140

120
Mean Length (mm)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Birth- 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
0.5

Age in Years Puruchuco Data

Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data
 80

Figure 5.7: Femoral growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Femur Growth Curves

400

350

300
Mean Length (mm)

250

200

150

100

50

0
Birth- 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
0.5
Puruchuco Data
Age in Years Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data

Figure 5.8: Tibial growth curves for Peruvian and Arikara

samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Tibia Growth Curves

350

300

250
Mean Length (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Age in Years
Puruchuco Data
Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data
 81

Figure 5.9: Fibula growth curves for Peruvian and

Arikara samples (from Ubelaker 1999, pp. 70-71)

Fibula Growth Curves

350

300

250
Mean Length (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Age in Years

Puruchuco Data
Arikara Data
El Brujo Data
Combined Peruvian Data

As can be seen in the growth curves, the Peruvian populations demonstrate

similar growth curves to those of the Arikara, but slower growth rates. The raw data for

the Arikara samples were not available to the current study. However, treating the means

for the Arikara and Indian Knoll samples as individual cases, differences between means

of those populations and means generated in this study were analyzed for statistical

significance using t tests. Again, the modified Bonferroni technique was applied and the

significant results are marked with an asterisk (Tables 5.17 and 5.18). Because this is not

as powerful a statistical tool since it uses the mean rather than the raw data, the finding of

statistically significant differences is important. The data demonstrate that the growth

rates are lower than those of European American children since the Peruvian rates are

lower than those of the Arikara and the Arikara were lower than those of white children.
 82

Table 5.17: Results of Statistical Tests of Differences of Means for Long Bone Lengths between
Arikara and Peruvian Populations * = significant results
AGE RANGE Birth - 0.5 years 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years
BONE
Humerus
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.10 <0.0001* <0.0001* <0.0001* 0.02 0.10
Radius
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.04 <0.0001* <0.0001* <0.0001* 0.09 0.05
Femur
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.91 <0.0001* <0.0001* <0.0001* 0.02 0.10
Tibia
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.09 <0.0001* <0.0001* <0.0001* 0.16 0.32

Table 5.18: Results of Statistical Tests of Differences of Means for Long Bone Lengths between
Indian Knoll and Peruvian Populations * = significant results
AGE RANGE Birth - 0.5 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years
years
BONE
Humerus
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.38 0.01 0.60 0.10 0.02 0.99
Radius
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.64 0.001* 0.10 0.03 0.78 1.00
Femur
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.07 0.10 0.49 0.03 0.84 0.56
Tibia
Two-Tailed t-Test 0.99 0.0002* 0.64 0.09 0.66 0.64

Figures 5.10-5.12 present the growth curves generated by Ubelaker for the Arikara, for

the Indian Knoll samples from data published by Sundick (1972) and Johnston (1962),

for Late Woodland populations published by Walker (1969), and for Eskimo populations

published by Stewart (1954). Figures 5.13 - 5.18 demonstrate the curves comparing these

Peruvian samples with that of Indian Knoll. Table 5.19 presents a comparison of the long

bone lengths for the coastal Peruvian samples and the Indian Knoll samples. As is evident

from these figures and the statistical results presented in Tables 5.17 and 5.18, the

Peruvian samples generate curves similar to those of Indian Knoll and lower than those of

the Arikara. This is particularly true for the Arikara between the ages of 1 and 3 years (P
 83

< 0.004 with the application of modified Bonferroni for all of the long bones in those age

ranges).

Figure 5.10: Humeral, radial and ulnar growth curves for Arikara and Indian Knoll samples
(Ubelaker 1999, p. 72)
 84

Figure 5.11: Femoral and tibial growth curves for Arikara and Indian Knoll samples
(Ubelaker 1999, p. 73)
 85

Figure 5.12: Fibula length and iliac breadth growth curves for Arikara and Indian Knoll
samples (Ubelaker 1999, p. 73)
 86

Figure 5.13: Humeral growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian
Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)

Humeral Growth Curves

180
160
Mean Length (mm)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Birth- 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
0.5
Age in Years Peruvian Populations
Indian Knoll

Figure 5.14: Radial growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian
Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)

Radial Growth Curves

140

120
Mean Length (mm)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
Age in Years Peruvian Populations
Indian Knoll
 87

Figure 5.15: Ulnar growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian Knoll
samples (taken from Johnston 1962)

Ulnar Growth Curves

140

120
Mean Length (mm)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
Age in Years Peruvian Populations
Indian Knoll

Figure 5.16: Femoral growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian
Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)

Femoral Growth Curves

250

200
Mean Length (mm)

150

100

50

0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
Age in Years Peruvian Populations
Indian Knoll
 88

Figure 5.17: Tibial growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian Knoll
samples (taken from Johnston 1962)

Tibial Growth Curves

200
180
160
Mean Length (mm)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
Age in Years
Peruvian Samples
Indian Knoll

Figure 5.18: Fibula growth curves for the Peruvian populations and the Indian
Knoll samples (taken from Johnston 1962)
Fibula Growth Curves

200
180
160
Mean Length (mm)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Birth-0.5 0.5-1 1 2 3 4 5
Age in Years Peruvian Populations
Indian Knoll
 89

Table 5.19: Comparison of long bone lengths for coastal Peruvian populations and Indian Knoll
(from Johnston 1962)
Humerus Radius
Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll
Age Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard
deviation deviation Deviation deviation
Birth- 68.55 6.7 67.66 5.94 55.68 5.2 55.05 4.24
0.5
0.5-1 86.21 6.9 68.52 5.2
1 93.91 9.8 93.14 12.11 73.87 8.6 73.96 8.36
2 114.71 9.7 113.57 5.66 89.09 6.9 91.33 4.42
3 122.74 7.3 125.64 6.86 94.62 6.4 97.86 6.47
4 142.73 12.2 136.78 5.56 107 11.3 108.5 2.28
5 161.4 17.6 154.67 5.42 120 6.7 120 2.76
Ulna Femur
Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll
Age Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard
deviation deviation deviation deviation
Birth- 63.79 5.6 63.70 4.74 82 10 78.84 7.23
0.5
0.5-1 77.1 6.3 107.13 8.3
1 83.09 7.9 82.86 9 118.93 12.3 115.63 18.34
2 97.96 7.2 99.20 1.94 146.03 13.4 148.13 10.76
3 105.94 6.6 108 5.76 159.39 12.8 166.73 9.99
4 117.27 12.6 120.63 4.24 185.4 16.6 183.82 9.2
5 131.5 4.2 132.75 3.42 218.4 16.6 213.67 4.52
Tibia Fibula
Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll Peruvian Populations Indian Knoll
Age Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard Mean Standard
Deviation deviation deviation deviation
Birth- 69.28 7.9 69.28 6.33 65.82 8 65.38 5.19
0.5
0.5-1 89.07 7.3 88.01 7.9
1 98.94 9.9 96.87 14.47 98.49 9.2 92.44 13.79
2 121.87 11.9 120.57 5.45 119.79 12.6 113.8 7.44
3 133.05 12.2 138.20 8.54 129.29 12 134.17 10.39
4 157.75 16.7 154.30 8.1 155.13 16.3 144.71 11.32
5 182.2 16.9 178.43 4.53 179.4 15.7 171.67 4.52
 90

Adult Stature

Using the Genovés femoral formulae (Bass 1998), stature was calculated on adult

samples from both sites. The descriptive statistics for the data are presented in Table 5.20

and t tests demonstrating no significant difference between the two populations are

presented in Table 5.21. In fact, it is interesting to note that these two populations are

virtually identical in both their mean stature and sexual dimorphism.

Table 5.20: Descriptive statistics for stature in males and females at Puruchuco and El Brujo
Male Descriptive Statistics for Stature at Puruchuco Female Descriptive Statistics for Stature at Puruchuco
Mean 159.87 Mean 149.25
Standard Error 0.62 Standard Error 0.87
Median 158.81 Median 148.68
Standard Deviation 3.97 Standard Deviation 5.02
Sample Variance 15.78 Sample Variance 25.20
Range 15.82 Range 23.31
Minimum 151.13 Minimum 134.95
Maximum 166.95 Maximum 158.26
Count 41 Count 33
Confidence Level(95.0%) 1.25 Confidence Level(95.0%) 1.78

Male Descriptive Statistics for Stature at El Brujo Female Descriptive Statistics for Stature at El Brujo
Mean 159.85 Mean 149.03
Standard Error 0.67 Standard Error 1.02
Median 158.59 Median 149.46
Standard Deviation 3.99 Standard Deviation 4.76
Sample Variance 15.89 Sample Variance 22.7
Range 16.72 Range 17.09
Minimum 152.03 Minimum 140.91
Maximum 168.76 Maximum 158.00
Count 35 Count 22
Confidence Level(95.0%) 1.37 Confidence Level(95.0%) 2.11
 91

Table 5.21: Comparison data for stature demonstrating no significant differences in stature between
the sites of Puruchuco and El Brujo
Male Stature t test Puruchuco El Brujo
Mean 159.87 cm 159.84 cm
Variance 15.78 15.89
Observations 41 35
Pooled Variance 15.83
Hypothesized Mean 0
Difference
df 74
t Stat 0.03
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.98
t Critical two-tail 1.99

Female Stature t test Puruchuco El Brujo

Mean 149.25 cm 149.03 cm
Variance 25.20 22.7
Observations 33 22
Pooled Variance 24.21
Hypothesized Mean 0
Difference
df 53
t Stat 0.16
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.87
t Critical two-tail 2.01

Sexual dimorphism was calculated by dividing male stature by female stature. This is

known as the means method and has been found to perform well for estimating

dimorphism in fossil specimens (Rehg and Leigh 1999). This resulted in a sexual

dimorphism calculation of 10.7% for both populations.

Correlation with Skeletal and Dental Pathology

Abnormalities in growth and development were statistically tested for correlation

with evidence of specific diseases and/or nonspecific indicators of stress (NSIS) seen in
 92

the skeleton. Each case was scored for NSIS or specific pathology according to simple

presence or absence and then each case was scored for specific diseases or NSIS. The

lesions that were seen in these skeletons included bone loss, endocranial periostitis,

periostitis, porotic hyperostosis, and fractures. Each was scored for presence or absence

of these pathologies and then tested for correlation with growth indicators (long bone

growth and brachial/crural indices), using Spearman's r. A strong positive correlation is

indicated by a result that is closer to 1; a strong negative correlation is indicated by a

result that is closer to –1. No correlation is indicated by results that are closer to 0 (Sokal

and Rohlf 2003).

Results indicate that there is no correlation, either positive or negative between

any of the skeletal or dental seen in these samples and abnormal growth such as

shortened limb lengths. Nor is there a strong positive or negative correlation between the

general presence of specific diseases or NSIS, regardless of the type, and evidence of

abnormal growth. Table 5.22 presents the results of the correlation tests.

While these results did not demonstrate any correlation between diseases/NSIS

and abnormal growth, it should be noted that these remains did demonstrate a high

frequency of some nonspecific indicators of stress (NSIS) in general. Forty-seven percent

(64 of 137 individuals) of the Puruchuco-Huaqerones sample had evidence of anemia in

the form of either cribra orbitalia or porotic hyperostosis. Thirty-five of those

demonstrated lesions more severe than porosity only, with either coalescing of foramina

or thickening associated with the porosities. Thirty-five percent (48 of 137 individuals)

had evidence of endocranial periostitis and 55% (75 of 137 individuals) of the sample had

periostitis of the long bones. From the site of El Brujo, 40% (17 of 43) of the individuals
 93

demonstrated evidence of anemia, 16% (7 of 43) had endocranial periostitis and 26% (11

of 43) had periostitis of the long bones. Of the cases that demonstrated anemia, thirteen

were more severe than barely discernible and four demonstrated thickening or coalescing

of foramina. While these lesions do not appear to have affected growth and development,

evidenced by the fact that there is no correlation between the presence of these

diseases/NSIS and shortened limb length, they are suggestive of the stress level being

experienced by these populations.

 94

TABLE 5.22: SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AGES BIRTH FIVE YEARS - No results are significant at the
0.05 or 0.01 α level

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR BIRTH TO SIX MONTHS OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) 0.096 -0.089 -0.073 0.141 0.100
BONE LOSS 0.441 0.220 0.268 0.315 0.378
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.289 -0.265 -0.289 -0.096 -0.217
PERIOSTITIS 0.171 0.146 0.146 0.317 0.220
BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.176 0.075
FRACTURE -0.075 -0.224 -0.205 -0.149 -0.112
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.069 -0.034 0.034

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES 0.025 0.118

BONE LOSS 0.346 0.346
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.289 -0.168
PERIOSTITIS 0.146 0.195
BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS 0.000 0.050
FRACTURE -0.112 -0.112
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR 6 MONTHS TO 1 YEAR OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.456 -0.064 0.009 0.027 -0.064
BONE LOSS -0.411 -0.548 -0.550 -0.274 -0.411
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS 0.000 -0.000 0.087 -0.346 -0.173
 95

PERIOSTITIS -0.087 -0.260 -0.261 -0.433 -0.346

BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS 0.173 0.087 0.087 -0.260 -0.087
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS -0.087 0.520 0.522 0.693 0.520

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.137 -0.210

BONE LOSS -0.548 -0.548
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.087 -0.173
PERIOSTITIS -0.346 -0.433
BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS 0.000 -0.087
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.520 0.520

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR 1 YEAR OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.207 -0.207 0.207 -0.000 -0.000
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.393 -0.393 -0.393 -0.393 -0.393
PERIOSTITIS -0.131 -0.131 -0.655 -0.393 -0.393
BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS -0.131 -0.131 -0.655 -0.393 -0.393
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.131 0.131 0.655 0.393 0.393

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.000 0.207

ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.393 -0.393
PERIOSTITIS -0.393 -0.655
BOTH ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS AND PERIOSTITIS -0.393 -0.655
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.393 0.655
 96

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR TWO YEARS OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) 0.058 -0.027 -0.015 0.100 0.043
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.262 -0.263 -0.314 -0.175 -0.227
PERIOSTITIS 0.035 -0.123 -0.052 0.035 0.087
FRACTURE -0.000 -0.039 0.039 -0.039 -0.077
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS -0.098 -0.082 -0.147 -0.033 -0.098

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.004 -0.070

ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.175 -0.192
PERIOSTITIS -0.000 -0.087
FRACTURE -0.135 -0.193
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS -0.115 -0.082

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR THREE YEARS OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) 0.172 0.453 0.317 -0.080 0.132
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.103 0.103 -0.051 -0.026 -0.000
PERIOSTITIS 0.219 0.396 0.393 -0.177 0.087
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.294 0.518 0.416 -0.025 0.196

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) 0.106 0.133

ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.077 -0.000
PERIOSTISIS 0.175 0.088
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.172 0.197
 97

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR FOUR YEARS OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 0.866 -0.000
ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.258 -0.258 -0.544 -0.258
PERIOSTITIS -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 0.866 -0.000
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS . 0.258 0.258 0.544 0.258

LTIBCONM LFIBMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.000 -0.000

ENDOCRANIAL PERIOSTITIS -0.258 -0.258
PERIOSTITIS -0.000 -0.000
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.258 0.258

SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR FIVE YEARS OF AGE

LHUMMAXL LRADMAXL LULNMAXL LIBRMM LFEMMAXL

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) -0.866 -0.866 -0.866 0.000 0.000
PERIOSTITIS 0.775 0.775 0.775 -0.258 0.775
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS -0.866 -0.866 -0.866 0.000 0.000

LTIBCONM

NUMBER OF ILLNESSES (0, 1, MORE THAN 1) 0.000

PERIOSTITIS
POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS 0.000
 98

CHAPTER SIX
DISCUSSION

The results of numerous human growth studies have indicated that it is essential

to establish basic growth standards for as many populations as possible given the

variability that has been demonstrated (Humphrey 1998; Saunders 2000; Bogin 1999;

Bogin and Keep 1999; Lampl and Johnston 1996; Tompkins 1996a; Mascie-Taylor 1991;

Eveleth and Tanner 1990; Hassanali 1985; Faulhaber 1984; Jordan and Gutierrez-Muniz

1984; Owsley and Jantz 1983; Hassanali and Odhiambo 1981; Merchant and Ubelaker

1977; Bailit 1976; Johnston 1962). It is not only essential for the understanding of human

variability, but for archaeological interpretation as well. The present study further

supports the need for population-specific — or at the very least region-specific — studies

to establish basic growth standards for the populations in question. The variability seen

could be the product of genetic distance, environmental conditions or a combination of

the two. That may be obvious, but it has not always been taken into account when

standards developed in one part of the world have been uncritically applied to

populations that may be distant both geographically and genetically. Ubelaker's

standards, developed for North American Native American groups have been used

extensively in South America. While populations in these two regions may not be as

genetically distinct as they are from European populations, this study indicates there are

differences that suggest caution in applying Ubelaker's standards to South American

populations.
 99

Dental analyses

The results of the dental analyses demonstrate that the Peruvian populations are

advanced in their dental development over that of white children, and seemingly over that

of the Native North Americans used by Ubelaker (1999) to develop his dental charts.

While this study did not specifically compare the Peruvian data with that of white

children, Ubelaker (1999) utilized the earliest formation and eruption times for white

children when he established his dental charts and the data presented in this study

demonstrate even earlier formation and eruption for the Peruvian populations. It is

evident, therefore, that the Peruvian populations are advanced with respect to dental

development over white children since they are advanced in development with respect to

Ubelaker's (1999) charts. Other studies have demonstrated clear differences in dental

developmental timing between populations (Hillson 1996; Tompkins 1996a; Harris and

McKee 1990; Loevy 1983). The results of the present study, therefore, are not surprising;

however, it is important because the only standard available for aging Amerindian

subadults utilizing dental development is that of Ubelaker (1999). Results of this study

indicate that Ubelaker‘s (1999) dental charts over-age the skeletons from these Peruvian

population samples by as much as 1.5-2 years. Statistical tests indicate consistently

significant differences in age estimates when comparing Ubelaker's standards with those

derived in this study between the ages of 1 and 5 years. Statistically significant

differences are also seen at the ages of 1 and 2 months and in the 10-year age range.

Sample sizes were too small in other age categories to test for significant differences.

The development of new dental age charts took into consideration the intra-

individual variation seen in the development of the premolars as compared to each of the

other tooth types (after Owsley and Jantz 1983). P1 was significantly advanced over the
 100

deciduous dentition and M1, but delayed in development in comparison to P2 and M2,

although it demonstrated no significant difference in development in comparison with the

canine and the third molar. P2 demonstrated significant differences with every other tooth

type except M2 and M3, in all cases showing advanced development relative to other

tooth types. It should be noted, however, that the third molar sample size was very small

(n = 2).

Long Bone Analyses

The analysis of the long bones from the two Peruvian populations presented some

surprising results. First, no statistically significant differences between these two samples

in long bone growth or in the expression of its final culmination – stature - were found.

The latter will be discussed in more detail later, but given that these populations are

separated by both time and space and that long bone length is more susceptible to

variation as a result of environmental factors, this is somewhat surprising. The growth

curves demonstrate that there is no real divergence between the populations except in

those cases where the sample size is small, such as is the case with the site of El Brujo

where the sample size is only one for many of the age ranges; between the ages of birth

and 3 years, the long bone lengths are very similar. Even after the age of 3, the lengths

for the El Brujo samples often fall within or very near the ranges for the Puruchuco

samples. It is likely that the similar environment and/or close genetic relationship of these

two populations could explain the similarity in the growth patterns found in this study.

Both sites are located in an environmental zone of coastal desert and both populations

had similar diets. Thus, it would not be surprising to see such similarity in growth

patterns. Lasker's (1962) study of modern coastal Peruvians suggests that genetic

relatedness might be responsible for anthropometric similarity between highland and

 101

coastal Peruvians today; certainly one would expect similarities between ancient and

coastal groups as well.

As can also been seen in the growth curves, there is some discrepancy between

the Peruvian samples and those of the Arikara. While the raw data for the Arikara were

not utilized by the present study because the comparison between these populations was

not the focus of this research, a comparison of the means of these populations, using the

mean for the Arikara as an individual case, does demonstrate a pattern of significant

differences, particularly between the ages of 1 and 3 years. A measurement obtained from

a Peruvian coastal skeleton and aged using Ubelaker‘s ranges developed from the Arikara

would generate an age approximately one year younger than the data from the present

study indicate is appropriate. The Arikara had longer bones at younger ages than the

Peruvian populations, and it appears that those differences translated into taller adults as

adult stature in the Arikara is significantly higher than that of these Peruvian populations.

Boas reported a mean stature of 169 cm for males (n = 46) and 156.8 cm for females (n

not specified). These measurements were obtained in his 1892 anthropometric survey of

Native Americans (Jantz, personal communication). A recent study of Arikara skeletons

produced an estimated mean stature for males of 164.8 cm (n = 23) and 153.5 cm for

females (n = 25) (King 2002). The difference between adult statures of the Arikara and

the Peruvian populations demonstrates significance at the level of p<0.001 for both males

and females, offering further evidence that the standards obtained by Ubelaker (1999) for

the Arikara should not be used for estimating age from long bone lengths in Peruvian

populations. This is particularly important given that Ubelaker's (1999) Amerindian

dental charts tend to over-age Peruvian subadults while the long bone length standards
 102

tend to under-age them. This divergence could easily be misinterpreted as evidence of

growth disruptions in ancient Peruvian samples (Humphrey 1998).

Comparison of the Peruvian data with the published means of the Indian Knoll

samples demonstrate remarkable similarity. See Table 5.19 and Figures 5.13 - 5.18 for a

comparison between the Peruvian samples and that of Indian Knoll. Only the first five

years are presented as that is the extent of the Indian Knoll data (Johnston 1962). While

the raw data were not available for statistical analysis, a comparison of the means using

the same technique as with the Arikara shows that in most age categories there is no

significant difference between the Indian Knoll and the Peruvian samples. It is important

to note, however, that the aging method used by Johnston relied on Shour and Massler‘s

1944 dental chart distributed by the American Dental Association (Merchant and

Ubelaker 1977). Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) noted that their data indicated greater

skeletal development at all ages when Moorhees, Fanning, and Hunt aging standards

were used instead of those of Schour and Massler. Thus, the values for the Indian Knoll

samples might be higher if the standards of Moorhees, Fanning, and Hunt had been used

to age the skeletons.

It is important to note that Johnston (1962) concluded that depressed growth rates

seen in the Indian Knoll population were the result of environmental factors acting in

conjunction with genetically entrenched tendencies toward shortness in this population.

He based the latter on the adult stature calculations, which produced a mean of 164.0 cm

for males and 153.2 cm for females (as calculated by Snow in 1948). These calculations

were made using Pearson‘s formulae. This compares with stature calculations for the

Peruvian populations, using Genovés‘ formulae, of 159.9 cm for males and 149.3 cm for

females. Thus, while both populations appear to demonstrate similar long bone growth,
 103

they are not similar in adult stature. This may be the result of a difference in methods, but

a statistical calculation of the difference in adult statures between the groups

demonstrates significance at the level of p<0.001 for both males and females.

Leatherman, Carey and Thomas (1995), in their study of the district of Nuñoa in Peru,

found no secular trend in stature, particularly that of adults, over a 20 year period. They

did find, however, that adolescents were taller, heavier and fatter and that age at

maturation came one or two years sooner, although this did not translate into taller,

heavier or fatter adults. They interpreted this finding to indicate that, while social,

economic and political changes had resulted in the enlargement of the middle class,

thereby improving access to resources for some age groups and resulting in the raising of

the mean for certain measurements in adolescents, differential access to resources was

still apparent by the fact that no improvement was seen in adults. They were, however,

comparing a genetically similar population. It is possible that in the population samples

used in this study and that of Indian Knoll, there are genetic factors that limit what is

possible for adult stature and that this explains the differences seen despite similar growth

patterns at earlier ages. Goodman et al. (1984), however, note that growth patterns of

prehistoric populations generally differ from modern data in two ways: 1) a reduced

growth rate between 2 and 5 years of age and 2) a delay in the timing of the adolescent

growth spurt. The first, a reduced rate of growth between 2 and 5 years of age, is

indicative of undernutrition or other stress on that segment of the population (e.g.

weaning stress). The second type of difference, a delay in the adolescent growth spurt, is

indicative of chronic malnutrition or other stress. "Catch-up" growth, as noted by

numerous researchers (Bogin 2001), could compensate individuals in the first case and
 104

result in the complete attainment of normal adult size. Chronic stress, however, is more

likely to result in shorter adult stature (Bogin 2001).

Adult Stature

The two Peruvian samples are virtually identical in their stature calculations with

means of approximately 159 cm for males and 149 cm for females. This is despite the

fact that these populations are separated by both time and space. Their environmental

setting, that of coastal desert, is the same for the two populations and would presumably

present similar challenges. Table 6.1 presents the data for Peruvian cultures and a number

of other groups that might be expected to be similar to Peruvian populations. The

Aymara, it is interesting to note, are a modern highland group living on the Titicaca

plateau in the Andes It would be expected that stature in general would be reduced in

highland cultures in comparison to coastal cultures and even more so if the highland

culture in question was under stress. These data, however, demonstrate almost exactly the

same stature measurements for the Peruvian archaeological populations and the modern

day Aymara stature means obtained by Holden and Mace (1999) and Eveleth and Tanner

(1990), although they are consistently shorter by about 2 cm than the results obtained by

Frisancho for various Aymara groups. They are also similar to other highland groups

including the Nuñoa and other highland Quechua groups. Stature estimates are very

similar to those obtained by Ubelaker (1984) in Ecuador throughout time and to those

obtained by Verano (1997) and Lasker (1962) for other coastal sites in Peru. Once again,

it either speaks to a considerable amount of environmental stress on these Peruvian

populations or it suggests that genetic factors are playing a role in the expression of the

maximum stature that was attainable in these people. Leatherman, Carey, and Thomas

(1995) found no identifiable secular trend in adult stature in their re-study of the
 105

population in the District of Nuñoa in the Department of Puno in the southern Peruvian

Andes after improvements in transportation, markets, and the school system had been

made. Adult male stature demonstrated a mean of 159.1 after age 23 and adult female

stature a mean of 147.2 after the same age. In this study, the female stature is somewhat

lower than that of the archaeological populations, but the male stature is very similar.

Table 6.1: Stature means of various cultures

Male Mean Stature in cm Female Mean Stature in cm
Aymara (Holden and Mace (1999) 160.0 149.6

Aymara (Holden and Mace (1999) 159.9 148.1

Ayalán urns (Ecuador - AD 1230, 159 149

Ubelaker 1984)

Ayalán - non urns (Ecuador - AD 159 149

710, Ubelaker 1984)

Guangala (Ecuador - 100 BC, 161 152

Ubelaker 1984)

Cotocollao (Ecuador - 540 BC, 159 148

Ubelaker 1984)

Sta. Elena (6000 BC, Ubelaker 1984) 161 149

Modern Quechua, Cuzco, Peru 158.8 146.3

(Stinson 1990)
Quechua - Highlands (Frisancho
1976)
Nuñoa, Peru 159.2 148.0

Anta, Peru 160.7

Apurimac, Peru 158.3

Morococha, Peru 159.0

Imbabura, Ecuador 156.5

Quechua - Lowlands (Frisancho

1976)
San Jose, Chiclayo, Peru 156.6
Lamas , S. Martin, Peru 163.1
Uros-Chipayos - Highlands
(Frisancho 1976)
Lake Titicaca, Peru 160.5
 106

Table 6.3 continued Male Mean Stature in cm Female Mean Stature in cm

Aymaras (Frisancho 1976)

La Paz, Bolivia 157.0

La Paz, Bolivia 161.9

Lake Titicaca, Bolivia 161.1

Lake Titicacs, Peru 161.1

Lake Titicaca, Peru 161.8

Lake Titicaca, Peru 159.9

Arawakan - Eastern Peru (Frisancho 161.5

1976)

Panoan - Eastern Peru (Frisancho 157.8

1976)

Cashinahua - Eastern Peru (Frisancho 155.3

1976)

Xavantes - Mato Groso, Brazil 170.2

(Frisancho 1976)

Caiapos - Mato Groso, Brazil 165.0

(Frisancho 1976)

Yanomamo - Northeast Brazil 154.8

(Frisancho 1976)

Bororo - Mato Groso, Brazil 173.7

(Frisancho 1976

Inca, Machu Picchu (Verano 2003) 157 148.3

Moche, Pacatnamú, Jequetepeque 157.6 146.8

Valley, North Coast Peru (Verano
1997)
Modern, San José, Lambayeque 156.6 145.1
Valley, North Coast Peru (Lasker
1962)
Modern, Monsefú, Lambayeque 158.6 145.8
Valley, North Coast Peru (Lasker
1962)
Puruchuco 159.87 149.25

El Brujo 159.85 149.03

Bogin and Keep (1999) found a mean of 159.3 for males and 148.0 for females in their

pooled South American sample. While the authors note that a post-contact decline in

stature is well-documented, this does not apply to the Peruvian archaeological

populations in this study nor does the post-agriculture decline as has been demonstrated
 107

in a variety of studies (Bogin and Keep 1999; Larsen 1997; Ubelaker 1994; Webster et al.

1993; Cohen and Armelagos 1984). In fact, the El Brujo and Puruchuco samples, if

anything, should demonstrate an improvement in stature that Benfer (1984) argued

occurred after the population at Paloma adapted to sedentism. The fact that these ancient

samples are so similar in stature to modern day Andean populations supplies strong

support for the hypothesis that genetic factors appear to be important in maintaining

relatively low stature in Andean populations. It also bears mentioning again that

Leatherman, Carey, and Thomas (1995) found no secular trend in stature in the Nuñoa

district of southern Peru after numerous social improvements. In fact, they noted that, in

general, the effects of social and economic change on nutrition, health, and growth are

uneven and unclear. These data seem to support that conclusion.

Another factor taken into consideration in this study was sexual dimorphism and

its relationship to stature. Both populations demonstrate similar dimorphism – 10.7%.

This value was calculated using the means method, which was demonstrated to perform

well by Rehg and Leigh (1999). The results are consistent with those of Holden and Mace

(1999) who found a range of variation of between 4-10% between males and females in

the numerous populations they studied. They also found Native American populations to

be among the most dimorphic. Their particular study, which focused on possible reasons

for variation in sexual dimorphism, concluded that variation in stature and sexual

dimorphism was negatively associated with women‘s contribution to subsistence. They

found no correlation between stature and marriage patterns. Women were taller relative

to men in those societies where women contributed more to food production, perhaps

because their nutrition was better. Thus, the dimorphism seen here might reflect the

limited contribution to food production by the women of these Peruvian samples.

 108

Other studies (Scott 1974) have demonstrated significant dimorphism in features

other than stature. Scott‘s (1974) data indicated a reduction in dimorphism in craniofacial

variation (which she notes can be explained in terms of culture, diet, and subsistence)

from the Hunting/Gathering tradition (6000-9000 BP) through the Early Peruvian cultural

tradition (2500-4000BP) with an increase occurring in the Late Peruvian tradition (1000-

2500 BP), the latter being the time frame for both Puruchuco and El Brujo. Scott

interprets this as a return to more normal size differences after a period of inbreeding that

resulted from population isolation. It is possible, however, that it reflects changes in

female nutrition. What men and women were eating might have resulted in changes in the

structure of their faces and skulls and differences in diet might explain the dimorphism.

Still other studies (Bogin and Keep 1999) have demonstrated a correlation between

stature and economic, social, and political environments. Given this, if women were

denied access to the best nutrition because of social or political environments, for

example, rather than a specific relationship with food production, this could also explain

the dimorphism seen in these populations. Clearly, there may be a number of reasons for

the dimorphism seen and certainly genetic factors may also come into play.

Illness Correlation

These data did not demonstrate any credible evidence of correlation between the

illnesses or evidence of skeletal stressors seen in these samples and indicators of

abnormal growth. The types of illnesses or abnormal conditions seen in these samples

included bone loss, endocranial periostitis, periostitis, porotic hyperostosis, cribra

orbitalia, and fractures. There was no significant correlation at either the 0.05 or 0.01

alpha levels between the presence of these specific conditions and possible indicators of

abnormal growth such as shortened long bones or lower limb indices.

 109

While there is no correlation between the illnesses seen in these samples and the

growth indicators, there are some interesting patterns that bear mentioning. This is

particularly true given that these samples demonstrate such similar growth despite the

separation in both time and space. The most notable pattern seen is evidence of anemia.

Both populations demonstrate a high occurrence of anemia, 40% in the El Brujo

population sample and 47% in the Puruchuco sample. This is consistent with other

studies that have demonstrated a higher incidence of porotic hyperostois in coastal South

American populations when compared with highland populations (Larsen 1997; Ubelaker

1981, 1992). One hypothesis to explain this pattern is that Andean coastal populations are

more restricted in their access to fresh, parasite-free water (Larsen 1997).

Another pattern seen is a relatively high incidence of endocranial periostitis, a

condition that can result from blunt force trauma or from meningitis. Meningitis often is a

secondary complication from common childhood infections, including pneumonia and

otitis media (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998). Dalton, Allison and Pezzia

(1976) described a mummy from southern Peru with dried pus on the spinal cord, and

tests indicated bacilli consistent with Haemophilus influenzae, which is the most common

modern day cause for meningitis. Samples for microscopic examination would be

necessary to determine which is the cause in these population samples (Schultz 2001),

however, given that the periostitis is widespread inside the crania of many individuals

versus being localized to only one area, it seems meningitis is a real possibility. Some

27% of the skeletons from the site of El Brujo demonstrate evidence of endocranial

periostitis and 35% of the skeletons from Puruchuco demonstrate this condition. These

data indicate that both populations were facing at least some similar challenges from a

health perspective. This is not necessarily surprising given the similar environments, and
 110

it does support hypotheses previously mentioned as to why these populations are so

similar in their growth patterns.

 111

CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSIONS

In general, these data support the findings of previous studies that significant

variability exists between populations in the timing of basic growth and development

processes. This study has demonstrated significant differences in dental development and

long bone growth. The two South American samples used in this study appear advanced

in their dental development, particularly that of the permanent teeth, over their North

American Amerindian counterparts. Standards developed using native North American

samples tend to over-age these skeletons. Given that these standards are commonly used

to age prehistoric South Americans, this is a significant finding. This research has

produced dental charts that are more appropriate for Andean South American

populations. How widespread their applicability is remains to be seen and will be

discussed further in the section entitled Suggestions for Future Research later in this

chapter. The question as to why these populations would be advanced in their dental

development remains to be answered, particularly given that they seem delayed or

stunted in their skeletal maturation.

Research has demonstrated considerable variability in long bone lengths between

many populations, including these Peruvian samples and the Arikara. Long bone length

standards developed by Ubelaker (1999) appear to under-age these South American

skeletons. Ubelaker's Amerindian dental standards tend to over-age these South

American subadults. Thus, a disparity between age indicators that might be interpreted as
 112

caused by stress factors, is at the very least magnified if not created entirely by the use of

inappropriate standards, which are currently the only ones available.

Some results of this research appear to demonstrate that genetic factors may play

more of a role in some growth events previously thought to be more malleable with

respect to environmental factors. The stature findings suggest that hereditary shortness in

Andean coastal populations may play more of a part in the final growth attainment than

previously thought. The El Brujo and Puruchuco samples are nearly identical in their

stature and sexual dimorphism, despite their separation in time and space. Once again, the

role of the environment would certainly come into play, and as both of their

environments (including both physical and nutritional environments) are similar, it would

be expected that the stature results could be similar. Additionally, they are not only

similar to one another, but to certain other populations including modern day highland

groups. This is significant given that a shorter stature for highland groups would be

expected due to the effects of high altitude as a result of hypoxia. This suggests that

genetic limitations to growth may play a significant role in the coastal populations,

perhaps more so than environment.

It is important, however, to more closely examine the role of the environment as

many studies suggest that it plays a significant role in growth variation in closely related

populations (Bogin 2001; Bogin and Keep 1999; Holden and Mace 1999; Tompkins

1996; Bogin 1988; Cohen and Armelagos 1984; Johnston, Borden and MacVean 1975;

Johnston 1962). The general pattern seen in these studies is one of advanced dental

development in conjunction with retarded or stunted skeletal maturation. Tompkins

(1996b) hypothesizes that advanced dental development indicates a potential for

advanced skeletal maturation as well. As Bogin (2001) argues, this would be beneficial in
 113

that the individual who matures faster has the option of reproducing earlier, which

increases his/her individual fitness. There may be reasons why reproducing earlier is not

desirable, but it is the flexibility of having the option that offers the real advantage. In a

population where advanced dental development is seen in combination with retarded or

stunted skeletal maturation, the implication is that the skeletal development was affected

by environmental stressors. This is supported by the fact that skeletal maturation is more

readily affected by environmental stressors than dental development (Bogin 2001;

Saunders 2000).

A number of studies support the hypothesis that the environment has more of an

effect than genotype on certain growth and development events. Johnston, Borden and

MacVean (1975) studied children living in Guatemala City and compared them with

children in the United States. They compared children of Guatemalan descent living in

Guatemala City, children of European descent living in Guatemala City and children of

European descent living in the United States. All of the children studied came from a

similar socioeconomic level - one which is favorable to growth and development. The

results of their data indicate more similarity in growth and development in children raised

in similar environments, despite significantly different genetic backgrounds. Children

with similar genetic backgrounds who were raised in different environments showed

significant differences in their growth and development. The authors note, however, that

the relevant environmental factors cannot be readily identified. The similarity in the

socioeconomic level of all study subjects suggests nutrition and health care were not

related to the results, particularly since these children came from middle or high class

homes where factors that promote growth were optimal. Despite the difficulty in

identifying specific environmental factors, the authors argue that they may be more
 114

important than genetic factors in producing growth variation. They also suggest that very

subtle, difficult to perceive environmental factors associated with particular ecosystems

and experienced chronically by a given population may be the major source of

morphological differences among adults. Bogin (2001) points to studies on monozygotic

twins which demonstrate that, although genetically identical, a twin who is nourished

from a smaller fraction of the placenta is often born with a lower birth weight than his or

her sibling who was nourished by a larger fraction of the placenta. The difference

between the two twins has been demonstrated in follow up studies to potentially last

throughout their lives. Frisancho (1976), who argued that depressed growth rates in

highland populations were the result of high altitude hypoxia, noted that parent-offspring

correlations in Nuñoa indicated that the genetic contribution to phenotypic variation in

growth in height was less than in Western populations. This was the same conclusion

drawn by Dutt (1976) and Garruto and Hoff (1976), all of whom concluded that selection

pressures were responsible for the genotypes seen in Nuñoa, at least as much if not more

than genetic factors.

Other studies point to more specific causes of growth retardation. Bogin (2001)

points to a decline in average stature in the first decades of the 19th century in Europe that

coincided with a similar decline in real wages and increases in the cost of food.

Additionally, Bogin (2001) and Bogin and Keep (1999) suggest that political, economic

and social changes are mirrored in stature changes throughout time. The implication of

these studies is that economic changes either increase or decrease access to resources,

such as food, health care and general living conditions. This is the same factor that

Holden and Mace (1999) argued was behind the trends seen in sexual dimorphism and its

negative correlation with women's contribution to food production. In societies where

 115

women contributed more to food production, sexual dimorphism decreased presumably

because the status of women in these societies was higher, and therefore, they had access

to better resources. Thus, their stature increased and sexual dimorphism decreased. Still

other researchers (Ruff 1994; Moore and Regensteiner 1983; Frisancho 1976) argue that

climate and/or altitude are responsible for the variation seen. Frisancho (1976) and Moore

and Regensteiner (1983) argued that high altitude hypoxia resulted in growth retardation

in highland populations. As previously noted, however, Moore and Regensteiner's (1983)

study demonstrated equivocal results in stature, possibly indicating that malnutrition and

poor health care may have played a role in highland Andean population results. Bogin

(2001) points to the low socioeconomic status, resulting in malnutrition and repeated

bouts of gastrointestinal and respiratory infections, in the Aymara of Bolivia as a likely

factor associated with growth retardation and the resultant short mean stature of this

highland population. Ruff (1994) argued that climate affects body shape in human

populations in relation to Bergmann's and Allen's Rules. While it appears that humans are

subject to these rules, Katzmarzyk and Leonard (1998) demonstrated that nutritional

influences can and do moderate the genetic tendencies, particularly in tropical regions of

the world.

Finally, there was no demonstrable correlation between the presence of any illness

seen in these skeletons and evidence of abnormal growth. This suggests that the illnesses

present do not appear to have affected growth. There are more illnesses that do not leave

a mark in the skeleton than those that do, and thus, illnesses or conditions that might

correlate with abnormal growth might not be visible in these skeletal remains.

To reiterate, these data demonstrate results that support the numerous calls for

more population specific research. It is clear from this study that growth standards
 116

developed from one population may not be appropriate for another. It is apparent that

more work needs to be done in the area of researching how growth and development

might be affected by environmental factors and how and to what degree they might be

controlled by genetic factors.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

As this study has demonstrated a need for more research, it is appropriate to make

suggestions regarding where that research might start. First, it would be appropriate to do

comparative studies utilizing the raw data from some of the publications cited in this

dissertation. This is necessary to confirm perceived differences between Peruvian

populations and those utilized to establish previous standards. The raw data from the

studies that Ubelaker (1999) used to establish his dental charts as well as those from the

long bone studies on the Arikara and Indian Knoll populations would be necessary to

examine more closely the differences between North and South American skeletal

samples.

Comparisons with other populations worldwide would be desirable. Initially, it

would be interesting to see what differences exist between coastal and highland Peruvian

populations. Stature data of coastal archaeological populations is very similar to that of

some modern day highland populations, which would not be in line with expectations

based on the effects of hypoxia on growth. Thus, it is difficult to predict what differences

might or might not be seen in skeletal samples. Additionally, it would be important to

examine other coastal populations from different time periods and locations along the

coastline of South America to see if the similarities seen between these two populations

are typical of populations inhabiting coastal desert environments. It would also be useful

(if possible) to attempt to ascertain how much of the variability seen in interpopulation
 117

comparisons is the result of genetic variation versus environmental influence, and which

specific environmental conditions are responsible for the differences. The physical

environment of the Indian Knoll site would appear to differ greatly from that of the

central and south coast of Peru, and yet, the three populations from these areas have

extraordinarily similar long bone growth patterns, at least for the first five years of life.

So the question is, what factors combined to produce these results? The kinds of research

suggested here would certainly help to answer that question.

One of the problems encountered in the comparison of these data with those from

other studies, and of central importance to future research, is the problem of

standardization in the collection of data. Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and numerous

other researchers have made great strides in this area, but still much work remains to be

done. Central to growth and development research is the need to standardize aging

methods so that false discrepancies are not created by the use of one means of aging

skeletons (e.g. the use of Moorhees, Fanning, and Hunt‘s dental development methods vs.

Demirjan et al.) in one population and another method used in a comparable study on

another population. At the very least, it is important to describe, as precisely as possible,

the methodology used in any study so that it can be duplicated for comparison purposes.

Once standardization of methods is achieved, future comparative studies will have more

significance. In any case, it is clear that growth and development varies from population

to population and no one set of standards can be presumed accurate for all populations.

Given that the assessment of paleodemography and health status is central to

archaeological reconstruction of past societies, it is vital that the analyses be as accurate

as possible. It is hoped that this research will contribute to improving the accuracy of the

study of past populations.

 118

APPENDIX A
LONG BONE BRACHIAL AND CRURAL INDICES

Brachial and Crural Indices for Puruchuco and El Brujo samples

ID# Brachial Index Crural Index
PCH-01-01 79 84
PCH-01-02 77 86
PCH-01-03 82 84
PCH-01-04 77 84
PCH-01-05 84
PCH-01-06 79 82
PCH-01-07 78
PCH-01-08 81 85
PCH-01-09 88
PCH-01-11 80 84
PCH-01-12 82 84
PCH-01-13 76 84
PCH-01-14 82 81
PCH-01-15 80 81
PCH-01-16 79 84
PCH-01-17 77 81
PCH-01-18 81
PCH-01-20 79 83
PCH-01-22 77
PCH-01-23 75 82
PCH-01-24 79
PCH-01-25 84 86
PCH-01-26 84
PCH-01-27 80 85
PCH-01-28 78 83
PCH-01-29 76
PCH-01-30 84
PCH-01-31 75 83
PCH-01-32 75 82
PCH-01-33 76
PCH-01-34 75 85
PCH-01-35 82 85
PCH-01-37 82
PCH-01-38 83
PCH-01-39 63 83
PCH-01-40 79 84
 119

ID# Brachial Index Crural Index

PCH-01-41 78 85
PCH-01-43 75 82
PCH-01-44 84 87
PCH-01-45 79 83
PCH-01-46 82 82
PCH-01-47 78 79
PCH-01-48 80 81
PCH-01-49 77 84
PCH-01-50 79 81
PCH-01-51 78 82
PCH-01-52 77 82
PCH-01-53 77 82
PCH-01-54 82 88
PCH-01-55 79 81
PCH-01-56 83 85
PCH-01-58 79
PCH-01-59 78 83
PCH-01-60 79 83
PCH-01-61 82 86
PCH-01-62 78 84
PCH-01-63 79 85
PCH-01-64 82
PCH-01-67 83
PCH-01-68 80 84
PCH-01-69 86 85
PCH-01-70 75 81
PCH-01-71 78
PCH-01-72 80 84
PCH-01-73 81 84
PCH-01-74 79 81
PCH-01-75 86
PCH-01-77 83
PCH-01-78 79 79
PCH-01-80 79
PCH-01-82 78 82
PCH-01-83 78 86
PCH-01-85 82 83
PCH-01-86 77 85
PCH-01-87 73 85
PCH-01-90 80 85
PCH-01-92 74 82
PCH-01-94 83 87
PCH-01-95 78 87
PCH-01-99 76 82
PCH-01-102 82 84
PCH-01-103 77 81
PCH-01-104 79 84
PCH-01-105 74 81
PCH-01-106 78 82
 120

ID# Brachial Index Crural Index

PCH-01-107 79 83
PCH-01-108 80
PCH-01-109 78
PCH-01-110 82 84
PCH-01-112 82 86
PCH-01-114 82 86
PCH-01-115 79 85
PCH-01-116 82 85
PCH-01-117 76 86
PCH-01-118 77
PCH-01-119 75 82
PCH-01-120 76 80
PCH-02-03 78 85
PCH-02-04 81 85
PCH-02-05 80
PCH-02-06 79 84
PCH-02-07 80 88
PCH-02-08 75
PCH-02-09 74 80
PCH-02-11 78 83
PCH-02-12 81 87
PCH-02-13 83 84
PCH-02-14 75
L00-07 76 82
L00-10 83 83
L00-11 80 85
L00-16 81 85
L00-18 81 88
L00-20 78 83
L00-24 75 82
L00-25 77 79
L00-36 77 85
L99-01 75 81
L99-03 78 80
L99-10 76 85
L99-11 77 81
L99-18 79 89
L99-21 68 85
L99-23 76 85
L99-24 76 84
L99-25 79 81
L99-26 80 82
L99-27 75 82
L99-29 79 85
L99-30 78 82
L99-37 77 80
L99-40 76 85
L99-43 72 83
L99-46 82 82
 121

ID# Brachial Index Crural Index

L99-47 79 82
L99-48 81 88
L99-49 84 87
L99-54 82 87
L99-55 65 82
L99-56 85 84
L99-58 76 86
L99-59 76 81
L99-63 80 86
L99-64 78 81
 122

APPENDIX B
LONG BONE PROPORTIONS DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Descriptive statistics for long bone indices for Puruchuco and El Brujo samples
Brachial Index Descriptive Statistics for Crural Index Descriptive Statistics for
Puruchuco Puruchuco

Mean 78.68 Mean 83.63

Standard Error 0.31 Standard Error 0.21
Standard Deviation 3.05 Standard Deviation 2.02
Sample Variance 9.3 Sample Variance 4.07
Skewness -1.16 Skewness -0.16
Range 22.87 Range 9.22
Minimum 63.23 Minimum 78.49
Maximum 86.1 Maximum 87.71
Count 99 Count 92
Confidence Level(95.0%) 0.61 Confidence Level(95.0%) 0.42

Brachial Index Descriptive Statistics for El Brujo Crural Index Descriptive Statistics for El
Brujo

Mean 77.68 Mean 83.59

Standard Error 0.66 Standard Error 0.42
Standard Deviation 3.94 Standard Deviation 2.52
Sample Variance 15.53 Sample Variance 6.34
Skewness -1.05 Skewness 0.34
Range 19.97 Range 10.07
Minimum 65.28 Minimum 79.19
Maximum 85.19 Maximum 89.26
Count 36 Count 36
Confidence Level(95.0%) 1.33 Confidence Level(95.0%) 0.85
 123

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BIOGRAPHY

Catherine Gaither was born in Denver, Colorado. She obtained an Associates degree in

animal health technology in 1984 and worked for 11 years as an animal health technician.

She returned to school in 1991. She obtained her BA in anthropology from Metropolitan

State College of Denver in 1995. She then entered Tulane University in 1997 where she

obtained her MA in anthropology in 2001. She obtained her Ph.D. from Tulane in 2004.

She currently resides in her home state of Colorado and teaches at numerous colleges in

the metropolitan Denver area.

Her publications and presentations include the following:

Society for American Archaeology 2004 meeting (Presenter)

Gaither, Catherine, Melissa Murphy, Guillermo Cock And Mellisa Lund Valle
2004 Insights from a provincial Inca cemetery: Mortuary patterns, growth and
health at Puruchuco-Huaquerones

Denver Museum of Nature and Science (Presenter)

2004 Inca Mummies

American Institute of Archaeology, Denver Chapter (Presenter)

2003 Sacrificial Foundations in Andean Prehistory

Universidad Nacional de Trujillo (Presenter)

2002 Paleopatologias de Poblaciones Prehispanicas de la Costa Peruana

Isidore Newman High School, New Orleans, LA. (Presenter)

2000 An Overview of Human Origins

Florida Anthropological Society 1998 Meeting (Presenter)

Gaither, Catherine, Ken Nehiley, and Bill Moore
1998 Breathing New Life into Old Sites: A methodology for converting old data
into modern formats

Gaither, Catherine M.
1997 Analysis of fourteen sets of skeletal remains from the site of Huaca Cao
Viejo, Peru. Report to project directors.