Chemical Engineering Department

School Year 2017 - 2018

Experiment No. 3

Inverse Square Law for Heat and Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Group Number: 03

Unit Operations 1 Lab / Section: 51021

14:00 – 17:00 Tuesdays / ChE Lab

Name Student Number Signature

1. Calaor, Fher Louis S. 201310443

2. Diaz, Manuelito V. 201311198
3. Isuan, Kelly A. 201311412
4. Palad, Ayra Patricia B. 201311047
5. Rato, Marvin A. 201310547

Engr. Anabella C. Vilando

Instructor
ABSTRACT:
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Radiation is among the three basic heat transfer mechanisms which transfers energy through
space via electromagnetic waves.

The objective of this experiment is to show that the intensity of radiation on the surface is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source and to show
that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source temperature.

The thermal radiation unit was set by plugging the console in the 220V socket which radiometer
was fastened on the railing, heater unit plugged in socket C and radiometer unit plugged in socket D. For
the Inverse Square Law for Heat experiment, stable temperature was first obtained before the radiometer
reading and the distance was recorded for a number of positions. For the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
experiment, the black plate was placed 50mm from the heat source and the radiometer was placed 200mm
from the black plate. Recorded then was the temperature of the heater and the black plate and the
radiometer reading at increasing temperature increments up to the maximum.

From the results, it was observed that as the distance of the radiometer to the heat source
decreases, the radiometer reading increases which manifests the principles of the Inverse Square Law for
Heat. The log-log plot of the radiometer reading vs the distance showed that the slope is -1.6046, a value
in proximity to a slope of -2.0 as per the ideal setup of the experiment.

The obtained results for the Stefan-Boltzmann Law revealed that as the power is increased in the
source, the temperature from the source and the radiometer and its surrounding increases. The increased
radiometer reading with increased source power implies that the amount of radiated heat absorbed by the
black body is also increased.

In conclusion, the intensity of the radiated heat is in inverse relationship with its distance.
Furthermore, the intensity of the radiated heat is directly proportional to the fourth power of its source
temperature.

It is recommended that plates be used for the verification of the Inverse Square Law for Heat
which is suggested to increase its area by a power of two as the distance between the source and sensor is
increased. The black body plate size is also proposed to be increased to avoid radiated heat from being
lost in the environment.

INTRODUCTION:
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Heat Transfer usually occur by one or more of the three basic mechanisms namely
conduction, convection or radiation. In this experiment, we focus more on the radiation heat
transfer. Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of energy through space by means of
electromagnetic waves in much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. The
law that governs the transfer of light is the same law that governs the transfer of heat. The
difference between this radiation heat transfer to the other two basic heat transfer mechanism is
that no physical medium is needed for its propagation. Radiation heat transfer occurs when the
thermal energy of a hot source is converted into the energy of electromagnetic radiation waves.
These waves will travel through the intervening space in straight line and strike a cold object and
that electromagnetic waves that strike the body will be absorbed by the body and converted back
to thermal energy.

Figure 1. Electromagnetic Wave

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Figure 2. Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 3. Planck’s Curve

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Two of the known laws governing radiation heat transfer are the Inverse Square Law for
Heat and Stefan-Boltzmann Law. In Inverse Square Law, it states that if for point sources,
intensity of the radiation varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source.
Doubling the distance reduces intensity of the radiation by a factor of four (1/4 of its original
value). If the area of the source is large compared with the distances involved, intensity decreases
with distance but it does not follow this simple law. This law can be applied up to a distance
from the source greater than about 5 times the dimensions of the source (Geankoplis, 1993).

Figure 4. Radiation Intensity Decreases with Distance

In Stefan-Boltzmann Law, it states that the amount of energy per square meter per second
that is emitted by a black body is related to the fourth power of its Kelvin Temperature. It was
determined experimentally by Joseph Stefan in 1879 and verified by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.
The constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant derives from other
known constants of nature with a value of the constant equals to 5.670373 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4. A
black body is defined as the perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It absorbs all incident
radiation regardless of wavelength and direction and emits radiation energy uniformly in all
directions per unit area normal to direction of emission. Materials who do not possess these
characteristics are classified as gray bodies (Cengel, 2008).
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Figure 5. The Variation of the Blackbody Emissive Power with Wavelength for
Several Temperatures

I. OBJECTIVES

 To show that the intensity of radiation on the surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source

 To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source
temperature

II. MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT NEEDED

 Thermal Radiation Unit

III. EQUIPMENT SET UP

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IV. THEORY

Inverse Square Law

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The inverse square law will be obeyed by any point source which spreads its influence
equally without limits to its range. At any given radius r, the intensity of the influence is the
source length divided by the area of the sphere.

Figure 6. Intensity vs. Distance

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that the total power radiated by an ideal emitter is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Imagine an enclosure whose walls
are maintained at a constant temperature T2. If an object is suspended in the enclosure, regardless
of its initial temperature T1, it eventually comes to equilibrium at the same temperature as the
walls T2, If T1 > T2, the suspended body must radiate energy in order to lower its temperature to
T2; and if T1 < T2, the object must absorb energy in order to raise its temperature to T2.

Experimental measurements have shown that the rate at which energy is emitted depends on
the material of the object, the condition of its surface, and on its temperature. Quantitatively,
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Where:

Re - rate at which energy is emitted per unit area

e - emissivity (between 0 and 1 depending on the material of which the object is

made),
σ - Stefan's constant (= 5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2 K4) and T1 is the Kelvin temperature of
the body.

The first equation was first suggested by Josef Stefan and is called the Stefan-
Boltzmann law. The rate of absorption also depends on the nature of the object and on
the temperature of its surroundings,

Where:

Ra - rate at which energy is absorbed per unit area and T2 is the Kelvin temperature of
the surroundings.

Thus,
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V. PROCEDURE

Setup of the Thermal Radiation Unit

Plug the instrument console in the 220V socket. Fasten the radiometer on the railing of
thermal radiation unit, remove its cover and let its detector face the heater of the unit. The heater
should be connected to the console by plugging it in socket C. Finally, connect the radiometer to
the socket D of the instrument console.

A. Inverse Square law for Heat

First, prepare the thermal radiation unit and set the power to maximum and allow fifteen
minutes for its heater to achieve a stable temperature. Measure the temperature of the heater
using a thermometer. Record the radiometer reading (R) and the distance from the heat source
(X) for a number of positions of the horizontal track. Wait for two minutes for the radiometer
reading to stabilize before measuring again.

Note that the radiometer sensor surface is 65 mm from the center line of detector carriage
and therefore center line position will be 865 mm.

B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

First, place the black plate 50 mm from the heat source and the radiometer 200 mm from
the black plate. Set the heater to its maximum and. Measure the temperature of the heater and the
black plate, measure also the reading of the radiometer at increasing temperature increments up
the maximum.
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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM (SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE):

A. Inverse Square Law for Heat

Allow for 15 minutes to reach

stable temperature

B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
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PROCEDURE DOCUMENTATION:

A. Inverse Square Law for Heat

Step 1. Setup for Inverse Square Law for Heat Experiment.

Step 2.
Obtainment of the
stable
temperature for
the experiment.

Step 3.
Recording of
the radiometer
reading.
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Step 4.
Adjustment of
radiometer
distance.

B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Step 1. Setup for Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Experiment

Step 2. Simultaneous reading of

source temperature and
radiometer and surroundings
temperature.
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VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Inverse Square Law for Heat

Stable Temperature Reading: 206.8℃

Distance (mm) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100

Radiometer Reading 67 90 125 164 246 422 882 1739

(W/m2)

Log Distance (mm) 2.903 2.845 2.778 2.699 2.602 2.477 2.301 2

Log Radiometer 1.826 1.954 2.097 2.215 2.391 2.625 2.945 3.240
Reading (W/m2)

DISCUSSION:
The data gathered for the table above was collected from the proper set-up as instructed
in the laboratory manual. The Radiometer was set up at an initial distance of 800 mm with
respect to its sensor surface and of the heat source. Before proceeding with the gathering of data,
it was first ensured that the temperature was maintained at a constant magnitude wherein for this
experiment, the heat source was at a temperature of 206.8 oC. At the initial distance, the
Radiometer gave a reading of 67 W/m 2. Decreasing the distance of the Radiometer to the Heat
Source, particularly at 700 mm, the reading of the radiometer is exactly 90 W/m 2. As the distance
of the radiometer to the heat source decreases, the radiometer reading increases which
correspond to the principles as stated in the Inverse Square law for Heat. In a nutshell, the
Inverse Square Law states that the heat emanating from a source, increases in the distribution of
its size as it moves farther from it while maintaining the same amount of heat (Gutierrez, Sabra,
2014). The area necessary to absorb the same amount of heat as that of a theoretical plate placed
100 mm from the source to that of a theoretical plate placed 200 mm would be four times that of
the area f the theoretical plate placed in the 100 mm gap. In the experiment, the radiometer reads
the amount of heat directly from the source itself. As it is farther from the heat source, the heat
coming from the heater is evenly distributed all throughout the area and only a miniscule amount
is read by the radiometer sensor which would explain why it has a lower reading whenever the
distance from the two is greater, for instance is the 67 W/m 2 reading for the 800 mm distance. As
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the radiometer is moved in closer to the source, the heat is more focused on the sensor itself and
is not dispersed in comparison to when it is farther. This explains why the radiometer reading at a
distance of 100 mm is 1739 W/m 2. The value of the radiation at such a distance is in close
proximity to the actual heat that is supplied by the source. In this experiment it isn’t thoroughly
shown that the heat supplied is constant all throughout the experiment not because there was
something wrong but because the heat itself wasn’t read by the radiometer’s sensors since it was
beyond its sphere of domain. The radiometer simply read the heat which was in its line of sight.

Figure 7. Log-Log Plot of the Radiometer Reading against Distance

DISCUSSION:
In this portion of the experiment, the log-log plot of the Radiometer Reading vs. the
distance was also plotted in order to determine the validity of the results. It is observable that as
the distance increases, the radiometer reading decreases, which is to be expected since the
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amount of heat that is read by the radiometers sensors would be less whenever its distance from
the source is of great length. It’s also important to note that the Inverse Square Law requires that
the log-log plot of the radiometer reading vs. that of the distance should have a slope in
proximity or equivalent to -2.0. For this experiment, through the aid of software’s such as MS
Excel and Origin, the equation of the line was determined in the slope-intercept form. In the
equation above, the slope is determined to be equivalent to -1.6046. This type of value is to be
expected from the experiment. It’s important to note that the requirement that the slope of the
said log-log plot must be equal to -2.0 for which the data coincides with the Inverse Square Law
can only be done in a set-up where there are plates for the heat to be collected upon before the
radiometer sensors start to give a reading (Goats, 1988). It also requires that the plate for each
distance must have an area equivalent to the squared area of the plate before it, so that the heat
supplied by the heater can be fully absorbed as the distance of the heater and radiometer is
varied. For this experiment only a few amount of the heat supplied by the heater was actually
read by the radiometer sensor which would explain why the slope is only in proximity to a value
of – 1.6 because a slope equal to -2.0 can never be achieved in the set up given. To validate the
results the R2 data is given and is in a magnitude of 0.985 which shows precision amongst the
results gathered. For this experiment it is to be expected that the slope is within a close range of
-1.5 to -1.7 at best due of the limitations of the set-up but it can never be equal to a slope equal to
– 2.0.

Table 2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Reading Calculation

Temperature Radiometer TS TA Qb=11.07*R Qb=σ(TS4- TA4)

Reading, T Reading, R

℃ W/m2 K K W/m2 W/m2

117.9 42 391.05 308.95 464.94 809.33

155.2 63 428.35 323.75 697.41 1285.97

180 95 453.15 327.85 1051.65 1735.78

235.6 114 508.75 336.25 1261.98 3073.58

249.2 179 522.35 352.95 1981.53 3341.23

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251.1 225 524.25 367.25 2490.75 3251.48

DISCUSSION:
For this portion of the experiment, the Stefan-Boltzmann Law was put to the test in order
to see the relationship between the intensity of the radiation absorbed by a black body and its
relationship to the temperature of the source raised to the fourth power. As per instructed in the
laboratory manual, the set-up for this experiment was closely observed during the performance
of the experiment in order to gather the necessary data. Due to the inability of the reader to give
the source temperature, separate thermometers were used in order to measure the magnitude of
the temperature of the source (TS) and the temperature of the radiometer and surrounding (T A). In
this experiment the distance was maintained as instructed in the manual. The power supplied to
the heater however was varied in order to see the fluctuations in the data. It is observed that as
the power is increased to the source, the amount of temperature from the source and that of
radiometer and it surrounding continuously increases. In regards to the radiated heat absorbed by
the black body, its magnitude also increases as the power is continuously increased. In order to
see the validity of the results, the heat radiated from the source was also computed through two
formulas as indicated above while using the data from the experiment. It also displays the same
relationship as shown by the actual radiometer readings. The difference in their magnitude can be
attributed to the consequence of the Inverse Square Law. Considering the theoretical plate for
this portion of the experiment as the black body plate, only a portion of the radiated heat is
absorbed by the black body itself. Only the ones within its line of sight is actually absorbed and
the ones that are evenly distributed simply are lost to the environment (Eckhardt, 1975). This
explains the gap between the computed radiated heat to that of the radiometer reading.

VII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

For this experiment, the data gathered for each of the Thermal Law’s given here follows
the same relationship as indicated by their principles. The Intensity of the Radiated Heat as
measured by the Radiometer and the distance between the source and the sensor displayed an
inverse relationship between the two which coincides with the Inverse Square Law for Heat. The
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Intensity of the Radiometer Reading to the radiated heat is directly proportional to the source
temperature and follows a pattern of magnitudes raised to the fourth power which coincides with
the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. Both experiments were able to be conducted as advised by the
manual and showed to have acceptable results. The experiment also showed that both Law takes
into action at the same time and has consequences with regards to the effect of the other.

The experiment however showed certain limitations into proving the validity of both the
law and the data gathered. We then recommend that the Inverse Square Law procedure be altered
in a manner wherein plates will be used for this portion of the experiment for the radiometer to
read the intensity of the radiated heat instead of measuring it from the source. It can also be fully
improved if the area of such plates continuously increases by a power of two whenever the
distance between the source and the sensor is increased so that all of the radiated heat as much as
possible can be absorbed by the material. We also recommend that the black body plate size be
increased so the more of the radiated heat is concentrated on it rather than being lost to the
environment.
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REFERENCES:

Books:

Cengel, Y,; 2008; Heat Transfer, A Practical Approach

Concepts of Modern Physics 6th Ed., Beiser, A. Chapter 9. Sections 9.5-9.7

Eckhardt, W.; 1975; Corrections to the Stefan-Boltzmann Radiation Law In cavities with
Walls of Finite Conductivity, Journal of optics Communication Vol. 14 issue No. 1 Page 95 –
98

Geankoplis, Christi. Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd Edition. Singapore:
Prentice Hall Simon and Schuster (Asia) Pte Ltd, 1995

Goats, Geoffrey C.; 1988; Appropriate Use of the Inverse Square Law; Physiotheraphy Vo.
74 Issue No. 1 Page 8

Gutierrez, C., Sabra, A.; 2014; The Reflector Problem and the Inverse Square Law, Journal of
Nonlinear Analysis Vol. 96 Page 109 - 133

Internet Source:

http://cfbt-us.com/wordpress/?tag=heat-transfer
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Appendices

Appendix A. Experimental Data

A. Inverse Square Law for Heat

Stable Temperature Reading: 206.8℃

Distance (mm) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100

Radiometer Reading 67 90 125 164 246 422 882 1739

(W/m2)

B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Temperature Reading 117.9 155.2 180 235.6 249.2 251.1

(℃)

Radiometer Reading 42 63 95 114 179 225

(W/m2)

TA (K) 308.95 323.75 327.85 336.25 352.95 367.25

Appendix B. Sample Computations

A. Inverse Square Law for Heat

Distance = 800 mm

Log Distance: 10x = 800

X or Log Distance = 2.903 mm

Radiometer Reading = 67 W/m2

Log Radiometer Reading: 10y = 67

Y or Log Radiometer Reading = 1.826 W/m2

B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
At Temperature Reading = 117.9 ℃’

Radiometer Reading, R = 42 W/m2

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Source Temperature, TS = 391.05 K

Surrounding Temperature, TA = 308.95 K

Qb = 11.07*R

Qb = 11.07*42 W/m2

Qb = 464.94 W/m2

Qb = σ(TS4- TA4)

Qb = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4 (391.054-308.954) K4

Qb = 809.33 W/m2