Biostatistics:

Introduction, Sampling
Methods, and Presentation of
Data and Frequency Distribution
ALVIN A. ALDEA, RMT, MSMT©
Medical Technology/ Medical Laboratory Science Program
School of Health and Allied Sciences
University of Saint Louis
Introduction to Biostatistics
Biostatistics
• Etymology: “bio” = life; “statistics” = science that deals with the
collection, organization, summarization, presentation, and analysis of
data
• Biostatisticians:
• Apply their skills in heath-related fields and collaborate with other
researchers to answer specific questions
• Guides on data collection, selection and implementation of appropriate
methodologies, and in the interpretation of results
• Develops new statistical methods
 Tables/Graphs
Branches of Statistics Measures of
Central Tendency
Descriptive Measures of
Statistics Position
Measures of
Variability
Statistics Measures of
Correlation

Estimation
Inferential
Statistics Hypothesis
Testing
 One-Sample

Classification of Statistics Two Dependent

Samples
Two Independent
Parametric
Samples
>2 Independent
Samples
>2 Dependent
Samples
Statistics
One-Sample

Two Dependent
Samples
Two Independent
Nonparametric
Samples
>2 Independent
Samples
>2 Dependent
Samples
Measurement
• Definition: refers to the process of assigning meaningful numbers (or
labels) to individual persons based on the degree to which they
posses a particular characteristics
• Levels of Measurement
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
Levels of Measurement
• Nominal scale: consists of a finite set of possible values or categories
that have unordered scales
• No natural order of categories
• Examples:
• Cause of death
• Gender
• Blood type
• Civil status
Levels of Measurement
• Ordinal scale: consists of a finite set of possible values of categories
which have ordered scales
• Examples:
• Pain (mild, moderate, severe)
• Attitude towards abortion
• Cancer stages
Levels of Measurement
• Interval scale: generally measured on a continuum and differences
between any two numbers on the scale that are of known size.
• No true zero point
• Examples:
• Temperature in Celsius and Fahrenheit
Levels of Measurement
• Ratio scale: generally measured on a continuum and the ratio scale
has a meaningful zero point
• Examples:
• Height
• Mass
Variables
• Definition: refer to the characteristic of persons or objects which can
take on different values or labels for different persons or objects
under consideration.
• Example
• College major
• Faculty rank
• Types:
• Response variable: affected by the value of some other variables
• Explanatory variable: affects the value of the response variable
Classification of Variables
• Qualitative vs Quantitative
• Qualitative: is one whose categories are simply used as labels to distinguish
one group from the other
• Quantitative: can be measured and ordered according to quantity
• Types of Quantitative variable
• Discrete: refers to each element of set of possible values that is either finite
or countably infinite that can appear only as whole numbers
• Continuous: refers to each element of a set of possible values including all
values in an interval of the real line that can be expressed with fractions or
digits after a decimal point
Summation Notation
%

! 𝑋𝑖
"#$
• ∑ : Sum
• i=1: start with the first value of X and calculate the sum of all values of
X
• N: end with the nth value of Xi to Xn

Example: Let X1=3, X2=5, X3=2, and X4=6. Evaluate ∑*"#$ 𝑋𝑖

Rules in Summation Notation
• Rule No. 1: The sum of a constant from 1 to n equals the product of
the constant and n.
%

! 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
"#$
• Example: Evaluate ∑."#$ 4
Rules in Summation Notation
• Rule No. 2: The sum of a variable and a constant equals the sum of
the variable plus product of the constant and n
% %

! 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑐 = ! 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑛𝑐
"#$ "#$
• Example: Let X1=3, X2=5, X3=2, X4=6, and X5=3. Evaluate ∑1"#$ 𝑋𝑖 + 7
Rules in Summation Notation
• Rule No. 3: The difference of a variable and a constant equals the
difference of the variable minus the product of the constant and n
% %

!(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑐) = ! 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑛𝑐
"#$ "#$
• Example: Let X1=3, X2=5, X3=2, X4=4, and X5=3. Evaluate ∑1"#$ 𝑋𝑖 − 3
Rules in Summation Notation
• Rule No. 4: The sum of the products of a variable and a constant
equals the product of the constant and the sum of the variable
% %

!(𝑐𝑋𝑖) = 𝑐 ! 𝑋𝑖
"#$ "#$
• Example: Let X1=3, X2=5, X3=2, X4=6, and X5=3. Evaluate ∑1"#$ 7𝑋𝑖
Classification of Data
• Internal vs External Data
• Internal Data refers to those data that relates to the activities within the
organization collecting the data
• External Data refers to the data that relates to the activities outside the
organization collecting the data.
• Statistical vs Nonstatistical Data
• Statistical Data are those published data of the government institutions,
companies, and associations which involves figures, tables, graphs
• Nonstatistical Data are those information which do not involve figure, tables
and graphs
Sources of Data
• Primary source: refers to the data that comes from the original
sources and is collected especially for the task at hand.
• Advantage:
• Precise retrieval of information
• Monitor and record the extraneous influences on the data
• Disadvantage
• Very expensive
• Time consuming
Sources of Data
• Secondary source: refers to the data collected by others for another
purpose (paper-based or electronic sources)
• Advantage:
• Can be obtained easily
• Good source of research on past events
• Appropriate to find data on distant places
• Disadvantage
• Units of measurement are different since different time periods may be involved
• Difficult to assess the accuracy of the data
• Data is usually out of date
Methods of Data Collection
• Mailed questionnaire: most popular
• Advantages
• Less expensive
• Less time needed
• No prior arrangements are needed
• Respondent can answer at their convenient time
• Respondent can hide their true personality
• No dangers of interviewer bias
• Wide geographic coverage
• Disadvantages
• Less percentage of returns are expected
• Longer time to wait for the responses of the respondents
Methods of Data Collection
• Mailed questionnaire: most popular
• Disadvantages
• Less percentage of returns are expected
• Longer time to wait for the responses of the respondents
• Produce more blanks, no ideas, or no comments
• Answers cannot be verified
• No means of knowing the respondents
• Assumes no literacy problems
Methods of Data Collection
• Interview
• Classification
• Structured
• Semi-structured
• Unstructured
• Advantages
• Higher percentage of returns
• Complete and immediate
• Minimal incidence of blanks, don’t know, or no comment
• Unclear questions could be corrected for better
• Answer can be verified
• Identity of the respondent can be ascertained
• Possible in-depth questions
Methods of Data Collection
• Interview
• Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Time consuming
• More trained personnel
• Respondent in under pressure to answer at once
• Respondent is left no choice regarding his personality
• Respondent bias
• Geographical limitations
Methods of Data Collection
• Observation
• Classification
• Direct observation
• Indirect observation
• Advantages
• Most appropriate for data on attitudes and behavior
• Reduce the potential bias caused by interview method
• Disadvantages
• Data on awareness beliefs, feelings, and preferences cannot be observed
• Behavior patterns are rare and unpredictable
Methods of Data Collection
• Telephone Interview
• Advantages
• Relatively less expensive
• Higher response rate
• Target respondents can usually be contacted faster
• Can cover large geographical area
• Help can be given to the respondents
• Results can be available after completing the last interview
• Disadvantages
• Telephone number required
• Reluctance to answer
• Problems with 8 to 5 people
• Straightforward questions needed
• Can be irritating
• Little time to think
Sampling Methods
Definition of Terms
• Population: refers to the entire group of individuals of interest
under study
• Target Population: population from which representative information is
desired and to which the inferences will be made
• Sampled Population: population from which a sample will actually be
drawn
• Sampling: act of studying only a portion of the population
• Sample: Representative sample of the population
• Elementary units: the individual in the population on which a
measurement is actually taken and made
• Sampling unit: the units which are choses in selecting the sample
• Sampling frame: a collection of all sampling unit
Definition of Terms
• Example: We wish to estimate the proportion of children
aged o-5 years old nationwide who have the DPT vaccination
as of 31 December 1993
• Target Population: All children aged 0-5 years old as of December
1993
• Elementary unit: 0-5 year old children
• Sampling unit: children aged 0-5 years old as of December 1993
only in the barangays that can be accessed during the survey
period
• Sampling frame: record of such children
Criteria of Sampling Design
• Representative of the population
• Reliability
• Practicable
• Efficient and economical