B io Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 198

Chloroplasts – Structure and Function

Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in green plants. This is The lamellae:

the process by which carbon dioxide and water are converted into • Provide a large surface area for the attachment of the enzymes

organic chemicals using light as a source of energy. Oxygen is and co-enzymes involved in the electron transfer chain of the

produced as a very useful by-product of the reaction. light dependent reactions.

• Partition the stroma so that different chemical reactions can

This Factsheet explains how the structure of a chloroplast is
take place without interfering with each other.
designed to enable it to carry out its functions effectively and reviews

recent exam questions on this topic

Exam Hint:– Whenever a structure or cell possesses extra

membranes it increases the surface area available, in this

Fig 1. The structure of a chloroplast
case for the attachment of extra pigment molecules, but in

other cells it can increase the rate of absorption (e.g. microvilli

of kidney tubule cells), cristae in mitochondria for attachment

outer membrane
chloroplast of extra stalked particles).

envelope
inner membrane
ribosomes The biconvex shape of the chloroplast is yet another way of

(70S) increasing surface area to maximise absorption of light energy

Sometimes in the exam you will be presented with an electron

micrograph of a chloroplast. Usually, the first question simply asks

you to label it.

Typical Exam Question

lipid
Label parts A B & C
droplet one granum A

(stack of
stroma
starch grain disk-like
intergranal (matrix)
thylakoids)
lamella

Exam Hint: – You may be asked to identify the different

structures in a chloroplast so make sure you learn the diagram.

Chloroplasts are organelles bounded by a double membrane – this

Answer
separates the contents of the chloroplast from the rest of the cell, B
A - stroma;
allowing the photosynthetic reactions to take place without
B - granum / grana / thylakoids;
interference from chemicals in the cytoplasm.
C - starch (grain);

Extract from Chief Examiner’s report

Many candidates appear to believe that chlorophyll and Pigment molecules absorb light energy which ultimately becomes

chloroplasts are tissues. converted to chemical energy incorporated into the glucose and

other compounds produced as a result of photosynthesis.

Plate-like membranes, called lamellae (thylakoids) run along the Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b absorb only certain wavelengths

length of the chloroplast from end to end – these are the site of the of light and therefore only a certain amount of the energy falling

light-dependent reactions. on the chloroplast. Xanthophyll, carotene and phaeophytin are

accessory pigments that absorb light of other wavelengths,

Chlorophyll molecules (and other pigment molecules) that absorb ensuring more energy is trapped by the chloroplast.

light energy are situated on the lamellae. At intervals, extra lamellae

The pigment molecules form clusters called photosystems. Each
are inserted to form structures called grana (singular:granum). A
photosystem consists of a central chlorophyll molecule called
chloroplast contains approximately 3000 lamellae -they increase the
the primary pigment molecule. Located around this are several
surface area available for the attachment of extra pigment molecules
hundred accessory pigment molecules – light energy absorbed
to trap more light energy. The pigment molecules are arranged in
by all these molecules is transferred to the central primary pigment
such a way that they do not shade each other so that the maximum
molecule.
amount of light energy can be absorbed.

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Isolating chloroplasts
In green plants most of the chloroplasts are found in the leaf

mesophyll, mainly in the palisade cells. These are located near

Typical Exam Question
the top of the leaf where most light falls.
Starting with some lettuce leaves, describe how you would

obtain a sample of undamaged chloroplasts. Use your

Exam Hint:– a synoptic question may ask you about the
knowledge of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation to
structure of a chloroplast and then go on to the chemical
answer this question.
reactions involved, so make sure you understand the light-

Markscheme dependent and light-independent reactions.

1. Chop up (accept any reference to crude breaking up); The light-dependent reactions produce ATP and NADPH which
2. Cold; are required for the subsequent synthesis of carbohydrates in
3. Buffer solution; the light-independent reactions.
4. Isotonic / same water potential;

5. Filter and centrifuge filtrate;

Summary
6. Centrifuge supernatant;
Chloroplasts are highly specialised cell organelles, their structure
7. At higher speed;
reflecting their function.
8. Chloroplasts in (second) pellet;

Make sure you understand how the following structures are

The lamellae are embedded in a watery matrix called the stroma. The
designed to enable photosynthesis to be carried out as efficiently
stroma contains numerous starch grains, lipid droplets, enzymes,
as possible
dissolved salts, ribosomes and a circular strand of DNA. It is in the

stroma that the light-independent reactions take place.

• double membrane

• lamellae
The DNA enables chloroplasts to replicate themselves when the
• pigment molecules
cell divides, ensuring new cells receive the correct number of
• stroma
chloroplasts.
• DNA

• ribosomes
The possession of DNA and ribosomes by individual organelles

is unusual. The only other structures where this occurs are

mitochondria.
Some Chief Examiners like to set questions using unfamiliar diagrams.

This doesn’t make the questions any harder – you just need to
Ribosomes produce proteins for use by the chloroplasts, particularly
keep calm and work them out.
the enzymes required for the photosynthetic reactions.The

ribosomes occur in the stroma, attached to the lamellae,

or in groups called polyribosomes.

Fig 2. Structure of leaf

Palisade cell Cross section of leaf

cuticle

nucleus

palisade

mesophyll
cell wall

chloroplast
chloroplast

spongy

mesophyll

vacuole

air space

Individual palisade cells contain numerous chloroplasts to trap light

stomata
energy. The chloroplasts are arranged around the edge of the cell so

that light can reach them without having to pass through the

cytoplasm.

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Position of chloroplasts in leaf tissue

Untypical ( but real) Exam Question
The arrangement of chloroplast-containing cells and tissue within
The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place on
leaves also increases the efficiency of light capture.
thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts. These membranes are

arranged into stacks known as grana. The diagram shows the

Typical Exam Question
arrangement of photosytems in the thylakoid membrane, and
Explain how the palisade mesophyl cells within a leaf are well
summarises the processes that take place there.
adapted for photosynthesis
+
H
light light +
ADP + P H AT P
i closely packed to absorb more of incident light;
NADP
columnar shape / arranged at right angles to surface of leaf, to
stroma NADP AT P
red
reduce number of light absorbing cross walls;
E C Sythetase
A
2e
-
2e
- large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell;

thylakoid chloroplasts on periphery of cell, short (diffusion) path for carbon

B
membrane 2e
-
dioxide;

P680 P700 chloroplasts on periphery of cell to absorb light;

large number of chloroplasts / much chlorophyll, to absorb light ;

thylakoid +
H
+ +
space H O H + H H+ chloroplasts can move within cells to absorb as much light as
2 + H
2H + ½O H
+
2
(lumen) possible;

chloroplasts can move to prevent damage (in high light intensity) ;

(a) What pigment is represented by P680 and P700? (1) cylindrical cells resulting in air spaces;

(b) Name the type of molecule represented by B. (1) air spaces (between cells) to allow circulation of gases;

(c) Name the process in which water molecules are split. (1) large surface area for, gas exchange/diffusion;

(d) What is the advantage of having membranes stacked into cell walls are thin, so short diffusion pathway/(greater) light

grana? (2) penetration;

air spaces act as reservoir of carbon dioxide;

Markscheme AVP; e.g. non pigmented vacuole to allow light penetration

(a) chlorophyll

(b) electron carrier / cytochrome / protein / electron acceptor /

ferredoxin /plastoquinone; Synoptic Questions

(c) photolysis These questions require you to pull together your knowledge of

(d) increases surface area; different parts of the specification – to do some joined – up Biology

for absorption of light; thinking.

So even though the diagram looked horrific, the questions were Typical Synoptic Question
actually very straightforward. Chloroplasts contain both polypeptides and ribosomes. An

investigation was carried out to determine whether any of these

Typical Exam Question polypeptides were synthesised by chloroplast ribosomes.

The diagram shows the structure of a photosynthetic bacterium.

An extract of isolated chloroplasts was obtained. The number of

different, newly synthesised polypeptides produced in this extract

was measured after incubating in the light and in the dark.

(a) Explain why isotonic saline solution was used to wash the

isolated chloroplasts (2 marks)

(b) Radioactive amino acids were added to the extract. Explain

why the use of radioactive amino acids would enable the

investigators to find and identify the polypeptides which had

been newly synthesised. (2 marks)

(c) It was found that more polypeptides were synthesised in the

light than in the dark. Suggest an explanation for this.

(2 marks)

Markscheme
Describe two ways in which the structure of a chloroplast differs
(a) prevent excess water entering or leaving the chloroplasts/
from the structure of this bacterial cell.(2)
same water potential;
Markscheme
prevent lysis / shrinkage of chloroplasts;
chloroplast has no cell wall; (b) amino acids would be used to synthesise polypeptides;
two membranes surrounding chloroplast; use autoradiography / UV / X- rays / photographic film;
grana/thylakoids; (c) ATP from photophosphorylation / photosynthesis/ light
starch granules; dependent reaction needed;

Exam Hint:- Questions about chloroplasts nearly always link them to other aspects of photosynthesis, so make sure you revise the

light-dependent and light -independent reactions, action and absorption spectra and factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.

Data interpretation questions involving photosynthesis experiments and limiting factors are also common.

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Practice questions
sellenagro eseht era airdnohcotim dna stsalporolhc
1. The diagram shows how some organelles may be distinguished
sa sellenagro suonarbmem ot fer R noirdnohcotim ro
from each other.
tsalporolhc eht morf suelcun a fo ecnesba R snortni fo ecnesba

; AND ralucric S08 dna S07 ot fer A

; semosobir citoyrakorp
Organelle found in prokaryotic Organelle found only in
ot ezis ni ralimis / losotyc ni esoht naht rellams ,semosobir
and eukaryotic cells eukaryotic cells
; enarbmem dedlof renni
Organelle A
na evah epolevne / enarbmem yb dednuorrus ton AND / AND

,dekan / eerf .4
Organelle found in Organelle found in

animal cells and in plant plant cells. Contains

skaep noitprosba tnereffid
cells. Does not contain inner membranes
evah 2 dna 1 metsysotohp deifilauq enarbmem elbuod .g.e ;PVA
membranes arranged arranged in stacks

in stacks Organelle B ;snietorp gnikam ,semosobir / AND fer

;dipil ro hcrats fo egarots ot fer

;ocsibur ot fer

Larger organelle Smaller organelle surrounded ;amorts ni

surrounded by an by an outer membrane. Has an semyzne ,egats tnednepedni thgil / elcyc nivlaC ;tneserp PDAN

envelope through which inner membrane, folded to ;esa PTA / esatehtnys / noitcudorp PTA

there are pores. form cristae. ;ecaps diokalyht otni snotorp / snoi

Usually one per cell. Many in a cell. negordyh fo tnemevom ot fer / sisomsoimehc / spmup notorp
Organelle C Organelle D ;enarbmem ni ,metsys CTE / sreirrac nortcele

;)/ eannetna fo aedi(

metsysotohp fo ertnec ot snortcele ’lennuf‘ stnemgip ;ertnec

Which organelle is the chloroplast? (1)
noitcaer / metsysotohp ,fo ertnec ta elucelom )a( llyhporolhc
2. The diagram below shows the structure of a chloroplast, as
;semosatnauq A
seen using the electron microscope.
;)sretsulc ro( sexelpmoc gnitsevrah thgil / smetsysotohp

B otni degnarra ;thgil fo shtgnelevaw tnereffid brosba

;)s(tnemgip deman / stnemgip citehtnysotohp rehto

;enarbmem ni llyhporolhc )fo noitatneiro( ot fer

A ;)mn 086 + 054 ro der

C
+ eulb( llyhporolhc yb debrosba shtgnelevaw ot fer ;snortcele

deticxe esol / noitprosba thgil rof ,stnemgip / llyhporolhc

; n o i s r e v n o c / n o i t c u d s n a r t ,y gr e n e o t

fer ;noitalyrohpsohpotohp / snoitcaer tnedneped thgil ,fo etis

;aera ecafrus egral evig ,)senarbmem( )s(diokalyht / anarg

;epahs xevnocib .g.e ;deifilauq ,tsalporolhc fo aera ecafrus egral1

(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C. (3)
stniop dilav elbatpecca = PVA tpecca = A .3
(b) Give the letter of the structure where

(i) the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take

)3 ynA( ;snoitcaer lacimehc etarapes ot amorts noititrap
place (1)
;)snoitcaer tnedneped -thgil ni devlovni( semyzne
(ii) the light-independent reactions take place (1)
-oc/semyzne fo tnemhcatta rof aera ecafrus egral edivorp
(c) Describe three ways in which structure C is adapted for
;selucelom
photosynthesis (3)
tnemgip artxe fo tnemhcatta rof aera ecafrus egral edivorp

;ygrene thgil brosba selucelom tnemgip

3. Explain how chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis. (10 marks)
;selucelom

tnemgip/llyhporolhc fo tnemhcatta rof senarbmem suoremun )c(

4. Many biologists believe that both chloroplasts and mitochondria

evolved from prokaryotic organisms that inhabited the

;B )ii( ;C )i( )b(
cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells.

;diokalyht/anarg/eallemal C

;amorts B

;epolevne/enarbmem elbuod A )a( .2

B .1

srewsnA

Suggest two structural features of mitochondria and chloroplasts

that are also present in prokaryotic cells (2)

Acknowledgements:

This Factsheet was researched and written by Phill Hargrave.

Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.

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