A Criterion to Define Cross-Flow

A. Lazzaretto
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Padova,
Via Venezia, 1,
35131 Padova, Italy
Fan Design Parameters
The paper presents an original criterion to parameterize systematically a cross-flow fan
configuration according to the most significant variables defining the geometry and then
affecting performance and efficiency. This choice of parameters has proved to be effective
in a systematic series of experimental tests aimed at investigating directions for design
improvement. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1593709兴

Introduction Casing Shapes. Several experimental investigations

Theoretical and experimental studies appearing in the literature,
关1–19兴, do not set definite criteria about cross-flow fan design.
These mainly depend on the complexity of the flow field within
the impeller, always featuring an eccentric vortex 共Fig. 1兲 the
shape and position of which is directly influenced by the impeller
and casing geometry, and affects fan performance and efficiency.
To define cross-flow fan geometry in a general way, many vari-
ables are required, having more or less influence on different char-
acteristics of fan performance 共i.e., pressure coefficients, effi-
ciency, flow rates兲.
A criterion for selecting the geometrical variables that define in
a general sense the geometry of the impeller and shape and posi-
tion of the casing walls is presented here starting with a short
review of theoretical and experimental work by others on the in-
fluence of geometrical design parameters on cross-flow fan per-
formance. The approach mainly focuses on casing geometry and
is based on the simple idea that the area around the impeller is to
be divided into sectors either ‘‘covered’’ by the casing walls or
free to form the suction and delivery zones. The geometry of rear
and vortex walls are defined to include all the positions that sup-
ply good fan performance using the minimum number of indepen-
dent variables. Experimental tests showing the effectiveness of the
presented geometry parameterization are shown in 关20兴.
Cross-Flow Fan Design in the Literature
Impellers. A simplified, one-dimensional, theoretical model
of the double passage through the blade cascade was proposed by
Eck 关9兴. He argued that the only case in which shock-free opera-
tion is possible occurs when the internal blade angle ( ␤ 1 in Fig. 2兲
equals 90 deg. ␤ 1 can be lowered to 75 deg if the effects of a finite
number of blades is considered. On the other hand, only the ex-
ternal blade angle ( ␤ 2 ) is important in determining the overall
energy transfer, 关9兴. The lower the external blade angle, the higher
the fan performance in terms of total pressure coefficient in spite
of largely negative reactions. Ikegami and Murata 关4兴 and Yama-
fuji 关12,13兴 developed detailed analytical flow models in which
shockless flow inside the impeller is obtained for ␤ 1 ⫽90 deg and
the total pressure coefficient depends on the only cotangent of ␤ 2 .
Some authors in the literature, 关3,6兴, consider the effect of im-
peller design on cross-flow fan performance only secondary, with-
out providing clear evidence neither theoretical nor experimental.
Some others, 关18,19兴, propose a range of blade angles they con-
sider as optimal. Most of the researchers, 关6,17,21–23兴, realize
that the best performance is obtained in defined ranges based on
previous experience, and choose impeller blade angles within
those ranges.
Contributed by the Fluids Engineering Division for publication in the JOURNAL
OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the Fluids Engineering Division
January 14, 2002, revised manuscript received January 31, 2003. Associate Editor: Y.
Tsujimoto.
关6,8,9,14,15,21兴 have been conducted in the literature on the ef-
fects of casing shape on performance, but a general design method
is still not available. Eck’s research led to a high efficiency and
low noise patented casing configuration, 关10兴. The rear wall pro-
file is made up of two circular arcs and results in a small radial
width, the clearance between the nearest of the two circular arcs
and the impeller being constant. The vortex wall is thick and has
a decreasing clearance in the direction of rotation. It also shows a
diffusing section immediately before discharge.
The basic casing shape in Preszler and Lajos’s 关8兴 test fan fea-
tures a wider rear wall having a single circular arc profile and a
vortex wall similar to Eck’s 共thick wall, decreasing clearance, dif-
fusing section兲. The angle of the diffusing section, vortex wall
clearance size, and suction to discharge arc ratio were varied one
at a time. Characteristic curves of head and flow coefficients were
given but information on some of the geometric parameters, the
test method, and experimental rig were omitted, as observed by
Clayton 关11兴.
Porter and Markland 关6兴 simplified Eck’s vortex wall using a
straight thin wall with a simple radius close to the impeller. This
modification led to a marked increase in pressure and flow rate but
lower efficiency. Then, they introduced a log-spiral rear wall to
have a stronger vortex, placed at the internal periphery of the
impeller at all flow conditions, that moves towards the rear wall as
the flow is reduced. A stable characteristic curve was obtained,
maximum flow rate being increased by 60% and static pressure
more than doubled. Total pressure was also higher than Eck’s and
fairly constant, but peak efficiency was somewhat lower owing to
the fact that the impeller and blades pass through the closed vor-
tex for all flows.
The need of standardization was stressed in a comprehensive
review by Clayton 关11兴, for an even comparison of performance
characteristics obtained using different test rigs.
The design parameters chosen by Murata and Nishihara 关14,15兴
in a systematic investigation of fan performance were not inde-
pendent from each other. The rear wall profile is a single circular
arc of variable width. The vortex wall consists of a simple flat
plate, which can be positioned at different heights and distances
with respect to the impeller. The experimental tests showed that
lower clearances and lower heights of the vortex wall result in
higher total pressure coefficients at intermediate flow rates. These
two parameters, however, should be set together, since their mu-
tual influence on the maximum attainable total pressure coefficient
is strong. The length of the rear wall arc also has a great influence
upon both total pressure and efficiency; however, this influence
is mixed because of the interactions with the two other design
parameters.
Allen 关16兴 demonstrated that the aerodynamic performance
mainly depends on five primary parameters of the casing, and
established limits within which rotor and casing geometry should
remain to obtain an optimal fan design. However, results were

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 Fig. 1 A cross-flow fan configuration
presented for one parameter at a time without supplying values of
the other parameters and thus can be used with some difficulty in
the overall cross-flow-fan design.
Martegani et al. 关21兴 performed several tests on a 100 mm rotor
by varying one geometric parameter of the casing at a time. A new
criterion for the parameterization of the casing geometry and re-
sults of tests based on this criterion on a 152.4 mm rotor were then
presented by Lazzaretto et al. 关22兴. An extension and generaliza-
tion of that work is presented here.
Definition of Design Parameters
Parameters of the Impellers. Cross flow fan impeller blades
are usually simple forward-curved thin blades having a circular
arc profile. This shape is preferred to aerodynamic profiles be-
cause of the double passage of the flow through the blade cascade.
The following quantities are required to define univocally the ge-
ometry of the impeller 共Fig. 2兲: length to external diameter ratio
(L/D 2 ), internal to external diameter ratio (D 1 /D 2 ), number of
blades (Z), and internal and external blade angles ( ␤ 1 / ␤ 2 ).
Fig. 2 Impeller geometry
Fig. 3 Various cross-flow fan configurations characterized by different angles between inlet and outlet flows: „a… 90 deg,
„b… 180 deg, „c… 0 deg
Journal of Fluids Engineering
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Fig. 4 Geometric variables of the casing walls
Blade thickness is not included in the list, since it is often imposed
by structural or technological constraints. The set of parameters
defining the shape of the impeller is therefore
␶ 1 ⫽ 兵 L/D 2 ,D 1 /D 2 ,Z, ␤ 1 , ␤ 2 其 . (1)
Parameters of the Casing. The directions of inflow and out-
flow streams can be very different in cross-flow fans depending on
the application being considered. Accordingly, the casing assumes
different shapes, as shown in Fig. 3.
The question arises of how the two casing walls fill the space
around the impeller. The arc occupied by the rear wall around the
impeller 共Fig. 1兲 mainly depends on the directions of inlet and
outlet flows. On the other hand, the vortex wall has often a simple
shape, like the flat one, with different angles with respect to the
outflow direction. Depending on its thickness, the vortex wall
covers different arcs around the impeller, too. Besides the two
walls the space around the impeller is occupied by the inflow and
outflow zones, the extension of which depends on the dimensions
of the two walls. It is the right combination of shape and dimen-
sion of each part that leads to the best velocity and pressure dis-
tribution along suction and discharge zones and, accordingly, to
the highest throughflow and energy transfer. Thus, it is crucial to
analyze all the ways in which the two casing walls fill the space
around the impeller circumferentially and radially. Since these
ways are theoretically infinite, the problem is to find a set of polar
variables that defines good performance casing shapes. Only the
JULY 2003, Vol. 125 Õ 681
 Table 1 Ranges of variation for the main impeller geometrical parameters according to various authors in the literature „Rey-
nolds number refers to blade chord and impeller tip speed…

Authors ␤ 1 关 deg兴 ␤ 2 关 deg兴 D 2 关 mm兴 D 1 /D 2 L/D 2 Z N(rpm) Re

Laakso 关1兴 - - 560 0.84 1.27 - 565 49500
Tramposch 关2兴 90 ⬇15 60 0.79 2.1 24 1800–3600 2400– 4800
Ilberg, Sadeh 关3兴 90 45 230 0.74 0.26 44 1000–2600 24,000– 62,000
Porter, Markland 关6兴 70–90 25– 45 152 0.70–0.80 1.5 24 2000–2250 16,000–18,000
Preszler, Lajos 关8兴 90–97 22–30 - 0.80–0.86 0.94 –1.0 36 - -
Yamafuji 关12兴, 关13兴 ⬇90 15– 45 157–160 0.63–0.91 0.66 –0.71 18 –35 1200 4700
Murata, Nishihara 关14兴, 关15兴 90 25 120–240 0.80–0.83 1.17–2.33 30 600–1200 5100
Allen 关16兴 90 25–35 95–195 0.72–0.76 2.05–3.37 24 –36 - -
Tuckey et al. 关17兴 90 26 625 0.78 1.6 24 400 60000
Tanaka, Murata 关18兴, 关19兴 90 25 75–200 0.85 1 36 400–2500 1700–15,000
Lazzarotto et al. 关23兴 70 38 86 –199 0.81 1.5 24 120–2000 1000–20,000

fan type in Fig. 3共a兲 is considered here, the most common in
industrial applications. Separate studies are needed for the other
two types in Figs. 3共b兲 and 3共c兲.
Rear Wall. The rear wall is artificially subdivided here into
two parts to analyze separately the effects on performance. The
first part ‘‘envelopes’’ the impeller and defines the rear wall angle
␪ R 共Fig. 4兲, the second links the first part with the discharge sec-
tion. Although the whole rear wall is indeed a channeler, this
subdivision aims at verifying whether only the first part or both
parts have influence on vortex position and strength, and indi-
rectly on the energy transfer, as suggested in 关6,11兴. In the past,
the second part was often shaped as a diffuser to increase static
pressure. However, this solution is not so effective because of
strongly nonuniform velocity distribution in the discharge zone.
Actually, diffusion depends on the radial width of the first part of
the rear wall, which may act as a volute, 关17兴. Natural diffusion
effects are also due to the vortex location and generally take place
between the vortex wall and the second part of the rear wall.
To vary the radial width using a single parameter, a log-spiral
profile is considered here, as already suggested in 关6兴:
Parameters s and h d are not strictly consistent with the sugges-
tion of using polar variables. However, they are more practical
when considering straight horizontal walls, even though they de-
fine the position of the vortex wall only within the upper and
lower horizontal tangents to the impeller 共ut and lt in Fig. 4兲. On
the other hand, in most of the cross flow fans having the configu-
ration of Fig. 3共a兲, the position of the vortex wall is included in
this range. Preliminary investigations performed by the present
author and co-workers confirmed that unacceptable performance
is obtained outside this range. For other configurations, as in Figs.
3共b兲 and 3共c兲, the polar variables could be more suitable.
According to these choices, the set of nondimensional param-
eters defining the shape of the vortex wall is
␶ V ⫽ 兵 s/D 2 ,e V /D 2 ,h d /D 2 其 . (4)
The sets of parameters in Eqs. 共3兲 and 共4兲 completely define the
position and shape of the two casing walls under all the hypoth-
eses considered here. Accordingly, the angular dimensions of the
inflow and outflow zones are also defined, i.e., the inlet flow angle
( ␪ s ), the total discharge angle ( ␪ D ) and the angle of the discharge
duct, ␪ d . Moreover, for a given outflow duct, the height of the

R⫽R 0 e ␪ / ␪ * ⫽R 2 1⫹ 冉 R2 冊
e R ␪/␪*
e (2)
discharge section h ⬘d 共and, consequently h ⬙d ) is also defined 共see
Fig. 4兲.

where ␪ * is the parameter that defines the radial width. The start-
ing point of the rear wall is located at the angle ␪ s⬘ measured from
the vertical axis of the impeller 共Fig. 4兲. At this point, the radial
clearance between rear wall and impeller is e R . The log spiral arc
profile covers the angle ␪ R , and it is followed by the duct con-
necting the fan to the discharge section, having a rectilinear shape,
as in Fig. 4, or other curved shapes. The total discharge angle
( ␪ D ) is the sum of the rear wall angle ␪ R and the angle of the
discharge duct ␪ d 共or the equivalent height h ⬘d ). In conclusion, the
set of parameters defining position and shape of the rear wall is
␶ R ⫽ 兵 ␪ s⬘ , ␪ R , ␪ * ,e R /D 2 , ␦ 其 .
Vortex Wall. The analysis is limited here to flat and horizontal
vortex walls, the effects of other shapes being considered as mi-
nor, 关6,11,16兴. Porter and Markland 关6兴 first proposed the use of a
flat and constant section vortex wall with rounded shape close to
the impeller. They stated that this wall acts mainly as a divider to
separate the inflow from the discharge and to locate the vortex
center under free blowing conditions. Tuckey et al. 关17兴 and Allen
关16兴 also suggested a simple, flat wall to obtain the best design.
Several tests conducted by the author and co-workers with thin
walls having a curved leading edge, both upwards or downwards,
showed that the position of the end itself mainly acts on perfor-
mances. Very similar performances can then be obtained using flat
walls having the leading edge in the same position.
To define the shape and the position of a flat vortex wall of
constant section, the following parameters are chosen here 共Fig.
4兲: wall thickness 共s兲; radial clearance between vortex wall and
impeller (e V ); vortex wall height (h d ).
Planning a Systematic Investigation of Fan Perfor-
mance and Efficiency
Ranges of Variations for Impeller Design Parameters. The
values of the variables included in the set ␶ l 共see Eq. 共1兲兲 adopted
in experimental works in the literature are presented in Table 1.
Note that most of the analyses were performed using small diam-
eter impellers in a range of operation of low Reynolds numbers in
which the cross-flow fan is more competitive than other types,
关11兴. From Table 1 we observe that
(3)
• the impeller length to diameter ratio should, in general, not be
lower than 1 to avoid strong border effects.
• many authors, 关6,11兴, showed that the influence of diameter
ratio is small in the range 0.7⭐D 1 /D 2 ⭐0.85.
• the number of blades in the experiments is usually 24. Japa-
nese researchers more commonly used a higher number (30⬍Z
⬍36). This design choice is a secondary issue resulting from a
compromise between structural characteristics, friction losses and
flow deflection due to cascade effect, 关17兴.
• blade angles can be chosen in the ranges 20 deg⭐ ␤ 2 ⭐45 deg
and 70 deg⭐ ␤ 1 ⭐130 deg, according to experimental works in
the literature, 关6,14 –16,21–23兴. ␤ 1 is generally set at 90 deg
共shock-free entry in the second blade passage according to 关9兴兲.
Preszler and Lajos 关8兴 found that maximum pressure coefficient
and efficiency decrease abruptly for external blade angles lower
than 20 deg. Angles at the limits of the above ranges did not lead
to good performance in any of the mentioned works, and can
generally be avoided.

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 Ranges of Variations for Casing Design Parameters
Rear Wall. The highest performances were obtained in the
literature using ␪ R in the range 120–155 deg, 关3,6,9,14,15,21兴.
Other authors, 关8,16兴, do not supply exact information about this
parameter.
Various experiments conducted by the present author and co-
workers demonstrated that optimal performances are achieved for
50 deg⭐ ␪ s⬘ ⭐70 deg. Allen 关16兴 also gave similar indications.
Other authors in the literature adopt values in this range even
if they do not present specific analyses under variations of this
parameter.
Most authors in the literature, 关6,9,16兴, use values of ␦ included
in the range 20–50 deg.
Little is known on experimental tests under variation of e R /D 2 .
Various ranges were suggested in 关6,14,15兴. Consensus exists on
2⭐e R /D 2 ⭐10% to get optimal design, 关16,17兴.
According to author’s and co-workers’ experiments, high per-
formances are obtained using 359 deg⭐ ␪ * ⭐139 deg. A wider
range was tested, 关6兴, where, however, for ␪ * ⫽126 deg 共i.e., a big
radial width兲 a lower pressure coefficient and efficiency were ob-
tained than for a smaller radial width ( ␪ * ⫽191 deg). Other au-
thors presented single arc, 关14,15兴, or double arc, 关10兴, profiles
that can be approximated by values of ␪ * in the suggested range.
A separate discussion is to be made to account for the influence
on fan performances of the discharge duct, which does not appear
explicitly in the list of variables defining the rear wall shape.
Diffusing ducts are not considered here because their effectiveness
is penalized by largely nonuniform discharge flow. As shown in
关8兴, any diffuser angle increases fan static pressure, but decreases
total pressure, flow rate, and total efficiency. A diffuser would be
moderately beneficial only with small discharge sections. When
wider rear walls are considered, two shapes can be suggested:
• a discharge duct with sinusoidal shape, linking the end of the
log-spiral profile with the discharge section. Using this duct,
the height of the discharge section (h ⬘d ) remains the same for
every rear wall for a fixed position of the vortex wall 共note
that h d⬘ ⫽h d ⫹h d⬙ ).
• a rectilinear discharge duct. In this case the height of the
discharge section for a fixed position of the vortex wall varies
according to the rear wall width.
Vortex Wall. Tests conducted by the present author and co-
workers using thin and flat vortex walls of constant section and
rounded end 共on the impeller side兲 showed that optimal fan per-
formances are obtained when the value of the radial clearance
between impeller and vortex wall is in the range 0.02⬍e V /D 2
⬍0.1. In this range fan performances are not very sensitive to
variations of e V . Similar indications were already given in 关6,17兴.
When the thickness of the vortex wall increases, author’s and
co-workers’ experiments demonstrated the advantage of using
wider clearance and decreasing values of radial clearance in the
direction of rotation to obtain high performances, as already
shown by Eck 关10兴. The only contrary indication is found in 关3兴,
where an increasing radial clearance in the direction of rotation
was adopted.
When the casing is built using rear walls having 359 deg⭐ ␪ *
⭐139 deg and thin flat vortex wall, preliminary tests and indica-
tions from the literature, 关6,14,15兴, demonstrated that satisfactory
performances are obtained only if the vortex wall height varies in
the range 0.05⬍h d /D 2 ⬍0.58. Variations in vortex wall thickness
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and height imply different dimensions of the suction and/or of the
discharge zones. Thus, both directions of thickness modifications
should be considered in order to take into account the correspond-
ing variations of suction and/or discharge arcs. No indication can
be found in the literature about this point, which is crucial to
determine optimum fan performance and efficiency.
Conclusions
A criterion to parameterize in a general way cross-flow fan
configurations is presented in this work. An application to the
most common case in which flow direction is changed by 90 deg
is shown. The criterion can be used in systematic tests to find
paths towards design improvements and/or cut branches that lead
to unfavorable solutions.
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