THERMO DYNAMICS

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Mass (M): mass is the amount of quantity of matter contained in a given body.(Kg)
Weight (W): weight is the amount of pull exerted by the earth’s acceleration due to gravity on the
mass of a given body. (N)
Force (F): Force is proportional to mass and acceleration (Newton’s second law of motion)(N)
Volume (V): Volume is the space occupied by a substance. (M3)
Density:(p) It is the mass of the substance per unit volume. (Kg/M3)
Specific Weight: (W) It is the weight of the substance per unit volume. The unit of specific weight is
(N/M3 )
Specific Volume: The volume occupied by unit mass of a substance is known as specific volume
(M3/Kg)
Pressure (P): pressure is defined as force per unit area. (N/ M2)
Heat: heat is defined as the energy transferred across the boundaries of a system because of
temperature difference between a system and its surroundings.(J)
Specific Heat At Constant Volume (Cv): It is amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of gas through 1ºC, at constant volume. It is denoted by Cv or Kv.
Specific Heat At Constant Pressure (Cp): It is amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of gas through 1ºC, at constant pressure. It is denoted by Cp or Kp.
Work:
When a force acting on a body moves it, a work is said to be done.
Energy:
Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to do work.
Potential energy:
The energy possessed by a body or system due to its height above the earth surface is potential
energy. It is denoted by the symbol P.E and its unit is J.
Flow energy:
The flow energy is the work required for causing the flow of given volume (V) of fluid at a
given pressure P (J)
Internal energy (or) intrinsic energy (U):
The internal energy of a substance is the internal kinetic energy due to motion of molecules of
the substance.
Intensive properties (or) intrinsic (or) Qualitative properties:
The property which do not depend on the mass of the system are know as intensive property.
Extensive (or) extrinsic (or) Quantitative properties:
The property, which depends on, the mass of the system, is know as extensive property.
Law of thermodynamics:
1) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
2) First law of thermodynamics
3) Second law of thermodynamics
Zeroth law:
This law states that, “when the two bodies are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other”.
First law of thermodynamics:
This law states, “The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible.
Second law of therodynamics:
This law states,” there is a definite limit to the amount of mechanical energy which can
be obtained from a given quantity of heat energy supplied.
Two types of second law
1) Clausius statement
2) Kelvin Planck statement
Clausius statement:
Heat can flow from a hot body to a cold body unaided but it is impossible for the
heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body without aid of external work.

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Kelvin Planck statement:
It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process, whose sole
process is to convert all the heat energy supplied to it into work.
Gases and vapours
Fully or completely evaporated liquid is called as gas.
Laws of gases
The behaviours of a perfect gas is governed by certain laws known as laws of perfect
gasses.
1) Boyle’s law
2) Charles’ law
3) Regnaults’ law
4) Joules’ law
5) Avagadro’s law
Boyle’s law
This law states,” when a gas is heated (or) cooled at constant temperature the volume of the
given mass of gas varies inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
Charle’s law
This law states when a gas is heated (or cooled) at constant absolute pressure its volume
varies directly with the absolute temperature.
Regnault’s law
This law states the specific heat of a gas a constant pressure (cp) and the specific heat of
a gas at constant volume (cv)do not change with the change of temperature.
That is cp and cv of a gas always remain constant.
Joule’s law
This law of states “this internal energy of a gas is a function of the temperature only and
its independent of the pressure and volume of the gas.
Avagadro’s law:
This law states “equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules
Enthalpy
The total heat of a substance is known as enthalpy it is denoted by (H), enthalpy is equal to
the sum of internal energy and flow energy.
Entropy:
The term entropy means transformation entropy is a thermodynamic property of a gas,
which increases with addition of heat and decreases with removal of heat.
In cannot be defined in physical terms it can be defined as a function of quantity of heat
with respect to the absolute temperature.
Thermodynamic processes
1) Constant volume process (or) isochoric process
2) Constant pressure process (or) isobaric process
3) Constant temperature process (or) isothermal process
4) Hyperbolic process
5) Adiabatic process
6) Polytrobic process
7) Free expansion
8) Throttling process
Constant volume process:
When the gas is heated it changes from state 1 to state 2. Since the gas is
heated at constant volume, there is no change in volume and no external work is done all the heat
supplied to the gas is used to increase the pressure and temperature of the gas all the heat supplied is
stored in the form of internal energy.

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Constant pressure process (isobaric process)
When a gas is heated at constant pressure external work is done since there
is change in volume there is also change in temperature therefore the heat supplied it utilized in
increasing internal energy of the gas and also the external work done.
Constant temperature process (isothermal process)
During this process the temperature remains constant he gas can be
heated keeping its temperature constant this process is a not a practical one and it is very difficult to
execute he process.
Hyperbolic process
A process in which a gas is heated and expanded in such a way that he product of
is pressure and volume remains constant is called hyperbolic process.
Adiabatic process
A process in which he gas neither receives heat nor gives out heat is called
adiabatic process that its in adiabatic process there is no heat transfer.
pvγ= constant
Polytropic process
The term polytropic is applied to any process that can be described by general
equation.
Pvn =constant
Free expansion process
A free expansion occurs when a gas is allowed to expand suddenly into a
vacuum chamber through a large orifice in this process no heat supplied and no external word done
the total heat remains constant therefore this expansion is also called as free expansion
Throttling process
When a gas is expanded through an aperture of small size (such as slightly
opened valve) the process is known as throttling expansion.
Steady flow system
If the rate of flow in and out of the system is equal and constant then the system
is known as steady flow system.
Application of steady flow energy equation
a) Steam or gas turbine
b) Air compressor
c) Steam nozzles
d) Boilers
e) Condensers etc…
Steam turbine:
Steam turbine is a device, which converts energy of steam into mechanical work to
drive turbine shaft.
Steam nozzle
Steam nozzle is a device, which increases the velocity of fluid at the expanse of
pressure drop.
Boilers
Boiler is a heat exchanger, which generate steam.
Steam condenser:
A steam condenser is a device to condense steam into water.
Air cycle:
A thermodynamic cycle working on air is called an air cycle or air standard cycle or ideal
cycle
Classification of thermodynamic cycles
1. Reversible cycle 2. Irreversible cycle
Terms useful for air cycle problems
1. Cylinder bore

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2. Stroke length
3. Stroke volume (or) swept volume
4. Clearance volume
5. Cylinder volume
6. Compression ratio
7. Mean effective pressure
Cylinder bore:
This is the diameter of the cylinder in which the piston moves.
Stroke length:
The piston moves in the cylinder due to the rotation of the crank.
Stroke volume (or) swept volume
The volume swept by the piston when it moves between the two extreme positions
(TDC & BDC)
Clearance volume:
This is the volume occupied by the working fluid when the piston reaches top
dead center
Cylinder volume:
This is the volume occupied by the working fluid when the piston reaches bottom
dead center.
Compression Rato:
The ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume is known as compression
ratio.
Mean effective pressure (mep):
The pressure of the working fluid in the cylinder keeps on changing for
different positions of the piston. For all calculation only mean effective pressure is taken which is
defined as the average pressure acing on the piston during the working stroke.
Types of thermodynamic cycles
1. Carnot cycle
2. Otto cycle (constant volume cycle)
3. Joule cycle (constant pressure cycle)
4. Diesel cycle
Carnot cycle
This is an ideal cycle only and no heat engine has been constructed so far to work on
this cycle.
Otto cycle (or) constant volume cycle
This is the theoretical cycle on which the petrol and gas engines work. The first
successful engine. Working on this cycle was built by german engineer Nicholas A. Otto in 1876
Joule cycle (constant pressure cycle)
This is an ideal cycle for gas turbine plants the cycle consists of two adiabatic
processes and two constant pressure processes.
Diesel cycle
This is an important cycle in practice n, which all diesel engines work. This cycle was
devised by Dr. Rudolph diesel in 1893. The diesel engine works with high compression ratio and
gives higher thermal efficiency than petrol engines working on Otto cycle.
Clafffication of IC engines
The internal combustion engines are classified according he following
systems.
i) Nature of the thermodynamic cycle
a. Constant volume combustion (Otto cycle)
b. Constant pressure combustion (diesel cycle)
c. Partly constant volume and partly constant pressure combustion (dual or mixed or
semi –diesel cycle)

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ii) Working cycle
a. Four stroke cycle engine in which the mechanical cycle is completed in two revolution of
the crank.
b. Two stroke cycle engine in which the mechanical cycle is completed in two revolution of
the crank.
iii) Kind of fuel used
a. Light oil engines using kerosene or paraffin petrol engines fall under this
Category.
b. Heavy oil or diesel engines the oil used may be crude oil or mineral oil.
c. Gas engine: the gas used may be coal gas producer gas blast furnace gas or coke oven gas.
d. Bi fuel engines: in these engines the gas is used as the basic fuel and liquid fuel is used
for starting purposes.
iv) Field of application
a. Stationary engines which are used for small and medium capacity electric power
Plants to drive pumping units in agriculture.
b. Mobile engines installed in motor vehicles aeroplanes ships locomotives etc…
v) Fuel supply systems
a. Carburetor engines: in petrol engines the fuel oil mixed with air in carburetor and
charge is then supplied o engine cylinder during suction stroke.
b. Air injection engines: in some of the diesel engines the fuel is supplied under.
Pressure to the engine cylinder by using compressed air.
c. Airless or solid injection: in these diesel engine the fuel is injected with mechanical
Or pump injection.
vi) Method of ignition
a. Spark ignition (petrol) engines, which may be using magneto ignition or battery
Ignition system for igniting h compressed charge.
b. Compression ignition engines i.e., diesel engines.
c. In some engines the mixture is ignited by a spark in a special small chamber and the
combustion process is completed main chamber. such engines are called pre- combustion
chamber ignition engines.
vii) Lubrication system
a) Wet sump lubrication
b) Dry sump lubrication
c) Pressurized lubrication
viii) Cooling system
a) Air cooled system
b) Water cooled engines: the water cooled engines may be employing wet
Linear or dry linear.
ix) Method of control under variable load (governing systems)
a. Quality control engines is which the composition of the mixture (air fuel ratio)
Is changed by admitting more or less fuel in accordance with the variation of load.
b.Quantity control engines is which the composition the mixture the remains constant
And the quantity of mixture is changed when load varies.
x) Arrangement of cylinder
a. Horizontal cylinder
b. Vertical engines
c. V-type engines
d. Radial engines
xi) Speed of the engines
a. Low speed engines
b. Medium speed engines
c. High speed engines

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xii) No of cylinders
a. Single cylinder engine
b. Multi-cylinder engines
xiii) Valve arrangements
a. L head engines
b. T head engines
c. I head engines
d. F head engines
LI and F arrangements are used in automotive engines.
I.C engines components
Cylinder block
The cylinder block contains
i) Smooth round cylinders in which is the piston moves up and down
ii) Opening for valves and
iii) Water jackets
The cylinder surfaces are given a precision ‘mirror’ finish accurate grinding and honing process.
Material is made by:
Plated with chromium and removable cylinder lines of special
Hardened steels are also used. The materials used for cylinder
Block is gray cast iron and aluminium
Crankcase:
This is the base of the engine it supports crankshaft and cam shaft in suitable bearings
this also provides brackets for supporting the engine on frame.
Material is made by:
Grey iron casting was also in common use.
The lower part or crankcase is called oil pan, usually made of pressed steel or aluminium. Oil pan is
bolted to lower flange of main casting. This oil pa serves for storage; cooling and ventilation of
engine lubricating oil.
Cylinder head
This is a separate casting bolted to the top of cylinder block it contains combustion
chambers, spark plug’s (or injector) and sometimes valves are mounted on it. Passages for cooling
water are also provided on it.
Material is made by:
Gray iron or aluminium alloy
Piston
Pistons are usually smaller in diameter than the bore of the cylinder.
Piston material is made by:
Aluminum alloy, cast steel, cast iron or chrome
Nickel
Piston rings:
Piston rings are used to seal the compressed and expanding gases above the piston.

Material is made by:

Piston rings are made by cast iron and commonly plated
With chromium or given surface treatment to reduce
Wear.
Piston pin or gudgeon pin
The piston pin o wrist pin or gudgeon connects the piston to the connecting
rod.
Connecting rod.
The connecting rod is the connection between the piston and crankshaft.

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Crankshaft
The crankshaft together with the connecting rod, converts the reciprocating motion to
rotary motion.

Material is made by:

The crankshaft made of steel forging or casting
The crankshaft consists of the following major parts
i) Crank pins
ii) Crank web
iii) Counter weights
iv) Bearing journals
v) Oil heals
Flywheel
The purpose of the flywheel is to store and restore energy.

Material is made by:

It is usually of cast iron.
Two stroke and four stroke
In an IC engine the following cycle of events take place in
Sequence
Suction
The change (air fuel mixture in petrol engine or pure air alone in diesel engines is taken into
the engine cylinder. this is suction stroke.
Compression
The change in the cylinder is compressed this is compression stroke.
Ignition or injection
The charge is ignited by spark (in petrol engine) or by injection of fuel (in diesel engines)
combustion of fuel takes place and heat energy (power) is developed.
Power
The power developed in the cylinder is transmitted to the engine crankshaft
Exhaust
Burnt gases are removed from the engine cylinder. This is exhaust stroke. The cylinder
becomes ready to receive fresh charge. The cycle is repeated.
Fuel supply system in petrol engine (S.I engine)
The functions of fuel supply system are i) To store the fuel for the engine and ii) to supply
fuel to the engine in required amount and in proper condition.
Fuel pump
In case of cars the fuel tank in kept flows the level of carburetor therefore to supply petrol
to the carburetor a fuel pump is used
Location of fuel pump
The fuel pump should be mounted away from exhaust manifold or other hot parts of the
engine otherwise vapour lock trouble may occur its best location is at a level below carburetor this
will cause uniform flow of fuel.
Carburetor
The process of vaporizing and atomizing the petrol and mixing it with air to form
homogeneous mixture is known as carburetion and the device used to achieve the above is called
carburetor.
Float chamber
The purposes of float chamber are to maintain a constant level of petrol in the carburetor
unit.

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Venturi
During suction when the air passes through the venturi there is increase in velocity at the
throat and reduction in pressure the vacuum at the throat is called carburetor depression
Throttle
The quantity of mixture supplied to the engine is controlled by a throttle valve placed
above fuel jet.
Solex carburetor process
i) Starting
ii) Idling or slow running
iii) Acceleration
Injection nozzles
The function of fuel injection nozzle is to atomize the fuel and inject the fuel delivered
by the pump into the combustion chamber of the engine.
i) Single hole nozzle
ii) Multi hole nozzle
iii) Pintle nozzle
Ignition system
The charge of an IC engine has to be fired at correct instant at the end of compression
stroke to avoid late ignition or pre-ignition this results in efficient and smooth running of the engine
the following are the main method of ignition.
i) Compression ignition (for diesel engines)
ii) Spark ignition (for petrol engines)
Different types of spark ignition system
a. Coil ignition
b. Magneto ignition
c. Electronic ignition
Condenser
A condenser is connected in parallel with the breaker points this reduces arching and pitting of
the breaker points
Distributor
In multi-cylinder engine, the HT voltage has to be supplied in turn various spark plugs for this
purpose this distributor is used. The HT voltage is brought to rotating terminal known as rotor arm.
Firing order: 1-3-4-2
Spark plug:
The spark plug is mounted on the combustion chamber of the engine. It produces spark to
ignite the air-fuel mixture.
Governing:
When external load varies, the fuel supplied to the engine must also the varied to maintain
constant speed of the engine.
Maintenance of constant speed of engine irrespective of load in the engine is known as
governing.
Types of cooling:
i) Air cooling
ii) Water cooling
Pump:
it is usually of centrifugal type to force the liquid through passages. The pump is driven by
belt from crankshaft.
Purpose of lubrications:
i) To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts
ii) To reduce friction between moving parts
iii) To transmit heat and cool the parts the oil carries away heat of friction during
its circulation.

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iv) To protect the parts from corrosion the oil provides the coating all metallic
parts.
v) To provide sealing action.
vi) To provide cleaning action
vii) To cushioning effect.
viii) To ensure smooth running by reducing noise.
Properties of lubricants:
i) Viscosity
ii) Pour point
iii) Flash and fire points
iv) Cloud points or turbidity point
v) Specific gravity
vi) Colour
vii) Sediments
viii) Emulsification
ix) Carbon residue
x) Oxidation of oils
Scavenging:
Scavenging is the term applied to the process of forcing the burned gases out of the cylinder.
Scavenging a two-stroke engine a real problem.
Super charger:
Hence, delivering of more amount of air into the cylinder under pressure, during suction
stroke is known as super-charging. The object of super-charging is to increase power output of an
engine, by the increased weight of air. This is called as “boosting”.
Pre-ignition:
If the ignition starts due to another reason, when the piston is still doing its compression
stroke, it is known as pre-ignition.
Turbulence:
The mixing of fuel with air is known as turbulence.
Detonation:
Detonation, picking or knocking is he name given to violent pressure waves produced within
the cylinder of an engine.
Dopes:
Detonation in petrol engines can be reduced by addition of small amount of ethyl fluid to the
petrol. This is known as DOPING and liquid added to the petrol to reduce knocking are known as
DOPES.
Fuels:
The fuel is a combustible material. It burns continuously when raised to the ignition
temperature f sufficient oxygen or air is available. The main combustible elements in fuel or carbon,
hydrogen, compounds of hydrocarbons and small amount of other substance like sulphur, oxygen,
nitrogen etc… the heat produce during combustion is known as calorific value of the fuel.
Solid fuels:
Advantage of solid fuels;
1. Cost is lower the liquid and gaseous fuel.
2. Easy availability
3. Risk of fire is less when compared to liquid and gaseous fuel.
Disadvantage of solid fuels;
1. Lower calorific value
2. Rate of burning cannot be controlled easily
3. More storage space is required
4. Produce more smoke
5. It is difficult to maintain cleanliness

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Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels are commonly used in internal combustion engines. They are also used in boiler
for producing steam.
Advantage of liquid fuels;
1. Higher calorific value.
2. Economic in space
3. Easy control of combustion
4. Cleanliness
5. Elimination of wear and tear of grate bars.
6. Ease of lighting up or shutting off operation.
Disadvantage of liquid fuels;
1. Higher cost
2. Risk of fire
3. Costly storage container
Gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels are classified as natural gas and manufactured gas. The natural gas is found in
and around the petroleum field under the earth’s surface the examples of manufactured gases are coal
gas producer gas water gas blast gas etc….
Advantage of gaseous fuels:
1. They can be easily transferred through pipes.
2. Combustion of fuel can be controlled correctly.
3. It is free from ashes.
4. The smoke can be easily eliminated
5. Complete combustion is possible.
Disadvantage of gaseous fuels
1. It is easily inflammable
2. More storage space is required.

Substance Symbol Atomic Molecular

weight weight
Hydrogen H2 1 2

Oxygen O2 16 32

Nitrogen N2 14 28

Carbon C 12 12

Sulphur S 32 32

Carbondioxide CO2 44

Carbonmonoxide CO 28

Water vapour H2O 18

Sulphur dioxide SO2 64

Methane CH4 16

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Thermodynamic test
1.Indicated power (I.P)
2.Brake power (B.P)
3.Morse test in case of multicylinder engines
4.Rate of fuel consumption
5 sources of losses energy –heat loss in cooling water heat loss in exhaust gases
etc……….
6.Heat balance sheet.
Indicated power:
Indicated power is the actual power developed inside an engine cylinder. It is extremely
difficult to determine accurately the indicated power, especially in high-speed engines. Therefore, it is
felt now days to disregard I.P and rely only on brake power.
Brake power:
Brake power is the useful power available for doing external work. This power is less than the
actual power (indicated power) developed in the engine cylinder. The different between indicated
power and brake power is known as mechanical loss or frictional power (FP)
Frictional power
Brake power is always less than indicated power due to the following losses
1.pumping losses due to the suction and exhaust.
2.mechanical losses in bearings etc.
3.power required to drive engine accessories such as fuel pump oil pump etc…
The above losses or refer to as frictional power.
The above losses are referred to as frictional power.
Morse Test
The method of finding IP of a multicylinder I.C engine without use of indicator is
known as Morse test.
Efficiencies of I.C engines
The following are the various efficiencies connected with internal combustion engines.
1. Mechanical efficiency
2. Thermal efficiency
3. Brake thermal efficiency
4. Relative efficiency
1.Mechanical efficiency
This is the ratio of brake power of the engine to the indicated power of the
engine.
Efficiency = brake power
Indicated power
2.Indicated thermal efficiency
It is also called as thermal efficiency it is defined as the ratio of the heat
equivalent power to the heat energy supplied in fuel.
Efficiency = Heat equivalent of IP per sec
Heat supplied in fuel per sec
3.Brake thermal efficiency
It is also known as overall efficiency it is defined as the ratio of heat
equivalent of brake power to the heat supplied in fuel.
Efficiency = Heat equivalent of BP per sec
Heat supplied in fuel per sec
4.Relative efficiency
It is also known as efficiency ratio it is defined as the ratio of
indicated thermal efficiency to the theoretical or ideal or air standard efficiency
Efficiency = Brake thermal efficiency
Ideal thermal efficiency

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Clearance volume
This dead space is called clearance space and the volume occupied by the clearance
space is known as clearance volume.
Some amount of clearance volume is necessary
i) To ensure mechanical freedom to moving parts.
ii) To reduce wear and tear of moving parts.
iii) To provide necessary space for valve operation.
Effect of clearance volume
1. Reduction in volumetric efficiency.
2. Reduction in actual air admitted during suction
3. Reduction in mass of air admitted during suction.
4. Increased clearance volume results in heavy compression.
5. Heavy compression increases mechanical loss.
Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual volume of free air inducted into the
cylinder per cycle to the swept volume of the cylinder.
Volumetric efficiency= volume of free air inducted per cycle
Swept volume of the cylinder
Clearance ratio:
Clearance ratio is defined as the ratio of clearance volume to swept volume.
C = clearance volume
Swept volume

Pressure ratio:
Pressure ratio is defined as the ratio of delivery pressure suction pressure it is denoted
by Rp
Rp = delivery pressure
Suction pressure
Gas turbine:
The gas turbine is a prime mover used for the conversion of heat into mechanical work.
System of operation of gas turbine:
The gas turbine can be operated in any one of the following two systems
1. Open cycle system.
2. Closed cycle system.
Jet propulsion:
Jet propulsion plant is used for propulsion of aircraft and other missiles by the reaction of jet
of gases, which are discharged astern (rearwards) with a high velocity. The mass and the velocity of
the jet is obtained from the combustion of liquid fuels.

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