Construction of Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey - M. Suresh Kumar

CONSTRUCTION OF SKILL TESTS AND
COMPUTATION OF NORMS IN FIELD HOCKEY
A thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University

for the award of the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Submitted by
M. SURESH KUMAR
Under the Guidance of

Dr. R. KALIDASAN
Department of Physical Education

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY
Tiruchirappalli-620 024
Tamilnadu, India
December 2010
ii
Dr. R. KALIDASAN B.Sc., M.P.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D., PGDFM., PGDYE., PGDSM., NIS Dip. in
Sports Coaching (Cricket)
Assistant Professor and Head i/c
Bharathidasan University
Tiruchirappalli - 620 024, India
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Construction of

Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey”
submitted by M. SURESH KUMAR for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Physical Education,
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, is a bonafide record of
research work carried out under my guidance and supervision. It is
further certified that to the best of my knowledge that this thesis
does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation or for the
award of any other degree or diploma.
Place: Tiruchirappalli
Research guide
Date:
iii
DECLARATION
I do here by declare that the thesis entitled “Construction of

Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey”
submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, is
the original work carried out by me under the guidance and
supervision of Dr. R. KALIDASAN, Assistant Professor and Head
i/c, Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchirappalli. I further declare that this work has not been
submitted earlier in full or in parts to any university for the award
of any other degree or diploma.
Place: Tiruchirappalli (M. SURESH KUMAR)

Date:
iv
Dedicated to my dad
Madhavan, mom Sakunthala,
my family well wisher
Mr. Rajagopal, my Teachers,
wife Elamathi & My dear Son
Elayaraghavan
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge and sincerely appreciate my guide

Dr. R. Kalidasan, Assistant Professor and Head i/c, Department of
Physical Education Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for
his scholarly guidance, constant encouragement, continuous
support and patience throughout the completion of this work.
Without his valuable guidance this work would not be a successful
one.
I am eternally grateful to Dr. K. Chandrasekaran, Former

Head, Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan
University, Tiruchirappalli for his help rendered in the completion
of this study.
I extend my feelings of gratitude to my fellow scholars

Mr. A. Needhiraja and Mr. J. Viswanathan for their kind help at
various stages of this study and special appreciation to Mr. K. Ivin
Jabakumar for his support throughout my data collection.
I extend my deep heart felt thanks to Dr. B. S. Sha-in-Sha,

Dr.R. Kasiviswanathan, Dr.E. Simson Jesudoss, Mr. P. B.
Muralikrishnan, Dr. V. Vallimurugan, Mr. M. Ganesh Kumar,
without their technical assistance, this work would certainly not
have been possible.
Special thanks to Mr. Senthil, Mr. Siva, Mr. K. Pradeep, Mr.
Dhinesh, Mr. Felix, Mr. Anthony, Mr. Julian Vasanth, Mr.
Devashish, Mr. Ramesh, Mr. Moustaq Kutubbudin, Mr. Karthi,
vi
Mr. P. Veeramani, Mr. V. Saminathan, Mr. P. Babu who has

helped me in data collection.
I acknowledge with all humility and deep gratitude to Dr. L.

C. John, Mrs. John and Dr. A. S. Nageswaran for their help in
statistics and encouragement throughout my doctoral program.
I thank Dr. Jaihind Jothikaran, for his careful effort and fine
tuning of language.
I would like to give my sincere thanks to Mr. A. S. Sivakumar

for his encouragement and financial support.
I extend my gratitude and sincere thanks to scholars from

other Departments of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli
especially Dr. S. Ramakrishnan, Dr. K. Sundaravel for their
constant encouragement throughout my doctoral programme.
I extend my feelings of gratitude to Mr. P. Prabakaran,

Mr. T. K. Rajasekaran, Mr. M. Arumugam and Mr. K.
Soundarrajan, Mr. Rengarajan staff members, Department of
Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.
I express my sincere thanks to who actively involved as the

subjects for this study. Finally, I wish to thank to everybody who
participated directly or indirectly in the process of the completion of
this work.
M.Suresh Kumar
vii
VITAE
Personal Details
Name :M. Suresh Kumar

Father’s Name :S. Madhavan
Mother’s Name :M. Sakunthala
Age and Date of Birth :27 Years, 08-12-1983
Nationality :Indian
Religion :Hindu
Category :OBC
Marital Status :Married
Address:
For Communication Permanent
Research Scholar 5/65 P.G Nagar
Department. of Physical Education Jagir Ammapalayam (Po)
Bharathidasan University Salem-636 302, Tamilnadu
Tiruchirappalli-620 024, Tamilnadu
E-mail: Surhoc1139@yahoo.co.in
Mobile: 98948 13609
Educational Qualifications (10th Std. onwards):
Examination Board Month & Marks Percentage Class

Year of Obtained
Passing
SSLC State March 339 67.8% I
1999
HSC State March 887 73.91% I
2001
viii
Educational Qualifications (UG Degree onwards):
Degree Subject University/Institute Percentage Year of

passing
BPE Physical University of Kerala 65.45% 2004
Education
MPE Physical University of Kerala 68.15% 2006
Education
M.Phil. Physical Annamalai University 64.80% 2008
Education
NIS, Dip. Hockey SAI, NSSC, 66.00% 2007
In Sports Bangalore
Coaching
CCY Yoga Kaivalyadhama, 70.71% 2004
Lonavla
PGDSBSA Statistics Annamalai University 63.50% 2008
Teaching Experience:
University Designation Duration Length of

From To Service
RKMVU,
FGAPEdY,
SRKV Post 30-05- 31-05-
Lecturer One Year
Periyanaicken 2007 2008
Palayam,
Coimbatore
Academic Achievements:
o Awarded UGC-JRF (Dec. 2006)

o Qualified UGC-NET (Dec.2006)
o Qualified SET (March. 2006)
Sports Achievements:
 Represented University of Kerala Hockey Team which participated

in the South Inter-University Competition during the year 2003-
2004, 2004-2005 and 2005-2006.
 Member of the Trivandrum Hockey team which bagged Second

place in the Kerala Senior State Hockey Championship during
2004-2005.
ix
 Member of the LNCPE College team which bagged the gold medal
in the University of Kerala Inter-Collegiate Hockey Tournament
during 2004-05.
 Member of the LNCPE College team which bagged the gold medal
in VII & VIII all Kerala College games conducted by Kerala Sports
Council during 2004-2005 and 2005-2006.
Other Qualifications:
 Participated in UGC Sponsored Interaction Programme for Ph.D.

Scholars Conducted by Academic Staff College, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry during 17 and 18-09-2009.
 Attended the Hockey Umpiring course conducted by Karnataka

State Hockey Association and passed the umpiring examination
during 2007.
 Passed the official examination in Kho-Kho organised by State

Kho-Kho Association held at Maruthi college of Physical Education,
Coimbatore.
 Presented 20 research papers/articles in the National and

International Conferences/Seminars.
Publications:
1. Book:
S.No Title Authors Publishers

1 ABCs of Ball Badminton Dr.R.Kalidasan, Vinsi Agencies,
M.Suresh Kumar #9/4,Iswarya
(ISBN No: 978-81- Complex, College
907441-8-8) Road, Karaikudi-
02, Tamilnadu
x
2. Research articles published in Journals:
S.No Title Name of the Publishers

Journal
1 Analysis of Selected Journal of SAI, NSNIS,
Anthropometric Sports and Patiala
Characteristics and Iso- Sports
Inertial Strength with Hitting Sciences, Oct.
Speed of Hockey Players 2009, (ISSN
No: 0970-
7557)
2 Influence of Sport Vision Indian LNIPE, Gwalior
Training for Enhancing Visual Journal of
Skills of Athletes Physical
Education
Sports
Medicine &
Exercise
Science
3 E-Resources in Physical Vyayam- H.V.P.Mandal,
Education Vidnyan Amravati
4 Comparison of Sports Journal of MCPE,
Achievement Motivation level Physical Coimbatore
among different Topography of Education
Ball Badminton players Sports
Sciences
5 Sportspersonship among Field Journal of SAI, NSNIS,
Hockey Players Sports and Patiala
Sports
Sciences, Oct.
2009, (ISSN
No: 0970-
7557)
xi
List of Contents
Certificate by the Supervisor - ii

Declaration by the Scholar - iii
Dedication -iv
Acknowledgements -v
Vitae - vii
List of Contents - xi
List of Tables - xiii
List of Illustrations - xv
List of Figures - xvi
Abstract - xvii
Chapter I
Introduction 1-17
Rationale of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the study
Delimitations
Limitations
Operational Definitions of the Terms
Chapter II
Review of Related Literature 18-56
Field Hockey Skill tests
Test Batteries in Other games
Summary
Chapter III
Methodology 57-87
Selection of Subjects
xii
Skills in Field Hockey

Selection of Variables
Justification of taking up the Variables
Pilot Study
Research Flow Chart
Establishing Validity, Reliability and Objectivity
Reliability of Instruments
Tester Competency
Orientation of the Subjects
Administration of the Test Items
Design and Statistical Techniques Used
Chapter IV
Analysis of Data and Results of the Study 88-105
Findings
Factor Analysis of all the Skill Test Items
Development of Final Test battery
Development of Norms
Development of Grading Scale
Discussion on Findings
Chapter V
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 106-114
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations for implication
Recommendations for further Study
Bibliography 115-122
Appendix
xiii
List of Tables
Table Title Page No
Reliability Co-Efficient of Test-Retest Scores for

I 66
all the Selected Skill Test Items
II Objectivity Co-Efficient Scores for all the 67

Selected Skill Test Items
III Selection of Skill Tests 69
IV Testing Schedule & Collection of Data 70
V Descriptive Analysis of all the Skill Tests Items 89
Correlation Co-Efficient Matrix of the Skill Test

VI 91
Items
Principal Component Analysis (Un rotated

VII 93
Factor loading)
VIII Rotated Factor Loading (Varimax solution) 94
Factor 1 (one) of Rotated Factor Loadings

IX 96
(Varimax Solution)
X Factor 2 (tw0) of Rotated Factor Loadings 97

(Varimax Solution)
XI Field Hockey Skill Test Battery
99
xiv
Descriptive Analysis of Raw Scores on all the

XII Skill Test Items 100
XIII Percentile Norms for all the Skill Test Items 101
6 - Sigma Scale for Playing Ability Scores

XIV 101
XV Grading Scale for the Interpretation of Playing 102

Ability
xv
List of Illustrations
Page
Figure Title
No
I Zig Zag Dribbling 71
II Speed Dribbling 73
III Straight Drive Hit 74
IV Slap Hit 76
V Multi Target Push 78
VI Straight Flick 80
VII Scoop for Distance 81
VIII Shooting from 16 Yards 83
IX Shooting From Three Different Spots 85

xvi
List of Figures
Page
Figure Title
No
I Percentage Variance of Rotated Factor Loadings 95
II Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 1 97
III Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 2. 98

xvii
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to construct a new skill test

battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey players.
Initially 23 test items were designed on 6 fundamental skills. A
pilot study was conducted on 52 male Field Hockey players from
Chennai region age ranged from 17 to 20 years. They were regular
practitioners in the astro turf surfaces. After extensive critical
analysis 9 skill tests were finalized. Validity, reliability and
objectivity were established on all selected test items. To arrive the
final test battery four hundred and fifty four male college level Field
Hockey players excluding goal keepers were randomly selected from
various colleges of Tamilnadu state, India and their age ranged
between 17 and 20 years with the mean age of 18.8, ± 1.9 years.
After administrating the 9 skill test items to the above said subjects
it was found that there was an inter-relationship between the
performances of selected test items. The factor analysis yielded two
factors which were named as ‘stick work ability’ and ‘accuracy in
ball playing ability. The final test battery included the following
skill tests namely speed dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight
flick, slap hit, multi target push and straight drive hit. Finally
norms were developed using percentiles and 6-sigma scale.
Chapter – I
Introduction
CHAPTER – I
Introduction
In sports and games the performance is inevitable.

Nowadays, the nature of sports and games has gone through
tremendous radical changes in international arena.
Identification of effective players is becoming a crucial, because
day by day the games have become highly competitive. In sports
and games, performance of players is judged by competition
results. Apart from competition, the assessment of a player in
any sports discipline can be done either by subjective or
objective means. The test, measurement and evaluation concept
was in existence in physical education for past several years.
Many extensive research works have been done in these areas.
Sport Skill Test
The development of sports skill has had a long and

productive history. Among the earliest were the Athletic Badge
Test presented in 1913 by the Playground and Recreation
Association of the USA. These tests were for the sports of
Basketball, Tennis and Volleyball. Elizabeth Beoll proposed
other early skills tests in 1924 for Basketball by Brace and in
1925 for Tennis (Clarke and Clarke, 1987). The research council
of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation (AAHPER) published several sport skill tests in the
late 1960s that were developed from the combined efforts of
researchers, city directors of physical education and public
2
Introduction
school teachers. The measurement and evaluation council of the

AAHPERD formed a task force in 1979 to revise and expand the
AAHPERD sports skill test series. The Basketball and Softball
skills tests were revises and a Tennis test was added to the
series (Baumgartner, et al. 2003).
A universal goal of physical education programmme is to

produce permanent measurable changes in student
psychomotor behavior, in skills ranging from touch Football to
modern dance, from Volleyball to Scuba diving. For the
achievement of psychomotor objectives to be evaluated, the
measurement procedures-tests, rating scales or other
instruments must parallel the instructional objectives.
A skill is an ability, usually learned and acquired through

training, to perform actions which achieve a desired outcome.
During 1930, skill testing in the fundamental skills in different
games and sports were devised. Brace presented one of the
earliest skill tests on Basketball. All those tests were followed the
general procedure was to determine statistically a few simple
test items to measure the total activity of that sports and games.
Skill tests were developed to measure the basic skills used in a
specific sport (AAHPERD, 1968). The skill test items are
collectively called a test battery. Meanwhile the nature of the
battery of tests in measuring the fundamentals skills should be
a field based one rather than the lab based. Since the field based
test items highlight the real game situations, assessing the
player in the real game situation is encouraged.
3
Introduction
Skill tests require an environment similar to the game

environment and standardized procedures for administration.
The validity of skill tests is judged to some extent on the
consistency between testing and performing environments. This
does not mean you must recreate exactly the playing
environment; it does mean that the movements and the activity
must correspond to those of the actual sport. The virtue of skill
tests is a subject of ongoing debate. Many skill tests offer an
objective, reliable and valid method for evaluating motor skill
objectives, while others do not. It is advised not to use a skill
test that does not meet evaluation needs or the important
criteria of reliability, validity and feasibility for mass testing.
Also, be sure to adopt tests that were developed on students of
the same gender, age and experience level as your students. One
can also modify an existing test to meet the needs.
According to James.R.Morrow (2005) the objective skill test

can be classified as four primary types, they are;
Accuracy-Based Tests
Accuracy-based skills test usually involve the skill of

serving an object, such as a Volleyball, Tennis ball, or
Badminton shuttle cock. They may also involve some other test
of accuracy: throwing in Football or Baseball, free throws or
other shots in Basketball, or kicking goals in Soccer. The
primary measurement issue associated with accuracy tests is
4
Introduction
the development of a scoring system that will provide reliable yet

valid results.
Repetitive-Performance Tests
Repetitive-performance tests are tests that involve

continuous performance of an activity (e.g., volleying) for a
specified period of time. They are commonly called wall volleys or
self-volleys and can be used to measure the strokes of racket
sports, such as the forehand or backhand stroke in Tennis and
volleying and passing in Volleyball. Repetitive-performance tests
usually have a high degree of reliability, but unless they are
constructed carefully they may not approximate the same type of
action that is used in the game, in which case validity is
reduced.
Total Body Movement Tests
Total body movement tests are often called speed tests,

because they assess the speed at which a performer completes a
task that involves movement of the whole body in a restricted
area. A dribbling test in Basketball or Soccer measures this skill.
Base running tests in Baseball and Softball are also tests of this
type. These tests usually have a high degree of reliability
because a large amount of interindividual variability is
associated with timed performances. These tests can be
administered quickly, but they have two inherent problems.
First the test must approximate the game performance, and in
5
Introduction
many cases flat-out speed of movement is not always required in

the game.
Distance or Power Tests
The final classification for objective skill test is distance or

power performance tests, which assess one’s ability to project an
object for maximum displacement or force. The Badminton drive
test for distance and the Racquetball power serve test are
examples of this type (Strand & Wilson, 1993), as are distance
throws in Softball and Baseball and punt, pass, and kick
competitions. One problem with these tests is ensuring that they
are performed in a gamelike manner. Another question with
tests of distance is whether to take accuracy in account. For
example, in the punt, pass, and kick contest, the distance off the
line of projection is subtracted from the distance of projection.
Because of this, a performer might hold back from using
maximum force for fear of losing accuracy. In contrast, in track
events such as the discus and shot put, these corrections are
not made as long as the object is projected within a given area.
Consequently, before using a test it is important to consider
whether the test requires or accounts for any correction for
accuracy.
Need of a Skill Test
At present the physical education teacher and coaches in

India have the resources sufficiently to measure the physical,
motor and performance related components, whereas the tests of
6
Introduction
measuring the fundamental skills in sports and games are very

limited. Further the available tests are also not home based. So
the results and conclusions derived from these tests can have a
chance to mislead due to some extraneous factors.
However the professionals in the field of physical education

and sports are forced to use foreign system because of limited
options. In such a situation the resources on tests and
measurements to measure the fundamental skills have to be
enhanced. For that, physical educators and coaches should have
a sound knowledge on testing and measuring the performance
related components (physical, physiological, anatomical and
psychological). Such a sound knowledge gained from the test
and measurement, help them study the state and progress of
individual performance in the fundamental skills and identify
the right type of athletes because the aforesaid components are
functioning as determinants in individual performance. The field
of Indian sports science has very limited scientifically structured
tests and measurements to assess the individual performance.
The field of test and measurement to Indian applications has
been chosen as an area with the intention of imparting the real
game situations admissible to Indian conditions.
Steps in Test Construction
Tests are very important in the area of physical education.

Tests are widely used to diagnose the needs and weakness of the
students, to evaluate the effectiveness of a programme, to grade
7
Introduction
and classify the students with reference to their performance

levels, to motivate the students towards a particular activity or
skill by means of a test at the end of the programme as an
instructional device, as a prediction and as tool of research.
In test construction the test to be valid should have some

basic considerations. The basic considerations would adhere to
the standards of significance of test such as validity, reliability,
objectivity and norms. According to Johnson and Nelson (1998)
the nature of the game should be analysed in steps one in order
to determine the skills that are to be measured. Mere listing of
components that are involved in activity is insufficient. It is to
determine the relative importance of a component because some
of the traits involved in the skills, which are the byproducts of a
factor.
In step two, selections of test items that measure the

desired qualities are included. It is the most crucial step in the
entire test construction. The selection of test items must be
chosen with regard to their importance as well as their
propensity to be measured accurately. Selection of the test items
may be either from the established tests through the utilization
of jury of experts or may be determined arbitrarily by analyzing
the game situation. If the test pertains to a game, the test item
should confirm as much as possible to the actual game. Test
item is only a sample of total performance. In order to avoid the
misleading results, the testing situations should be easy and
feasible one.
8
Introduction
Step three includes the exact procedures for administering

and scoring of the test. In accomplishing this, the researcher
must resort to certain amount of trial and error. The best-laid
plans on paper may be totally inaccessible in practice. Because
the applications of such plans in the real game situation may
not be desirable due to many external factors and the test needs
to be modified. The clarity and simplicity of directions have a
direct bearing on the reliability and objectivity of the test. The
next step is, determining the reliability of the test items. It can
be obtained for each test by giving the test twice to the same
group of subjects. In this case care should be taken to ensure
consistency among the subjects. Subjects selected for tests
should be the course representative of population for who, the
test is intended.
The next step is objectivity in that two competent testers

administering the test item to the same individuals can
accomplish it. It is directly related to the skill and integrity of the
testers as well as to the clarity and simplicity of the instructions
and procedures of the test. The next step is validity in that the
composite score of all the test items in the battery may be used
for validating the test items. Otherwise the judges rating on the
overall performance of the game may be considered as a criterion
to establish the validity. Next step is to revise the test in the light
of the findings of the steps already described and finally the
written instructions for administering and scoring the test.
9
Introduction
The last step is the construction the norms. For that a

large number of subjects who are representative of the
population for whom the test was intended should be given and
the test and their test scores are recorded. The score then is
converted to percentile or T-Score. Norm for each item should be
prepared usually the norms for the composite total score is also
desirable.
Field Hockey
Field Hockey is a popular sport played in more than 132

countries. Its official name by which it is usually known is
Hockey. However, some countries, and some encyclopedic
references, distinguish it from other sports with the same name
as Field Hockey. The origin of the word Hockey was obscure.
Hockie was forbidden in the Statutes of Galway in 1527. The
word may derive from comocke and the Anglo-Saxon word for
'Hook', Hok; alternatively, it may come from the French word for
a shepherd's crook, Hocquet.
Hockey-like games where teams attempt to place a ball

into their opponent's goal using sticks have been found
throughout history and the world. Historical records show that
game was played in various antique civilizations, although it is
not possible to know exactly when and where the game began.
4,000 year old drawings found in the Beni Hasan tombs, in the
Nile Valley, Egypt depicted men playing the sport. Other traces
show that the Persians, the Romans (a version called paganica),
10
Introduction
the Ethiopians, as well as the Aztecs were playing their own

variation of the game.
The modern game was developed on the other side of

London by Middlesex Cricket clubs, especially Teddington. In the
late 19th century, largely due to the British Army, the game
spread throughout the British Empire, leading to the first
international competition between Ireland and wales in 1895.
The International Rules Board was founded in 1895, and Hockey
first appeared at the Olympic Games as a men's competition at
1908 Olympic Games in London, with only three teams:
England, Ireland and Scotland. Men's Hockey became a
permanent fixture at the Olympics at the 1928 Olympic Games,
at Amsterdam.
The first step towards an international structuring

occurred in 1909, when England and Belgium agreed to
recognize each other for international competitions, soon joined
in the French federation. Hockey took its most important step
forward in 1924 when the International Hockey Federation, the
world governing body for the sport, was founded in Paris under
the initiative of Frenchman, Paul Leautey. Mr. Leautey, The
International Hockey Federation has continued to grow and
spread around five continents.
The women's Hockey developed quickly in many countries

and in 1927, the International Federation of Women's Hockey
Associations (IFWHA) was formed. After celebrating their
11
Introduction
respective Golden Jubilees - the FIH in 1974 and the IFWHA in

1980 - the two organisations came together in 1982 to form the
FIH.
Today, the International Hockey Federation (FIH) consists

of five Continental associations - Europe and Oceania have since
joined - and 127 member associations. In many ways, the FIH
serves as the 'guardian' of the sport. It works in co-operation
with both the national and continental organisations to ensure
consistency and unity in Hockey around the world. The FIH not
only regulates the sport, but is also responsible for its
development and promotion so as to guarantee a secure future
for Hockey.
Hockey in India
The game had been taken to India by British servicemen,

and the first clubs formed there in Calcutta in 1885. The
Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament had commenced
within ten years. Entering the Olympic Games in 1928, India
won all five of its games without conceding a goal, and went on
to win in 1932 until 1956, and then in 1964 and 1980.
The Indian Hockey Federation was formed in the year 1925

in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh during the Scindia Gold Cup
tournament. But it was not active after that. After the end of the
World War I, the commander of the British Armed forces in
India, Field Marshall Birdwood who was in charge of organizing
the retreat of the combined Australian and New Zealand armies
12
Introduction
after the Gallipoli tragedy proposed a Hockey tour to New

Zealand in 1926 as a friendship tour. The tour gave a chance for
revival of the Federations and thus began the efforts of
consolidating the Indian Hockey Federation as the Indian Army's
Hockey team toured New Zealand.
The Indian Hockey Federation gained global affiliation in

1927 and joined the International Hockey Federation. A national
championship between provinces was organized in 1928 at
Calcutta to select the Indian team for the Amsterdam Olympics.
In three decades, India has not seen any success at the

highest level of its ‘national game’ due to several reasons.
Restructuring the administrative system, creating infrastructure
and world class facilities coaching / training programme, several
scheme uniform selection policy. The national championship
and the Premier Hockey League should be revived, along with
junior competitions, to widen the base for a talent hunt. The
administration should be restructured to meet the demands of
the game and to offer financial security to the players without
compromising discipline.
Rationale of the Study
Recent developments in Field Hockey, such as the playing

surface, new stick material, and interchange of rule, have
increased the number of technical demands made on Field
Hockey players at all levels. Due to the modern demands of the
game, there is a need of highly reliable and valid test for Field
13
Introduction
Hockey. The skill test constructed by various experts in the field

of Hockey was outdated and it measures the combinations of
skill where, the player’s fundamental skills have to measure with
a simple reliable one. Day by day the nature of the game
changes its structure. Coaches, trainers and players are
continually searching for effective methods of identifying and
developing those characteristics in a player that may enhance
performance. Hence, the research scholar has decided to design
a test battery that measures the basic qualities of a player,
which is very essential in the game situation. This test battery
may help the coaches to classify the students into homogenous
group, find out their talents and to the players to know about
themselves. Most valid and reliable tests, however, measure one
or two isolated skills without regard to how they are used in the
actual game situation.
Statement of the Problem
The objective of the study was to construct a new skill test

battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey players.
Significance of the Study
The study would be significant in the following aspects.
1. The newly developed skill test battery would help the

physical educators and coaches to evaluate their players
more accurately, since large number of test items were
included in this test battery, which are field based one.
14
Introduction
2. The constructed test battery would help the coaches and

physical educators to have periodical monitoring on the
performance of players during the training and coaching
period.
3. The norms developed in this study would help the players,

physical educators and coaches to assess the skill level
and make a comparison between other groups.
4. This study would yield norm to be used for the evaluation,

classification and selection of Field Hockey players for
different levels of competition.
5. The study would provide coaches with realistic and

objective information about the standard of the players in
order to improve the specificity of training to prepare
individuals for optimal performance.
6. The study would serve as a motivational force to the Field

Hockey players to improve upon their skills.
7. The study would helpful in locating potential Field Hockey
players.
Delimitations
The present study was delimited in the following aspects

1. The present study was confined to male Field Hockey
players except goal keepers.
2. The range of the age of the players used as subjects in the
present study was between 17 and 20 years.
15
Introduction
3. The data were collected during the competitive period.

4. The study was delimited to 454 Field Hockey players
studying in various colleges of Tamilnadu state, India.
5. Further, the study was delimited to selected test items of
the following fundamental skills of Field Hockey:
 Dribbling
 Hit
 Push
 Flick
 Scoop
 Goal Shooting
Limitations
1. The impact of training schedules, previous experiences,

motivational factors and various physical activities on the
subject’s playing ability were not taken into account.
2. Variations in performance due to diet, climatic conditions,

ground conditions and other environmental factors that
might affect the study, were not taken into consideration.
3. Since the human elements are involved in the test

administration even slight error in measurement and
timings which might affect the results were also considered
as limitations of the study.
4. The fatigue factors of the players and the carry-over

knowledge of the skills which might affect the performance
in the tests were considered as limitations of the study.
16
Introduction
5. The test location, ball speed, players playing position and

players experience in playing astro turf which might affect
the study were also considered as limitations of the study.
Operational Definitions of the Terms
Test
A test is an instrument or tool used to make the particular

measurement. (Morrow, 2005)
Measurement
Measurement is an aid to the evaluation process in that

various tools and techniques are used in collection of data.
(Johnson and Nelson, 1988)
Evaluation
Evaluation is the statement of quality, value, or worthiness

about what has been assessed. (Morrow, 2005)
Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree to which a test consistently

measures a given factor. (Miller, 2002)
Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a test actually

measures what it claims to measure. (Miller, 2002)
17
Introduction
Objectivity
Objectivity is similar in nature to reliability, when two or

more persons can administer the same test to the same group
and obtain approximately the same results. (Miller, 2002)
Norms
Norms are values considered to be representative or a

specified population. They provide information for the individual
in the programme and counsels to enable them interpret any
individual’s score in relation to the scores made by other
individual’s in the same population. Norms are usually based on
age, grade, height, weight, sex or the various combinations of
these characteristics. (Johnson and Nelson, 1988)
Factor Analysis
A statistical procedure that is used to reduce a large

number of variables to a much smaller representative set of
variables called ‘factors’. The object of factor analysis is to
achieve parsimony and often to discover the essential variables
that underline and summarize the information in a large set of
variables. (Field, 2005)
Chapter – II
Review of Related Literature

CHAPTER – II
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the

critical points of current knowledge including substantive
findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions
to a particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to
date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for
another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the
area. It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key
writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses,
what questions are being asked, & what methods and
methodologies are appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in
itself primary research, but rather it reports on other findings.
The present reviews are based upon the available literature

in respect to the study under investigation and therefore
confined to the studies to which the investigator has accessed.
All the relevant literature thus obtained by the researcher has
been presented in this chapter to furnish necessary background
material to evaluate the significance of the study. The research
scholar has made every possible effort to go thorough the
literatures related to the problem in the game of Field Hockey
wherever available. The research scholar first visited Lakshmibai
National College of Physical Education, Trivandrum, followed by
Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education, Gwalior
and Netaji Subhas Southern Centre, Sports Authority of India,
Bangalore which were the pioneer institution in the development
19
of physical education and sports. The scholar has gleaned

through almost every source like research quarterly, journals of
various kinds, periodicals, encyclopedias, relevant book and e-
resources on Field Hockey and other games to pick up related
material.
While going through the various sources of literature, it

has been observed that very little work has been done on specific
skill tests related to the game of Field Hockey especially on
modern surfaces. However, the scholar has also gone through
the literatures of allied studies that are related to other games
and sports to collect the necessary information for making a
proper shape of the study.
Field Hockey Skill Tests
Schmitals and French (1940) constructed a three item test

of achievement in Field Hockey skill for college women. The item
includes ball control, goal shooting, fielding & drive, with a
criterion of expert judgement the item validity ranged from 0.44
to 0.48 with a multiple correlation of 0.62. Spearman brown
formula estimates the split half reliability for the items ranged
from 0.90 to 0.92. The best combination of two skill factors was
found to be goal shooting left and fielding & drive.
Friedel (1956) proposed a single item Field Hockey test for

high school girls, named as pass receiving, fielding and driving
while moving. There are ten trials from each side, right and left.
Each trial is timed with stopwatch. The reliability was assessed
20
by the split-half method, the scores were correlated by using

Spearman Brown formula and reliability coefficients were 0.90
for the left side and 0.77 for the right side. For validation, the
test scores were correlated with Schmithals French ball control
test and found to be valid with a value of 0.87.
Singh (1959) prepared a two-item test, which included

“dribbling and hitting”, and “dribbling and goal shooting”. The
subjects for the study were 107 students of two Arts Colleges of
Punjab. He validated the tests against the subjective rating of
the two experts, who were national umpires in Hockey. The
dribbling and hitting test gave a validity of 0.78 and the validity
of dribbling and goal shooting test was 0.80. He correlated the
two tests in order to determine if they measured different
aspects and the result was 0.41. He also prepared t-scores for
college men.
Strait (1961) constructed and evaluated a Field Hockey

skill test. The test required the use of a backboard and included
the skills of fielding, dodging, dribbling and driving. The test had
a reliability coefficient of 0.87 for Smith College students and of
0.86 for members of the Hampshire Field Hockey Association.
Using the rating of three judges as a criterion of the validity for
the Smith College students was 0.61 and for the members of
Hampshire Field Hockey Association was 0.76. The test was
equally suitable for evaluation of attack and defense position
players.
21
Illner (1969) constructed a skill test for the drive in Field

Hockey. Beginning high school players, physical education major
and association players were tested on their ability to drive the
ball to the left and to the right after five weeks of instruction and
practices. Speed and accuracy were therefore included and then
were combined into a single score by means of additive and
multiplicative technique. The test was found to be objective
r=0.97, reliable r=0.72 and valid measures of an individual
ability to execute the drive.
Henry (1970) test was proven on 31 college and high

school Hockey players ranging in experience from 2 weeks to 6
years. Friedel test was considered as most suited for
modification among the tests namely 1-item tests by Friedel,
Strait and Stewart. Two judges rated the players on general
abilities such as footwork, stickwork and body control while they
were performing 20 trials of the modified test and 6 trails of
Strait’s test. The aggrement between the judges was reported
with a coefficient of 0.97. This study was conducted in the off-
season for Hockey, and this is one explanation Henry makes for
the borderline reliability coefficients. The speed scores proved to
be as good an indicator of Hockey skill as speed and accuracy
scores combined. Henry set several criteria for the modified test
to meet: it should be a 1-item test, have a minimum of
equipment, have a game-like situation and be economic of time
in terms of test administration. It should also encourage good
form, consider both speed and accuracy and discriminate among
22
players of near equal ability. Enough of these criteria were met

to consider this test item worthy of use.
Dangwal (1981) measured specific element constituting the

playing ability of state level Hockey players. The subjects were
Netaji Subash National Institute of Sports regular trainees and
three experts working as coaches were appointed as experts for
ranking the players. The tests were:
1. Speed of the ball
2. Stopping and shooting
3. Interception and clearance
4. Receiving and passing
5. Tapping with only left hand or Tapping through wooden
blocks
6. Dribbling through wooden blocks
7. Speed with optimum ball control
8. Dodging towards right and left
9. Running with ball while changing direction
10. Specific speed endurance
11. Test of relative performance
Reliability: Product Moment correlations between two sets

of scores through test retest method. Validity: Spearman’s Rank
Correlation Co-efficient between rank of the subjects and
corresponding rank of the subject according to the scores. The
test enabled ranking the subjects for their attacking and
defending ability separately. The test for dodging and the test for
specific endurance require further investigations.
23
Chapman (1982) developed a test that isolates the

manipulative ability of finite ball control in Field Hockey from
other movement skills that may contribute more to overall game-
play efficiency. The test was administered to 23 inter-collegiate
field Hockey players and the logical validity and, with a criterion
measure of ratings of stickwork skills, concurrent validity
coefficients of 0.63 and 0.64 and the reliability was 0.89.
Nirmala (1985) constructed an objective skill test in

Hockey for higher secondary school girls. Three test items
namely shooting and accuracy, hitting and stopping accuracy
and passing accuracy were tested on forty four girl students of
senior secondary school, age ranged between 13 and 17 years.
The scientific authenticity of the test was established by
computing reliability by administering the test on two different
occasions by the investigator herself and the correlation
coefficients for shooting accuracy, hitting and stopping accuracy
and passing accuracy were 0.68, 0.95 and 0.86 respectively. The
validity was obtained by comparing the test result with the
experts opinion while playing situation and was found 0.92 of all
three test items.
Dureha (1985) constructed an objective skill test in Hockey

for secondary school boys. 60 boys were tested on three test
items namely angular hitting and stopping for one minute, pass
receiving, dribbling & hitting and dribbling & goal shooting. The
reliabilities of all three test items were 0.92, 0.94 and 0.91
respectively. The objectivity was established by administering
24
the tests in the same manner with the help of an expert and
found 0.95, 0.96 and 0.91 respectively. The validity was found
by comparing the test results with the experts opinion in playing
situation and was found 0.55, -0.70 and -0.57 respectively.
Kirubakaran (1986) constructed a battery of objective skill

test in Hockey for University of Madras students. 32 men college
students belonging to the age group of 19 to 25 years were
selected and they had enough experience in the game as players
representing the college or the university. The researcher
conducted the following tests namely speed, dribble test, ball
carrying, dodging, passing ability test and target hitting test.
The scientific authenticity of the battery of skill tests was
established by computing the correlation co-efficient. The
battery of skill tests constructed by the investigator measures
the offensive Hockey playing ability of the University of Madras
students. It was found that the battery of objective skill tests
satisfied the criterion of scientific authenticity in reliability,
objectivity, validity and administrative feasibility. Further they
had a significant correlation between the total scores of the test
battery and the Hockey playing ability assessed by the experts.
Sangral (1986) objectives were (i) to identify major

fundamental skills and skill combinations in Hockey (ii) to
construct and standardize a battery of skill tests purely on
objective lines, (iii) to prepare norms in each skill for players at
different levels of inter-college, inter-university, combined
university, state and national levels, and (iv) to present a
25
standardised procedure for grading Hockey players. The sample

for test construction consisted of 63 male experienced Hockey
players. The sample included 17 inter college players, 15 inter-
university players, nine combined university players, 19 state
level players, and three national level players. However, for
working out norms, the sample consisted of 500 male Hockey
players who participated at different levels in the year 1984-85.
The skills and skill combinations selected for playing Hockey
were 25 yard goal shooting, dribble and push, scoop for
accuracy, dribble and hit, and self hitting and stopping. The test
was constructed on the basis of items linked with these five
skills. The reliability of the test was established against each
item with the test-retest method. The reliability coefficient varied
from 0.78 to 0.91. The validity for each of the test items was
established against the rating by judges about playing ability.
The validity coefficient varied from 0.40 for dribble to 0.77 for
self hit and stop. On factor analysis of test scores, self hit and
stop, scoop for accuracy, and dribble and push came out as
independent factors. The multiple regression equation showed
that the factors self hit and stop, scoop for accuracy, and dribble
and push, measured total Hockey playing ability sufficiently. So
the test battery was formed of three tests, namely dribble and
push, scoop for accuracy, self hit, and stop. After factor analysis
the test battery had test-retest reliability coefficient 0.91, and
validity against judgement by judges was 0.81. The norms were
established for intercollege, inter-university, combined
university, state, and national level players separately. The
26
study showed the following: The mean difference in performance

in dribble and push amongst three groups intercollege,
interuniversity and state level players, was not significant but
the mean differences were significant in case of intercollege,
interuniversity and national level players. In case of scoop for
accuracy, the national level group was significantly better in
performance in comparison to intercollege, interuniversity,
combined university and state level groups. The national level
group was found to be much superior, on the self hit and stop
test than any other group.
Damras et al. (1990) constructed a Hockey skill test and

developed the norms for college students. Samples for
constructing a Hockey skill test were sixty Khonkaen University
students who enrolled in physical education activity (Hockey). 30
boys and 30 girls were tested by the constructed test. The test
consisted of six sub tests which were the push, the hit, the
dribble, the flick, the ball passing and the goal shooting. The
subjects were tested twice at one week interval. After that they
were divided into two teams to play the game and three experts
scored each student. Their scores were then statistically
analysed. Samples for setting up the norms of Hockey skill for
college students were 400 college students who enrolled in
Hockey class from 10 colleges (20 boys and 20 girls from each
college). These samples were selected by a simple random
sampling method and were tested by the constructed test which
had already been improved. The test scores were then
statistically analysed to set up the norms. The obtained data
27
from sixty Khonkaen University students were analysed in terms

of reliability and validity by pearson’s product moment
correlation coefficient. To set up the norms, the obtained data
from 400 college students were analysed in terms of means and
standard deviation by normal curve. The results of the study
reveals that the reliability and validity coefficient of college
Hockey skill test for the boys were 0.76 and 0.67 and the girls
were 0.80 and 0.68.
Nieuwenhuis et al. (2002) analysed the kinanthropometric,

motor-physical and psychological variables and specific Field
Hockey skills that influence Field Hockey performance at the age
of 14 to 15 years. The two top girls Field Hockey teams in the
North West Province (South Africa) U/15 (under 15 age group)
Field Hockey league ( n = 27), as well as the two teams who
ended at the bottom of the league ( n = 25), were exposed to a
test battery. The 52 subjects were classified according to their
league results as successful and less successful. The test battery
consisted of nine Field Hockey skills tests, 16 kinanthropometric
tests and six physical-motor ability tests and two sport
psychological tests. A statistical analysis of the data was done
for descriptive purposes and statistical significances between the
successful and less successful players were determined. Results
indicated meaningful differences in some variables. A prediction
function was therefore developed consisting of eight variables
that successfully distinguished between successful and less
successful 14 to 15 year old female Field Hockey players.
28
Keogh et al. (2003) developed an effective testing battery

for female Field Hockey player by using anthropometric,
physiological, and skill related tests to distinguish between
regional representative (Rep, n = 35) and local club level (Club, n
= 39) female Field Hockey Players. Rep players were significantly
leaner and recorded faster times for the 10-m and 40-m sprints
as well as the Illinois Agility Run (with and without dribbling a
Hockey ball). Rep players also had greater aerobic and lower
body muscular power and were more accurate in the shooting
accuracy test, p < 0.05. No significant differences between
groups were evident for height, body mass, speed decrement in 6
x 40-m repeated sprints, handgrip strength, or pushing speed.
These results indicate that %BF, sprinting speed, agility,
dribbling control, aerobic and muscular power, and shooting
accuracy can distinguish between female Field Hockey players of
varying standards. Therefore talent identification programme for
female Field Hockey should include assessments of these
physical parameters.
The main objective of Lemmink et al. (2004) was to

determine the reliability of two Field Hockey specific tests: the
shuttle sprint and dribble test (ShuttleSDT) and the slalom
sprint and dribble test (SlalomSDT). The shuttle sprint and
dribble performances of 22 young male and 12 young female
Field Hockey players were assessed on two occasions within 4
weeks. Twenty one young female Field Hockey players took part
in the slalom sprint and dribble test twice in a 4 week period.
The ShuttleSDT required the players to perform three 30 m
29
shuttle sprints while carrying a Hockey stick alternated with

short periods of rest and, after a 5 minute rest, three 30 m
shuttle sprints alternated with rest while dribbling a Hockey ball.
The Slalom SDT required the players to run a slalom course and,
after a 5 minute rest, to dribble the same slalom with a Hockey
ball. There were no differences in mean time scores between the
two test sessions. The mean differences were small when
compared with the means of both test sessions. With the
exception of the slalom sprint time, zero lay within the 95%
confidence interval of the mean differences indicating that no
bias existed between the two measurements. With the exception
of delta shuttle time (0.79), all intraclass correlation coefficient
values for the ShuttleSDT, met the criterion for reliability of
0.80. Intraclass correlation coefficient values for SlalomSDT were
0.91 for slalom sprint time, 0.78 for slalom dribble time, and
0.80 for delta slalom time. ShuttleSDT and the SlalomSDT are
reliable measures of sprint and dribble performances of young
Field Hockey players
Sunderland et al. (2005) reported that nine well trained,

unacclimatized female Hockey players performed the
Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) interspersed with
three Field Hockey skill tests in hot (30 degrees C, 38% relative
humidity) and moderate (19 degrees C, 51% relative humidity)
environmental conditions. Field Hockey skill performance
declined in both the hot and moderate conditions following 30
and 60 min of the LIST compared with pre-LIST values (P <
0.01). This decrement in performance was compounded in the
30
hot environment with a 6% poorer performance in the heat

recorded for the second skill test at 30 min (P < 0.05, hot 101.7
± 3.6 vs moderate 95.7 ± 2.9 s; mean ± s(x)). However, no
difference was found in the decision making element of the skill
test. Fifteen metre sprint times were slower in the hot condition
(P < 0.01). In the hot environment, rectal temperature (P < 0.01),
perceived exertion (P < 0.05), perceived thirst (P < 0.01), blood
glucose concentration (P < 0.05) and serum aldosterone
concentration (P < 0.01) were higher. Estimated mean (± s(x))
sweat rate was higher in the hot trial (1.27 ± 0.10 l.h(-1)) than in
the moderate trial (1.05 ± 0.12 l.h(-1)) (P < 0.05). Body mass was
well maintained in both trials. No differences in serum cortisol,
blood lactate, plasma volume or plasma ammonia
concentrations were found. These results demonstrate that Field
Hockey skill performance is decreased following intermittent
high intensity shuttle running and that this decrease is greater
in hot environmental conditions. The exact mechanism for this
decrement in performance remains to be elucidated, but is
unlikely to be due to low glycogen concentration or dehydration.
Fleming et al. (2006) carried out a qualitative analysis of

elite Hockey players (n = 22) was performed to obtain their
perceptions immediately after a competitive match. The
significant surface characteristics that emerged as part of an
inductive analysis of their responses were grouped together and
formed five general themes or dimensions: player performance,
playing environment, pitch properties, ball interaction and
player interaction. Each dimension was formed from a hierarchy
31
of sub-themes. During the analysis, relationships between the

dimensions were identified and a structured relationship model
was produced to highlight each relationship. Players’ responses
suggested that they perceived differences between pitches and
that the majority of players considered a ‘hard’ pitch with a ‘low’
ball bounce facilitating a ‘fast’ game speed was desirable.
However, further research is required to understand the relative
importance of each theme and to develop appropriate
measurement strategies to quantify the relevant engineering
properties of pitch materials.
Kerr & Ness (2006) conducted a study to determine those

variables that significantly affect push-in execution and thereby
formulate coaching recommendations specific to the push-in.
Two 50 Hz video cameras recorded transverse and longitudinal
views of push-in trials performed by eight experienced and nine
inexperienced male push-in performers. Video footage was
digitized for data analysis of ball speed, stance width, drag
distance, drag time, drag speed, centre of massy displacement
and segment and stick displacements and velocities.
Experienced push-in performers demonstrated a significantly
greater (p < 0.05) stance width, a significantly greater distance
between the ball and the front foot at the start of the push-in
and a significantly faster ball speed than inexperienced
performers. In addition, the experienced performers showed a
significant positive correlation between ball speed and playing
experience and tended to adopt a combination of simultaneous
and sequential segment rotation to achieve accuracy and fast
32
ball speed. The study yielded the following coaching

recommendations for enhanced push-in performance: maximize
drag distance by maximizing front foot, ball distance at the start
of the push-in; use a combination of simultaneous and
sequential segment rotations to optimise both accuracy and ball
speed and maximize drag speed.
Sunderland et al. (2006) found that high test retest

reliability is essential in tests used for both scientific research
and to monitor athletic performance. Thirty nine (20 male and
19 female) well trained university Field Hockey players
volunteered to participate in the study. The reliability of the in
house designed test was determined by repeating the test (3 - 14
days later) following full familiarisation. The validity was
assessed by comparing coaches ranks of players with ranked
performance on the skill test. The mean difference and
confidence limits in overall skill test performance was 0.0 ± 1.0%
and the standard error (confidence limits) was 2.1% (1.7 to
2.8%). The mean difference and confidence limits for the
“decision making” time was 0.0 ± 1.0% and the standard error
(confidence limits) was 4.5% (3.6 to 6.2%). The validity
correlation (Pearson) was r = 0.83 and r = 0.73 for female players
and r = 0.61 and r = 0.70 for male players for overall time and
“decision making” time respectively. The result reveals that the
Field Hockey skill test is a reliable measure of skill performance
and that it is valid as a predictor of coach assessed Hockey
performance, but the validity is greater for female players.
33
Burr et al. (2007) purposes were (a) to determine the

measurement device and jumping protocol most appropriate for
testing the leg power of elite Hockey players and (b) to assess the
relationship of leg power measurements to Hockey playing ability
as indicated by draft selection order. Comparisons were made of
leg power measurements from the top 95 players entering the
National Hockey League Entry Draft using 2 devices (Vertec and
Just Jump) and 2 jump protocols (countermovement and squat).
Players' leg powers were ranked from highest to lowest power
using each device and protocol and were correlated with draft
selection order. Vertec leg power measurements were highest
(5,511-5,631 W), but there were no significant differences in
power between the 2 jumping protocols on either device. Vertec
squat jump provided the highest correlation (0.47) between leg
power ranking and selection order and was judged to most
closely approximate the full body coordinated movements
involved in Hockey. The Vertec device using a squat jump
protocol is most appropriate for coaches and fitness specialists
to use when evaluating Hockey potential based on the off-ice leg
power measurements of elite Hockey players.
Macleod et al. (2009) examined nine games players (mean

age 23.3 years, s=2.8; height 1.73 m, s=0.08; body mass 70.0
kg, s=12.7) completed 14 laps of a measured circuit that
incorporated intermittent running and directional changes,
representative of the movements made by Field Hockey players
during match-play. The distances and speeds recorded by a
global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi Elitetrade mark)
34
were compared statistically with speed measurements made

using timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated
trundle wheel, to establish the criterion validity of the GPS
system. A validation of the speed of movement of each
participant separately was also made, using data from each
timing gate, over a range of speeds. The mean distance recorded
by the GPS system was 6821 m (s=7) and the mean speed was
7.0 km. h(-1) (s=1.9), compared with the actual distance of 6818
m and recorded mean speed of 7.0 km. h(-1) (s=1.9). Pearson
correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS speed were >
or =0.99 (P < 0.001) and the mean difference and 95% limits of
agreement were 0.0 ± 0.9 km. h(-1). These results suggest that a
GPS system (Spi Elitetrade mark) offers a valid tool for
measuring speed and distance during match-play, and can
quickly provide the scientist, coach, and player with objective
information about certain movement patterns during competitive
games.
Elferink et al. (2010) determined whether youth athletes

with an "average" (regional), "high" (sub-elite), and "very high"
(elite) level of performance differ with respect to their self-
assessed tactical skills, 191 youth Field Hockey players (mean
age 15.5 years, s = 1.6) completed the Tactical Skills Inventory
for Sports (TACSIS) with scales for declarative ("knowing what to
do") and procedural ("doing it") knowledge. Multivariate analyses
of covariance with age as covariate showed that elite and sub-
elite players outscored regional players on all tactical skills (P <
0.05), whereas elite players had better scores than sub-elite
35
players on "positioning and deciding" (P < 0.05) only. The sex of

the athletes had no influence on the scores (P > 0.05). With
increasing level of performance, scores on declarative and
procedural knowledge were higher. Close to expert performance,
declarative knowledge no longer differentiated between elite and
sub-elite players (P > 0.05), in contrast to an aspect of
procedural knowledge (i.e. positioning and deciding), where elite
players outscored sub-elite players (P < 0.05). These results may
have implications for the development of talented athletes.
Gabbett (2010) investigated the physiological demands of

women's Field Hockey competition and compared these demands
to those experienced during game-based training activities.
Fourteen elite women Field Hockey players (mean ± SD; age,
23.3 ± 3.2 years; maximal oxygen consumption, 53.5 ± 4.3 ml x
kg(-1) x min(-1)) participated in this study. Global positioning
satellite (GPS) system analysis was completed during 19 training
appearances and 32 Australian Hockey League (AHL)
appearances. All training sessions consisted of game-based
activities (i.e., small-sided training games) that were played on a
reduced-sized pitch. Movement was recorded by a global
positioning satellite unit sampling at 5 Hz. Data were categorized
into discreet movement velocity bands, corresponding to low-
intensity (0-1 m.s(-1)), moderate-intensity (1-3 m.s(-1) and 3-5
m.s(-1)), and high-intensity (5-7 m.s(-1) and >7 m.s(-1))
activities. Players covered 6.6 km (range: 3.4-9.5 km) over the
course of the match. Midfielders spent more time and covered
greater distances in high-intensity running (i.e., >5 m.s(-1)) than
36
strikers and defenders. The number of high-velocity and high-

acceleration efforts over the course of a match was greater in
midfielders. In comparison to competition, game-based training
sessions resulted in more time spent in low-intensity (i.e., 0-1
m.s(-1)) activities and less time spent in moderate (i.e., 1-3 m.s(-
1) and 3-5 m.s(-1)) and high-intensity (i.e., 5-7 m.s(-1) and >7
m.s(-1)) activities. Although game-based training is likely to be
useful for improving the skill levels of players, the skill activities
used in the present study did not reflect the physiological
demands of competition, with players spending more time in
low-intensity activities and less time in high-intensity activities
than competition. Modifications in training group size and drill
design and complexity may better simulate the physiological
demands of competition.
Kasiviswanathan (2010) developed a Hockey skill test

battery for Tamilnadu school boys of 14 to 16 years. For this
purpose one hundred and sixty four school students in the age
group of 14 to 16 years were selected from Tamilnadu state. All
the test items included in this study were highly correlated. The
factor analysis yielded two factors which were named as ‘playing
ability by ball control’ and ‘playing ability by accuracy’. The final
test battery included the following skill tests namely power
dribbling, zigzag dribbling, speed right dodge, long pass and
straight shooting. After administrating the test items to two
thousand and four hundred school students in the age group of
14 to 16 years from Tamilnadu state, a norm was developed
37
using percentile scale for interpretation of playing ability

performance.
Lopez et al. (2010) analysed the kinematic sequencing in

the penalty corner drag flicks of elite male and female Field
Hockey players of international calibre. Thirteen participants
(one skilled male drag flicker and six male and six female elite
players) participated in the study. An optoelectronic motion
analysis system was used to capture the drag flicks with six
cameras, sampling at 250 Hz. Select ground reaction force
parameters were obtained from a force platform which registered
the last support of the front foot. Twenty trials were captured
from each subject. Both player groups showed significantly (p <
0.05) smaller ball velocity at release, peak angular velocity of the
pelvis, and negative and positive peak angular velocities of the
stick than the skilled subject. Normalised ground reaction forces
of the gender groups were also smaller than that of the skilled
drag flicker. By comparing these players we established that the
cues of the skill level are a wide stance, a whipping action (rapid
back lift) of the stick followed by an explosive sequential
movement of the pelvis, upper trunk and stick.
Suresh & Kalidasan (2010) evaluated the slap hit in Field

Hockey on astro turf. To achieve the purpose of the study, three
test items were designed by the investigators, after analysing the
various factors. These test items were three direction hitting,
multiple target hitting and target hitting. The above said test
items were administered to sixty seven male Inter-collegiate level
38
Hockey players and their age ranges from 17 to 20 years (Mean =

17.72, SD = ±1.64). In order to find out the reliability, objectivity
and validity correlation analysis was used. Based on the test-
retest method, the reliability coefficient score on tests item
reveals that it was acceptable according to arbitrary standards
for the evaluation of physical performance tests. But, the
acceptable coefficient for validity was observed only in multiple
target hitting. Among the three test items, multiple target hitting
was most appropriate to measure the slap hit in Field Hockey on
astro turf.
Skill Test Batteries in Other Games
Similar views of test batteries with respect to other games

also reveal the pattern behind the test and validation model
construction. It also provides a critical assessment in a
particular field, stating where the weaknesses and gaps are,
contrasting the views of particular authors. Such a review will
not just be a summary but will also evaluate and show
relationships between different material, so that the key theme
emerges. Following are numerous other sport skill tests as
examples of the types of test that have been used in the past as
well as now.
Badminton Skill Tests
Chin (1995) studied the physiological response of elite

Badminton players in a sport specific fitness test. Twelve Hong
Kong national Badminton team players performed a field test on
39
a Badminton court. Six light bulbs were connected to a

programming device causing individual bulbs to light up in a
given sequence. The players were instructed to react to the
flashes by running towards them, and striking shuttles mounted
in the vicinity of the bulbs. Exercise intensity was controlled by
altering the interval between successive lightings. A low
correlation (r = 0.65) was found between the results of the field
test and the rank-order list of subjects, based on an objective on
field physiological assessment and subjective ranking. This may
be explained by the requirements of other factors besides
physical fitness which contribute to success in elite level
Badminton competition. These factors may include, for example,
technical skill, mental power, and aesthetic judgements on the
court. Maximum mean (s.d.) heart rate data (187(8) beats.min-1)
and blood lactate values (10.4(2.9) mmol.l-1) in this study
showed that players were under maximal load during the field
test. From the testing data, it seems reasonable to speculate that
the intensity of level 3 (20 light pulses.min-1; 3.0 s.pulse-1) and
level 4 (22 light pulses.min-1; 2.7 s.pulse-1) simulates the
requirement of actual games energy expenditure of the Hong
Kong badminton players exercising at close to their anaerobic
threshold. The results also show that an estimate of fitness can
be derived from measurements involving exercise closely
resembling that which is specific for the sports activity in
question. Improved training advice and guidance may result
from such studies.
40
Basketball Skill Tests
Antrim (1972) designed a continuous test item to predict

and evaluate Basketball playing ability using 26 college women
in a beginners’ Basketball class. The test included 3 phases
dribbling, shooting and rebounding, and finally, passing and
catching. She used judge’s ratings as a criterion score and found
that the time for the test related to the criterion more highly
than the separate parts. Agreement among the judges was 0.87.
A validity coefficients of 0.74 resulted when the player rankings
were correlated with the total time on the test. The reliability
was estimated in several ways, but was highest when the test
was preceded by 2 practice trials followed the next day by 2
trials, which were totalled. Under the conditions the reliability
coefficient was estimated to be 0.82.
Chandrasekaran (1997) constructed a Basketball skill test

Battery for Tamilnadu School boys of fourteen to sixteen years.
156 male Basketball players who represented their divisions
were the subjects. The preliminary test package included
eighteen test items under the five fundamental skills. The
playing ability of each subject was determined by subjective
ratings during the competition. The prime intention of the
researcher was to construct a comprehensive module with
limited number of test items and greater level of dependability.
The following five tests namely different spot shot, pace dribble,
star defensive movement, zigzag lay-up shot and moving pass
41
were found to be highly reliable and fully valid final test battery
which yielded a high level validity score, 0.97.
Football Skill Tests
Mc Donald (1951) studied the use of volleying a Soccer ball

against a backboard as a test of general soccer ability. With
college men as subjects, he obtained the following correlations
between scores on the test and the ratings of playing ability by
their coaches: 0.94 for varsity players, 0.63 for junior varsity
players, 0.76 for freshmen varsity players, and 0.85 for the
combined groups.
Mor and Christian (1979) developed a skill test battery to

measure the general soccer ability. Forty five male college
students participated in this study. They were classified into
three groups - varsity team players, intramural divisional
championship players and physical education soccer class
players. Five tests were investigated in this study. The three test
items namely dribbling, passing and shooting together made up
a battery with acceptable reliability and validity, and the other
two tests required special equipment that would rarely be found
in schools and added little to the overall battery. The criterion
measure was rating scale developed and used by three soccer
experts. Each subject was evaluated during actual matches
played. Each test was correlated with criterion measure. The co-
efficients obtained were dribbling 0.73 passing 0.77; and
shooting 0.91. Using the test retest method, the reliability
42
coefficients were dribbling 0.79; passing 0.96 and shooting 0.98.

The objectivity coefficients were, dribbling 0.99; passing 1.0; and
shooting 0.99. A multiple correlation analysis was used to select
the test battery. The following multiple correlation coefficients
were obtained for the various test battery combinations, passing
0.77; passing + dribbling 0.79; and passing + shooting, 0.91.
Rosch et al. (2000) developed a standardized test battery to

evaluate physical performance in Football players. The F-MARC
test battery was designed to closely relate to the Football player's
normal activity and comprised a functional, structured training
session of approximately 2.5 hours. It included a "quality rating"
of the warm-up procedure, tests of flexibility, Football skills,
power, speed, and endurance. The players finished with a cool-
down. A total of 588 Football players underwent the F-MARC
test battery. Mean values for performance on each test are
presented for groups of differing age and skill levels. The test
battery proved to be a feasible instrument to assess both
physical performance and Football skills.
John (2010) developed and evaluated a battery of Soccer

skill tests. For this purpose two hundred and fifty varsity men
Soccer players in the age group of 17 to19 years were selected
from fifteen colleges by random method of sampling from a
population of 50 active varsity teams as subjects for the study.
All the test items included in this study were highly correlated.
The factor analysis yielded two factors which were named as
‘playing ability by body’ and ‘ball playing ability’. The final test
43
battery included the following skill tests namely heading for

distance, throw-in for distance, passing with the outside of the
foot, zigzag dribbling and chest trapping. Finally a norm was
developed for the selected test items using percentile scale for
interpretation of playing ability performance, and a 6-Sigma
scale was developed for grading the overall performance.
Golf Skills Test
Green et al. (1987) developed a 4 item Golf skills test

battery for college males and females. The components, initially
identified for the test battery were the shot put, long put, chip
shot, pitch shot, middle distance shot and the drive. The final
battery included the four items were middle distance short putt,
pitch shot, long-putt and chip shot. In this study the attributes
were selected based on a conceptual analysis of the game of
Golf. The skill measures were developed and then analyzed
using a multiple linear regression model to determine the
relative contribution of each measure to golf playing ability.
From the study it was revealed that by using the regression
model with several predictor measure, the size of the validity
coefficient might be significantly increased. The approach of
regression analysis to skill tests development serves two
functions. First, it functioned as a method of establishing a
concurrent validity coefficient for the test battery. Second, it
delimited the skill components to those that accounted for the
greatest proportion of explained variance. The use of a multiple
regression approach also provided a certain degree of flexibility
44
to potential test users by enabling them to select subtests of the

complete battery. The study revealed that an instructor may
select a combination of test items that it best suited to a specific
situation, considering the limitations such as time, equipment
and personnel. An instructor may select a combination of test
items. For the Green Golf Test, the highest simple correlation
between any single test item and the 36-hole criterion score was
0.66. However, various combinations of test items yielded
validity coefficients as follows: 0.72 for middle-distance and
pitch shot, 0.76 for middle distance shot, pitch shot and long
putt and 0.77 for the middle distance shot, chip shot, pitch shot
and long putt.
Handball Skill Test
Pennington (1967) administered seventeen skill tests on

strength, motor ability and Handball skill tests on thirty seven
College men at the University of Oregon. The highest correlations
of single variables with round robin play were 0.71 for a serve
test, 0.68 for thirty-second volley and 0.66 for total wall volley
score tests. A multiple regression equation was computed for
three tests, as follows: Criterion = 1.75 (service placement) +
2.27 (total wall volley) + 1.59 (back-wall placement) + 0.29.
Ice Hockey Skill Tests
Marrifield and walford (1969) devised six tests to measure

selected basic ice Hockey skills using 15 numbers of the Ithaca
college Hockey club. With the criterion of coaches ranking of
45
playing ability, Validity coefficients of 0.83, 0.79, 0.75 and 0.96

were obtained for items 1to 4 spearman rho coefficients for
reliability were 0.74, 0.80, 0.94 and 0.93. From the findings the
authors inferred that items 1,4 and either 2 or 3 may be used as
measures of ice Hockey skills.
Hermiston et al. (1979) purpose was to compare the test

result times of three different Hockey skills with the individual
player ratings of coaches. By making these comparisons to the
control rating, each test was evaluated as a predictor of Hockey
ability. The Hockey players were all between the ages of 12 and
20 years of age and all 90 players were competitive team players.
The three Hockey skills tests were: the Illinois Agility Skate, the
Finnish Skills Test, and the Hermiston Hockey Ability Test. Each
player was allowed 3 trials and the best times were recorded in
all cases. The preliminary results indicate that the Hermiston
Hockey Ability Test was the best predictor (r = 0.70) with the
results of the other two tests showing a coefficient of correlation
of approximately 0.50. It was therefore concluded that in a
competitive team of Hockey, players' ability can best be assessed
by using the Hermiston Hockey Ability Test. The two other tests
were not as successful in their prediction of ability when
compared to the criterion variable of coaches' ratings.
Kho – Kho Skill Tests
Waghchoure & Bera (2000) attempted to construct and

standardise a new battery of Kho-Kho skill tests. Two thousand
46
(N=2000) school boys, age ranged from 11 to 14 years, from

Pune City, India, were pooled as the sample and were tested by
the 10 items of the preliminary form of the skill test. The data
was processed through item analysis which assured the
existence of 10 items in the test. The test items were arranged
on the basis of the result of item difficulty. The scoring
principles of each item were also established scientifically. The
test-retest reliability coefficient of this test was found
statistically significant (r=0.85, p<0.01). This test battery also
ensures its content validity. Both the percentile and T-scale
norms were established on Likert’s five points scale. The overall
results revealed that this test can assess the Kho-Kho skills and
predict potential with sufficient reliability and validity.
Fitness Test
In two studies, the reliability of 3 balance, 2 flexibility, and

4 muscular strength tests proposed as test items were
investigated by Suni et al. (1996) in a health-related fitness
(HRF) test battery for adults. In study A, volunteers (n=42) from
two worksites participated. In study B, a population sample
(n=510) of 37 to 57 year old men and women was selected.
Intraclass correlation coefficient of repeated measures was used
to assess inter-rater reliability. The degree of measurement error
was expressed as the standard error of measurement. The mean
difference with 95% confidence intervals between the testing
days or test trials was used to assess test-retest or trial-to-trial
reproducibility. The coefficient of variation (CV=[SD/mean] x
47
100%) from day to day was also calculated. The following tests
appeared to provide acceptable reliability as methods for field
assessment of HRF: standing on one leg with eyes open for
balance, side-bending of the trunk for spinal flexibility, modified
push-ups for upper body muscular function, and jump and
reach and one leg squat for leg muscular function. This
reliability assessment provided useful information on the
characteristics of potential test items in a HRF test battery for
adults and on the limitations of its practical use. Testers must
be properly trained to ensure reliable assessment of HRF of
adults.
Jones et al. (1999) purpose was to access the test-retest

reliability and the criterion related and construct validity of a 30-
s chair stand as a measure of lower body strength in adults over
the age of 60 years seventy six community dwelling older adults
(M age=70.5 yrs) volunteered to participate in the study, which
involved performing two 30-s chair stand tests and two
maximum leg press tests, each conducted on separate days 2-5
days apart. Test retest intraclass correlations of 0.84 for men
and 0.92 for women, utilizing oneway analysis of variance
procedures appropriate for a single trial, together with a non
significant change in scores from day 1 testing to day 2 indicate
that the 30-s chair stand has good stability reliability. A
moderately high correlation between chair-stand performance
and maximum weight-adjusted leg press performance for both
men and women. (r=0.78 and 0.71, respectively) supports the
criterion-related validity of the chair stand as a measure of lower
48
body strength. Construct (or discriminant) validity of the chair

stand was demonstrated by the test’s ability to detect difference
between various age and physical activity level groups. As
expected, chair-stand performance decreased significantly
across age groups in decades from the 60s to the 70s to the 80s
(p<0.01) and was significantly lower for low active participants
than for high active participants (p< .0001). It was concluded
that the 30s chair stand provides a reasonably reliable and valid
indicator of lower body strength in generally active, community
dwelling older adults.
Chun et al. (2000) purpose was to validate criterion

referenced standards for cardiovascular endurance tests using
the criterion-groups validation model. Adolescent boys and girls
assigned to either untrained or trained groups were
administered the mile run and progressive aerobic
cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) tests. Selection of
optimal criterion standards was based on finding a cutting score
that minimized the probability of misclassification errors and
maximized the probability of making correct decisions based on
participation in physical activity. The results of this study
suggests that recent changes in fitness gram standards are
appropriate, especially for the PACER test, while modifications of
standards have corrected some what for disparities in passing
rates between the mile run and the PACER, especially for girls,
further study of standard is necessary.
49
The reliability and validity of the T-test as a measure of leg

power, leg speed, and agility were examined by Pauole et al.
(2000) with a total of 304 college students with men (n = 152)
and women (n = 152), selected from various levels of sport
participation, performed four tests of sport skill ability: (a) 40
yard dash (leg speed), (b) countermovement vertical jump (leg
power), (c) hexagon test (agility), and (d) T-test. For both men
and women, significant differences (p < 0.05) in mean scores
were found among groups for the T-test. The intraclass reliability
of the T-test was 0.98 across three trials. For men, the Pearson
product moment correlations between the T-test and the 40 yard
dash, vertical jump, and hexagon test were r = 0.53, r = −0.49,
and r = 0.42, respectively (p < 0.05). For women, the
corresponding correlations were r = 0.73, r = −0.55, and r = 0.48
(p < 0.05). Regression analyses showed that for men 48% of the
variability and for women 62% of the variability of the T-test
scores can be predicted from measures of leg power, leg speed,
and agility (p < 0.05). Computing partial correlations assessed
the criterion validity of the T-test as a measure of agility, leg
power, and leg speed. The T-test appears to be highly reliable
and measures a combination of components, including leg
speed, leg power, and agility, and may be used to differentiate
between those of low and high levels of sports participation.
Rinne et al. (2001) evaluated the test-retest and inter-rater

reliability of nine selected tests for the following basic motor
skills: balance, orientation, sense of rhythm, kinesthetic
precision and flexibility. Twenty five healthy, non sporting
50
volunteers (14- men, 11-women, age ranged between 36 and 72

years) were tested in three sessions at one week intervals by two
raters. For the tests of balance on a bar, tandem walking
backwards and forwards and ball bouncing, the within
participant and between session repeatability, as assessed by
the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), was high (ICC 0.83-
0.96), and for the rhythm test it was fair (ICC 0.70). The inter-
rater reliability was also high for all the tests (ICC 0.88-0.96)
except that for rhythm (ICC 0.76). In a test-retest design, these
tests were sensitive enough to produce sufficient variation
between participants in terms of differentiating between
individuals. The learning effect was the most remarkable
between the pretest and test sessions, and the reliability was
better for the test-retest session although a statistically
significant difference existed only for tandem walking forwards
(p<0.02) and balance on a bar (p<0.004). The tests with
quantitative scores had a smaller margin of error than those
with qualitative scores. These tests provide reliable alternatives
for assessing basic motor skills of non sporting adults in the
context of physical activity promotion.
Racquetball Skill Tests
Barfield and lam (2000) compared the results of both

univariate and multivariate models in the evaluation of battery
reliability. Participants (N=131) were voluntary undergraduate
students (M-age=23 yrs) from university Racquetball courses. A
racquetball skills test battery was administered to participants
51
on two occasions separated by 2-4 days. Test items included

service placement to the left and right, forehand and backhand
power drive, forehand and backhand power shot placement,
ceiling shot and wall rally. Oneway intraclass correlation
coefficient was used to estimate test-retest reliability of
individual items. Canonical correlation analysis and
generalizability theory were used to estimate test-retest
reliability of the battery. The conclusions were a) the Racquetball
skills test battery is moderately reliable b) Service placement
items and power placement items need adjusted to improve
reliability (icc<0.70) but still contribute to the test battery and c)
the univariate model and multivariate models complimented the
other in the evaluation of reliability and revealed independent
formation.
Table Tennis Skill Test
Purashwani et al. (2010) constructed the norms for

evaluating performance of players in Table Tennis Skill Test.
Since, there is a lack of standardized evaluative criteria in Table
Tennis for assessing the ability, grading and predicting the
performance of Table Tennis players, an effort was undertaken
to construct norms for skill test for junior and senior Table
Tennis players. For this purpose 816 male, 410 Junior and 406
Senior, state and national level Table Tennis players of different
states in India were randomly selected to serve as subjects. The
performance of Table Tennis players in Table Tennis test battery
of four test items, namely, Alternate Push Test, Target Service
52
Test, Alternate Counter Test and Fore Hand Drive on Target Test
with foot movement after playing backhand push, constructed
by Pushpendra Purashwani and Dr. A.K. Datta, was chosen for
the purpose of the study. The data was collected by
administering the test for the selected test items during the
summer coaching camps and regular training sessions of
various districts, different ranking Table Tennis tournaments
and State and Inter-District Table Tennis championships in the
year 2006. The data, which was collected by administering tests,
was statistically treated to develop norms for all the test items.
The two normative scales, namely, the Percentile Scale and 7
Sigma Scale were constructed for the junior and senior Table
Tennis players of state and national level. The norms were
constructed by using Percentile and 7 Sigma Scale techniques
analyzed through statistical packages, the scores were further
classified into five grades i.e. very good, good, average, poor and
very poor under normal distribution.
Tennis Skill Test
Broer and Miller (1950) designed a test to measure the

ability of college women to place forehand and backhand drives
into the backcourt area. They obtained reliability co-efficient for
this test of 0.80 for both beginning and intermediate tennis
players. The validity of the test was determined by correlating
the rating given to the subject by various judges with the
subject’s performance on the test. For the intermediate group,
the correlation was 0.85: for the beginning group, it was 0.61.
53
Volleyball Skill Tests
To develop a skill assessment for junior Volleyball players

and to evaluate the reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the test
for detecting training induced improvements in skill Gabbett
(2006) selected thirty junior Volleyball players (mean ± SD age,
15.5 ± 1.0 years). Subjects performed tests of spiking, setting,
serving, and passing skills on two separate occasions to
determine test–retest reliability of accuracy. Two expert coaches
evaluated the players’ technique and reevaluated it one month
after the initial evaluation to determine the intratester reliability
for technique measurements. A third expert coach determined
the intertester reliability for technique measurements. The
validity of the test to discriminate players of different playing
abilities was evaluated by testing junior national, state, and
novice Volleyball players. Finally, each player participated in an
8-week skill-based training program. Accuracy measurements
and intratester and intertester ratings of players’ technique
proved to be highly reproducible (intraclass correlation
coefficient, r, 0.85 to 0.98, range of typical error of measurement
0.2% to 10.0%). A progressive improvement in skill was observed
with increases in playing level, while training-induced
improvements were present in all skill tasks. These results
demonstrate that skill based testing offers a reliable method of
quantifying development and progress in junior Volleyball
players. In addition, the skill testing battery was useful in
successfully discriminating playing ability among junior
Volleyball players of varying levels, and it was sensitive to
54
changes in skill with training. These findings demonstrate that

skill based testing is useful for monitoring the development of
junior Volleyball players.
Ronnie et al. (2007) assessed a Volleyball service test

performed not only under a rested condition but also
immediately following physical exertion. Twenty six male
adolescent Volleyball players (15 elite players of a coherent team
[team A; mean age = 16.4 years] and 11 near-elite players of a
high school team [team B; mean age = 16.3 years]) performed a
service test in a rested condition and following physical exertion.
The physical exertion consisted of a block at the net followed by
a dig at the 3-m line, both performed twice, and again a block at
the net. The layers performed 10 consecutive serves under the
rested condition and 5 sets of 2 consecutive serves under the
physical exertion condition. The points for each serve were
allotted according to predesignated target areas. The data
analyses indicated no differences between the teams in service
performances. No differences between the players’ service scores
in rested and physical exertion conditions were found. A high
correlation (r=_ 0.97) was obtained between the total score of the
test and the number of successful 7-point serves. A moderate
correlation (r=_ 0.69) was found for the 7-point serves score
following exercise. It was concluded that the number of serves
hit successfully at the 7-point areas can be used by coaches as
the total score of the test. In addition, the number of successful
7-point serves performed after physical exertion can provide
55
coaches with relevant information on their players’ serving skill

level.
Summary
The formulation of skill test in sports and games had

existed as earlier of 20th century. In Basketball Brace (1924) and
in Tennis Elizabeth (1925) was the pioneer in developing the
skill test for assessing the fundamental skills in the respective
games. In the present study, studies related to the Hockey test
and measurements have been scanned from 1940 till now. The
main purpose of this was to know the trend in the area of the
present study. The observations on these are summarised below
using very prominent findings.
In this chapter, totally 48 related literatures (27 Field

Hockey and 21 other games) were presented. From the
observations of above elicited literature it was observed that
many valid and reliable Field Hockey skill tests and batteries
were described in this chapter. However, there was a scarcity of
test battery which, tests the most independent skills that
contributes towards performance. Many of the available tests
lack the quality of measuring independent skills. While
constructing a physical performance test the steps should be
accomplished. Moreover, most of the studies concentrated on
combined skills and fails to assess the fundamental skills which
are the root cause for the elite performance. After introduction of
artificial surfaces, the game has gone through tremendous
56
changes. Experts in the area of Field Hockey considered the

mastery of basic fundamental skills included pass, dribble,
shoot, hit, push, flick and scoop is necessary for success in
playing Field Hockey.
Since there is a dearth of test batteries which measure all

the fundamental skills, and also keeping the above said
objectives the investigator attempted to construct and validate a
test battery to meet the future challenge.
Chapter – III
Methodology
CHAPTER – III
Methodology
Research methodology involves the systematic

procedure by which the investigator starts from the initial
identification of the problem to its final conclusion. The role of
the methodology is to carry out the research work in a
scientific and valid manner.
This part of the thesis explains the methods adopted in

this study which includes selection of subjects, skills in Field
Hockey, selection and justification of the variables, pilot
study, research flow chart, construction and administration of
test items, collection of data and statistical methods adopted
in this study.
Selection of Subjects
The purpose of this study was to construct a new skill

test battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey
players. To achieve these purpose four hundred and fifty four
male college level Field Hockey players excluding goal keepers
were randomly selected from various colleges of Tamilnadu
state, India and their age ranged between 17 and 20 years
with the mean age of 18.8, ± 1.9 years. The subject had past
experience of at least three years in the Field Hockey and only
those who represented their respective college teams were
taken as subjects irrespective of their playing positions.
58
Methodology
Skills in Field Hockey
Winning a match depends on effective combination of all

the fundamental skills. Higher-level skill development and
intelligence play are a winning combination against tough
opponents. In the game of Field Hockey the game performance
is the summation of all the acquired skills of the individual
players. The ability of the players is determined by their
grouping of all the acquired fundamental skills and being able
to use them as the situation requires. Even though the
modern Field Hockey changes the nature of the skill, the
foundation starts from the fundamental skills. The
fundamental skills in Field Hockey are dribbling, push, hit,
flick, scoop, shooting, passing, trapping and dodging.
Selection of Variables
The investigator searched through many related

literature to inherit the knowledge in constructing tests for
the skill measurement. Various journals, books, e-resources,
unpublished theses & dissertations were studied thoroughly
before constructing the test items. The existing test batteries
were discussed with coaches and trainers. Scholars those who
have done similar studies in other sports disciplines were also
contacted and discussed.
Every possible care was taken to select the skills to be

tested. Skills involved in the previous studies were also
considered. The game is strongly influenced by the
fundamental skills. Keeping in mind that the fundamental
skills are the bed-rock of a competitive game like Field Hockey
and consequently, after discussion with experts, with a
59
Methodology
detailed preliminary on various skills in Field Hockey was

prepared (Appendix-I). This questionnaire was sent to
different experts such as director of physical education,
professors, players and coaches from sports authority of India
and sports development authority of Tamilnadu. These
experts were requested to poll their opinion and importance of
each skill as a contributive factor to the total performance of
the game. The experts were also given free hand to add more
skills if they deemed fit.
The opinion responses were summated and the skills
with higher weightage were listed here under.
 Dribbling
 Hit
 Push
 Flick
 Scoop
 Goal Shooting
Since the researcher himself is a qualified coach and

considering the feasibility, time factor & equipments available
the above mentioned skills as variables were selected.
Justification for Taking up the Variables
In order to execute skills with a high degree of

consistency under the pressure of competition, players must
first learn to perform the skills using correct methods. The
following basic skills act as a framework upon which to build
the more complicated and advanced aspects of game.
60
Methodology
Dribbling
Dribbling appears to be more spectacular. Dribbling is

virtually stickwork on the run. It allows you to keep
possession of the ball by moving play into open areas of the
field away from opponents. It creates space for teammates to
use and it leads to goal scoring opportunities. The speed
dribble is used to advance the ball into open spaces on a
straight or diagonal line. The most emphasized and effective
element in speed dribbling is to cut the ball on a diagonal line
to the open space, which moves the opponent laterally. The
main objective is to run with the ball into open field to gain
ground and move the opponent. (Aggiss, 1984) A player’s
performance is commonly judged by the dribbling skill.
Depending upon the situations and opponents flow of play the
dribbling speed, control and deception varies. Indian dribble
was developed and practiced by Indians so the name came.
The loose dribble implies control over the ball is loose and it is
allowed to run ahead of the stick. Close dribble is maintained
over the ball by keeping it almost constantly in contact with
the stick. Generally the dribbling is classified into four types,
Dribbling
Indian Dribble Loose Dribble Close Dribble Speed Dribble
Hit
There are many situations during a game when

maximising the speed of the ball is more important than
disguising the intention to deliver it. Players use the hit to
move the ball quickly over longer distances and to score
61
Methodology
simply because of the ball speed this technique generates.

The hit beats more opponents with one ball touch in an
instant. The hit is mainly used when changing the point of
attack from sideline and backline to backline. The hit provides
the power to direct the pace and speed of play, which is vital
in transitional demands. The hit is used to score more often
than any other Hockey passing technique. A competent player
must be able to consistently hit the ball hard and accurate
along the ground (Aggiss, 1984). Generally the hit is classified
into four types,
Hit
Straight Hit Wrong Foot Hit Turn Around and Hit Reverse Hit
Push
The push stroke is work-horse of modern Hockey

because, it enables a player travelling at any speed to deftly
pass the ball in any desired direction instantly without prior
indication of the direction or the timing of the pass. Although
the stroke lacks the power possible with hit, good players at
senior level can easily push a ball seventy five metres.
Pushing the ball at one side was easiest to master, but
players must be coached to play the stroke forward as well as
at different angles (Aggiss, 1984). Generally the push is
classified into three types,
Push
Straight Push Wrong Foot Push Reverse Push

62
Methodology
Flick
The flick stroke is used to raise the ball off the ground
with accuracy. The players will utilise a flick to move the ball
over the opponents, heads into open space rather than
attempt to hit through the barrier of opponents. The flick
technique is used to lift the ball at various heights into the air
for long or short distances and at a great speed. Using this
technique a player can play the ball to a team mate over an
opponent who is blocking the passing lane. The most
important use of the skill is in penalty strokes and in field
passing (Aggiss, 1984). Generally the flick is classified into
three types,
Flick
Straight Flick Wrong Foot Flick Reverse Flick
Scoop
The scoop stroke is also used to raise the ball off the
ground. Although the best Field Hockey is played on the
ground an aerial ball is effective in some situations. When an
opponent block the passing lane between the teammates who
are away from the ball this skill can be used. One can also
use a lifted pass to score a goal when the opposing goalkeeper
drifts too forward from his goal line. On artificial surfaces, a
low aerial ball is used more common to beat an opponent.
Also, lofted ball can be useful on waterlogged grass fields
(Aggiss, 1984). Generally the types of scoops are,
Scoop
Straight Scoop Push Scoop

63
Methodology
Goal Shooting
The most crucial target in Hockey is stationary, yet the

pressures forced upon the attackers as they are about to
shoot at goal are so great that the target is frequently missed.
The actual shot at goal is the end result of positioning and
timing. Although scoring a goal is most often the result of a
team effort, Field Hockey players who can finish a successful
attack acquire noteworthy fame. Experienced players and
coaches know that goal scoring players increase the
confidence of their team. The aim of every attack is to score
goal and all the players enjoy scoring goals (Aggiss, 1984).
Pilot Study
Prior to the formal study sessions, a pilot study was

conducted to validate research procedure. For this purpose
after extensive discussions and critical analysis a set of 23
test items were constructed. For further development the 23
test items were conducted on 52 players from Chennai region
age ranged from 17 to 20 years as a trial run. They were
regular practitioners in the astro turf surfaces. In the
consultation of the experts who were present at the pilot
study, nine test items were finalized for the study.
64
Methodology
Research Flow Chart
Skills
Dribbling Hit Push Flick Scoop Goal

shooting
Test Items (23 items)
Pilot Study N=52 (Age 17-20 yrs)
1. Zig Zag Dribbling

Establishing Validity, Reliability
2. Speed Dribbling and Objectivity
3. Straight Drive Hit
4. Slap Hit
Finalised 9 test items
5. Multi Target Push
6. Straight Flick
N= 454 (Age 17-20 yrs)
7. Scoop for Distance College Hockey Players
8. Shooting from 16
yards
9. Shooting from Three
Different Spots Statistical Analysis
Pearson Product Moment Percentile scale

Correlation
6 Sigma scale
Factor Analysis
65
Methodology
Establishing Validity, Reliability and Objectivity
According to Barrow & McGee (1979) objectivity is a

measure of the worth of the scores and is inherent in the test.
Objectivity is enhanced by clear test directions, precise
scoring methods, and adherence to them. These precautions
were taken in the construction and administration of this test.
Reliability of the tests was established by test–retest process
from ten subjects whereby consistency of results was
obtained by Intra-class correlation. Baumgartner et al. (2003)
opined that it is possible to be reliable and objective, but not
valid. However, a test cannot be valid even it has either
objectivity or reliability.
Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a test actually

measures what it claims to measure. Face validity was
established for the test items. All the nine skill tests were
selected on the basis of the recommendation of experts,
coaches, and knowledge gained through available literature
and their face values.
Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree to which a test

consistently measures a given factor. There were many
methods found in the literature to ascertain the reliability of a
test. The best one suited was test-retest method whereby
consistency of results was obtained by Intra-class correlation.
The investigator took three trials on consecutive days on the
tests. Intra class correlation was found to be a very useful,
66
Methodology
practical and appropriate method for two reasons, that it

allowed more than two trials and it identified the systematic
increase or decrease of the scores.
The data collected from fifty two subjects in test-retest

were computed for each variable and correlation obtained is
presented in Table I.
Table – I
Reliability Co-efficient of Test-Retest Scores for all the

Selected Skill Test Items
S. No. Test items Reliability
1 Zig Zag Dribbling 0.91*
2 Speed Dribbling 0.85*
3 Straight Drive Hit 0.80*
4 Slap Hit 0.88*
5 Multi Target Push 0.93*
6 Straight Flick 0.89*
7 Scoop for Distance 0.92*
8 Shooting from 16 Yards 0.90*
9 Shooting from Three Different Spots 0.90*

* Significant at 0.05 level.
According to Barrow & McGee (1979) arbitrary standard

for acceptable reliability was 0.80. The above said nine test
items were found acceptable according to arbitrary standards
for the evaluation of physical performance tests.
67
Methodology
Table I indicated that tester reliability was significantly

high thus establishing the competency of the scholar to
administer the test.
Objectivity
Objectivity is similar in nature to reliability, when two or

more persons can administer the same test to the same group
and obtain approximately the same results. The objectivity of
tests were established by correlating (using Product Moment
Correlation) the two sets of test scores conducted by two
testers, the research scholar and a Hockey coach on the same
fifty two subjects and correlation obtained was presented in
table II.
Table – II
Objectivity Co-efficient Scores for all the Selected

Skill Test Items
S. No. Test items Objectivity
1 Zig Zag Dribbling 0.89*
2 Speed Dribbling 0.90*
3 Straight Drive Hit 0.82*
4 Slap Hit 0.81*
5 Multi Target Push 0.92*
6 Straight Flick 0.91*
7 Scoop for Distance 0.85*
8 Shooting from 16 Yards 0.94*
9 Shooting from Three Different Spots 0.94*

* Significant at 0.05 level.
68
Methodology
According to Barrow & McGee (1979) arbitrary standard

for acceptable objectivity was 0.80. The above said nine test
items were found acceptable according to arbitrary standards
for the evaluation of physical performance tests.
Table II indicated that tester objectivity was significantly

high thus establishing the competency of the scholar to
administer the test.
Reliability of Instruments
The instruments such as stop watch, measuring tape,

whistle, Hockey sticks, balls and cones were reliable and
accurate enough to carry out the test procedures
successively.
Testers Competency
To ensure that the investigator was well versed in the

technique of conducting the test, the investigator had a
number of practice sessions in the teaching procedure as well
as demonstration. All the measurements were taken by the
investigator with the help of qualified coach and players well
acquainted with techniques.
Orientation of the Subjects
The investigator held a meeting with the subjects prior

to the administration of tests. The purpose, the significance of
this study and the requirements of the testing procedure were
explained to them in detail. So that there was no ambiguity in
their minds, regarding the efforts required of them. All the
subjects voluntarily came forward to co-operate in the testing
69
Methodology
procedures to put in their best efforts in the interest of the

scientific investigation and in order to enhance their own
performance. The subjects were very enthusiastic and co-
operative throughout the project.
Table-III
Selection of Skill Tests
The following skill tests battery was selected as test for

this study.
Test
Skill Unit of
Name of Test Item
No. Measurement
1 Zig Zag Dribbling Seconds
Dribbling
2 Speed Dribbling Seconds
3 Straight Drive Hit Points
Hit
4 Slap Hit Points
Push 5 Multi Target Push Points
Flick 6 Straight Flick Points
Scoop 7 Scoop for Distance Points
8 Shooting from 16 yards Points
Goal
Shooting 9 Shooting from Three Points
Different Spots
70
Methodology
Table-IV
Testing Schedule & Collection of the Data
The data were collected in two days just before the
competitions. The testing schedule is tabulated here under,
Day I
Morning Evening
Skill Test Skill Test
Dribbling Zig Zag Dribbling Dribbling Speed Dribbling
Shooting from
Goal Shooting from 16 Goal
three Different
Shooting Yards Shooting
Spots
Day II
Morning Evening
Skill Test Skill Test
Straight Drive Flick

Straight Flick
Hit Hit
Slap Hit
Scoop Scoop for
Push Multi Target Distance
Push
Administration of the Test Items
I. Dribbling
1. Zig Zag Dribbling
Purpose
To measure the zig zag dribbling ability of the subjects.

71
Methodology
Facilities and Equipments Required
Hockey sticks, balls, cones were used as an obstacles,

stop watch, whistle.
Testing personnel
A timer and scorer.
Markings
The area needed was 25 metres by 5 metres. Eight

cones were placed with 2 metres gap in-between leaving 3
metres at the start and end line. The distance between the
two ends was 20 metres.
Diagram
Illustration 1: Zig Zag Dribbling

72
Methodology
Procedure
The player stands behind the starting line. On blowing

of whistle, the player dribbles the ball through the cones in
zig zag manner up to the finish line. The player can use any
type of dribble.
Scoring
The time for a trial was the elapsed time in seconds from
blowing the whistle until the player finishes the trial. Three
trials were recorded and the best one was taken as score.
2. Speed Dribbling
Purpose
To assess the speed dribbling ability of the subjects.
Facilities & Equipment Required
Hockey sticks, balls, cones (used as an obstacles) stop

watch and whistle.
Testing personnel
A timer and scorer.
Markings
The area needed was 25 metres by 5 metres. The

distance between the two ends was 20 metres.
73
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 2: Speed Dribbling
Procedure

of whistle, the player dribbles the ball from the starting line to
the finish line.
Scoring
The time for a trial was the elapsed time in seconds from
blowing the whistle until the player finishes the third ball.
Three trials were recorded and best one was taken as score.
74
Methodology
II. Hit
3. Straight Drive Hit
Purpose
To measure the hitting ability of the subject.

Hockey field with required markings, Hockey sticks,

balls, whistle, cones were used.
Testing personnel
A scorer and helpers.
Diagram
Illustration 3: Straight Drive Hit

75
Methodology
Markings
The area needed was 30 metres by 10 metres. The target

was fixed with a width of 5 metres at a distance of 30 metres
from the restraining line. The area between the starting and
restraining line was 2 metres.
Procedure
The player stands behind the starting line and be ready

to start. On the whistle the subject moves within the given
area and hit the ball before crossing the restraining line.
Scoring
5 points was awarded when the ball goes inside the

target. There were no points when the ball goes outside the
target. Totally five chances was given to each subject and the
total score was taken as score.
4. Slap Hit
Purpose
To measure the slap hit ability of the subjects.

Testing personnel

76
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 4: Slap Hit
Markings

was fixed at a distance of 25 metres from the centre towards
three directions which was left, front and right of the subject.
The area between the starting and restraining line was 2
metres.
77
Methodology
Procedure
On the signal of whistle the player moves with the ball

in a given area and hit the ball continuously before crossing
the restraining line towards the target starting from the left,
front and right side respectively. Two hits from one direction,
only slap hit is permitted along the ground level. Each target
width was measured about 5 metres. Totally six chances was
given, from that two chances was performed on each target.
Scoring
5 points was awarded when the ball goes inside the

target. There were no points when the ball goes outside the
target. Total score of six chances was taken as score.
III. Push
5. Multi Target Push
Purpose
To measure the pushing ability of the subjects.

Testing personnel

78
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 5: Multi Target Push
Markings

was fixed at a distance of 15 metres from the restraining line
and divided into three equal areas of 5 metres each. The area
between the starting and restraining line was 2 metres.
Procedure

the whistle the subject moves within the given area and push
the ball before crossing the restraining line.
79
Methodology
Scoring
The target was divided into three equal areas and the
points are given as 6, 3 and 6 respectively. If the ball goes
inside the target the relevant points was given. If the ball hits
the cone which was at center, highest point was awarded.
Totally five chances was given to each subject and total score
was taken as individual score.
IV. Flick
6. Straight Flick
Purpose
To measure the flicking accuracy of the subject.
Hockey sticks, balls, flags, whistle, cones, 1 feet board

were used.
Testing personnel

80
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 6: Straight Flick

Markings
The area needed was 15 metres by 5 metres. From the

starting line a board was fixed at 5 meters. The height of the
board was 1 feet. From the board five areas of 1 metre each
were marked and the points were given as 5,4,3,2 and 1
respectively. The area between the starting and restraining
line was 2 metres.
Procedure

the whistle the subject moves within the given area and flick
the ball above the board before crossing the restraining line.
Scoring
The place where the ball bounced first was counted. If

the ball bounced on the line the highest points was given.
81
Methodology
was taken as score.
V. Scoop
7. Scoop for Distance
Purpose
To measure the ability of accuracy in scoop.

Testing personnel
Diagram
Illustration 7: Scoop for Distance

82
Methodology
Markings
The area needed was 50 metres by 20 metres. From the

restraining line four lines were drawn with the distance of 10
metres, 20 metres, 25 metres and 30 metres. The area
Procedure

the whistle, the subject moves in the given area and scoops
the ball before crossing restraining line.
Scoring
The place where the ball bounced first was counted.

was taken as score. If the ball bounced on the line the highest
point was awarded.
VI. Goal Shooting
8. Shooting from 16 Yards
Purpose
To measure the shooting accuracy of the subjects.

Testing personnel
A timer, scorer and helpers.

83
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 8: Shooting from 16 Yards
Markings
The area needed was 25 metres by 10 metres. A line was

marked 2 metres from the top of the shooting circle with 3.66
metres width. The goal post was divided into three equal areas
and points were given 3, 1 and 3 respectively. The area
84
Methodology
Procedure
The player stands at the starting line. On blowing the

whistle the subjects moves in the given area and shoots the
ball at goal just inside the shooting circle.
Scoring
The place where the ball hits was counted. If the ball
hits on the line the nearest highest point was awarded. Totally
five chances was given to each subject and total score was
taken as score.
9. Shooting from Three Different Spot
Purpose
To measure shooting accuracy of the subjects.

Testing personnel
A timer, scorer and helpers.

85
Methodology
Diagram
Illustration 9: Shooting From Three Different Spot

Markings
The area needed was 25 metres by 10 metres. A line was

marked 2 metres from the top of the shooting circle. The three
spot measures 4 metres each. The post was divided into five
equal areas and points were given accordingly. The area
86
Methodology
Procedure
The player stands at the starting line. On blowing of

whistle the subjects moves in the given area and shoots the
ball at goal just inside the shooting circle from the three
directions.
Scoring
The place where the ball hits was counted. If the ball
hits on the line the nearest highest point was awarded. Totally
six chances was given to each subject and total score was
taken as score.
Design and Statistical Techniques Used
The study was based on true randomized group design.

The data collected were subjected to various statistical
analyses. After discussing with the statisticians, experts in
the field of physical education and general the following
statistical procedures were employed in this study.
Firstly Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation was used

to find out the inter-relationship among all the skill test
items. Secondly Factor Analysis was applied as suggested by
Field (2005) that, significant factors responsible for variance
and dominant were extracted through Principal Component
Analysis (Un rotated Factor Loadings and Varimax Rotation).
The final solution so obtained was used to identify the
different factors. These factors were given an appropriate
name depending upon the characteristics of variables
87
Methodology
contained in it. A skill test battery was constructed by picking

up the variables having higher loading from each factor.
Finally norms were developed using percentiles and

6-sigma scale. Clarke & Clarke (1970) recommended
percentiles make the test scores meaningful so that a person’s
performance in relation to others was known and a 6-sigma
scale was based on the properties of the normal curve and it
has been used by a number of investigators in physical
education measurement.
Chapter – IV
Analysis of Data and

Interpretation of Results
CHAPTER – IV
Analysis of Data and Results of the Study
The purpose of this study was to construct a new skill

test battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey
players. The data obtained from all the skill test items were
first subjected to descriptive analysis in order to have an idea
about the characteristics of all the test items. Secondly, the
intra-class correlation was used to find out the relationship of
all the nine skill test items. The level of significance was set at
0.05 level, which was considered appropriate, as the research
procedure adopted in this study did not involve highly
sophisticated equipments, demanding the application of more
stringent levels of significance.
Further, all the nine skill test items were analysed by

Factor Analysis by using the Principal Component Analysis
and Varimax Rotation Method as a final solution method to
reduce the test items for developing a test battery for the Field
Hockey players in the age ranged between 17 and 20 years.
Finally a norms was developed for the selected test items
using percentile for the interpretation of the playing ability.
For this purpose, several earlier studies of skill test

batteries were examined and found that the studies were
having limited scope and ignored the contribution of most of
fundamental skills. Those studies never attempted to include
the variables as purely contributed to the performance. More
over very limited study has been found so far in Field Hockey
especially in astro surfaces. Therefore, the present study
89
evolved a new approach to construct a skill test battery for the

Field Hockey players.
Findings
The construction of a Field Hockey skill test battery was

based on the administration of nine skill test items to a
sample of four hundred and fifty four male college level Field
Hockey players excluding goal keepers were randomly selected
from various colleges of Tamilnadu state, India and their age
ranged between 17 and 20 years. The descriptive analysis of
the scores of all the test items is shown in the table - V.
Table - V
Descriptive Analysis of all the Skill Tests Items
Skill Tests SD
Range Minimum Maximum Mean
(units) (±)
Zig Zag
Dribbling 6.35 6.54 12.89 9.00 1.27
(seconds)
Speed Dribbling
4.89 4 8.89 5.27 0.67
(seconds)
Straight Drive
15 10 25 16.63 4.38
Hit (points)
Slap Hit (points) 20 5 25 15.01 4.55
Multi Target
14 9 23 17.14 3.45
Push (points)
Straight Flick
14 10 24 16.69 2.82
(points)
Scoop for
Distance 16 5 21 11.73 2.85
(points)
Shooting from
16 Yards 10 5 15 11.22 1.87
(points)
Shooting from
Three Different 15 10 25 18.93 2.94
Spots (points)
90
Table – V shows that the range, minimum, maximum,

mean and standard deviation of all the nine skill test items.
Factor Analysis of all the Skill Test Items
Factor analysis describes a procedure of identifying

linear combinations of variables (called as factor), which have
large variances and ignoring the linear combinations, which
have small variances. It was used to uncover the latent
structure of a set of variables. It reduces attribute space from
a larger number of variables to a smaller number of factors
and as such was a "non-dependent" procedure.
The data collected from four hundred and fifty four

inter-collegiate male Field Hockey players on the nine test
items that significantly correlated were subjected to factor
analysis. Factor analysis helped in determining the minimum
number of basic sources of variance, which could
economically account for the obtained variance among test
items. The factor analysis typically begins with matrix of
correlation co-efficient between the data variables that were
being studied. Intra class product moment method was
employed to obtain the inter-correlation among the test items.
The correlation matrix was shown in table - VI.
91
Table - VI
Correlation Co-Efficient Matrix of the Skill Test Items
ST1 ST2 ST3 ST4 ST5 ST6 ST7 ST8

ST1
ST2 0.41*
ST3 0.31* 0.19**
ST4 0.18* 0.07 0.38**
ST5 0.53* 0.26** 0.19** 0.11*
ST6 -0.00 0.07 -0.04 0.06 0.00
ST7 -0.01 0.94* 0.06 -0.02 -0.02 0.02
ST8 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.37*
ST9 0.17* -0.05 0.08 -0.01 0.02 -0.07 0.94* 0.20**
** Significant at 0.01 level
* Significant at 0.05 level
ST1 = Speed Dribbling ST4 = Scoop for Distance ST7 = Straight Drive Hit
ST2 = Slap hit ST5 = Shooting from 16 Yards ST8 = Multi Target Push
ST3 = Straight Flick ST6 = Zig Zag Dribbling ST9 = Shooting from Three Different Spots
92
Table - VI explained the inter-relationship among the

skill test items.
The correlation matrix obtained for the nine test items

was used in the Principal Component Analysis. With the help
of Principal Component Analysis, all the nine test items were
divided into two factors. The unloaded factors obtained were
then rotated by Varimax Method to find the final solutions.
Rotations of the factors were considered important in order to
avoid the overlapping of variables in different factors.
The matrix of un-rotated loadings (Principle Component

Analysis) was given in table - VII.
93
Table – VII
Principal Component Analysis (Un rotated Factor loading)
PCA
(Un rotated Factor
loading)
2
Item no 1
Eigen value 2.13 1.44
Percentage variance 23.63 16.03
Cumulative variance 23.69 39.66
Speed Dribbling 0.80 -0.16
Shooting from 16 Yards 0.66 -0.22
Straight Flick 0.61 -0.01
Slap Hit 0.60 -0.05
Scoop for Distance 0.45 -0.06
Zig Zag Dribbling 0.03 0.01
Multi Target Push 0.20 0.78
Straight Drive Hit 0.13 0.74

Shooting from Three Different
0.19 0.44
Spots
PCA: Principal Component Analysis
Table - VII indicated the two significant factors that were

extracted. The eigen value of the extracted factors were
greater than 1.0. With the help of Kaiser's (1959) criteria, only
those factors having latent roots greater than one were
considered as common factors.
94
Most of the statisticians agree that the un-rotated

factors do not generally represent useful scientific constructs,
and that rotation was necessary if useful and meaningful
constructs were to be identified. In the light of this opinion
the un-rotated factor matrix was subjected to two rotations,
because of its great popularity and usefulness since the
number of test items were only twelve. The matrix of rotated
factor loading (Varimax Method) was given in table - VIII.
Table - VIII
Rotated Factor Loading (Varimax solution)

RFL
(Varimax solution)
1
Item no 2
Eigen value 2.10 1.5
Percentage variance 23.30 16.36
Cumulative variance 23.30 39.66
Speed Dribbling 0.82 0.01
Shooting from 16 Yards 0.69 -0.07
Straight Flick 0.60 0.11
Slap Hit 0.59 0.07
Scoop for Distance 0.45 0.02
Zig Zag Dribbling 0.03 -0.02
Multi Target Push 0.03 0.80
Straight Drive Hit -0.02 0.75
Shooting from Three Different Spots 0.09 0.47

RFL: Rotated Factor Loading
95
The eigen values (latent roots), percentage variance and

cumulative percentage of variance pertaining to rotated factor
matrix were given in the table - VIII. There are various
indicators, which are used by researchers to decide on the
number of factors that need to be extracted. Thus, it was
imperative to decide on the indicator and the level of
indicator, which should be considered the cut-off to decide on
the number of factors to be extracted. Kaiser’s (1959) measure
of statistical adequacy was one such measure, which signifies
the extent to which every variable can be predicted by all
other variables and it was widely believed that an overall
measure of 0.80 or higher was very good, though a measure of
under 0.50 was considered as poor. From table - VIII the
variables which has the loading higher than 0.50 were taken
as the extracted factors. The factors obtained from table - VIII
were interpreted and given an appropriate name. The
graphical representation of percentage variance was shown in
Illustration - 10.
Figure I. Percentage Variance of

Rotated Factor Loadings
96
Table – IX
Factor 1 (one) of Rotated Factor Loadings

(Varimax Solution)
Name of the Test Factor Loadings
Speed Dribbling 0.82
Shooting from 16 Yards 0.69
Straight Flick 0.60
Slap Hit 0.59
Table – IX indicated that only four test items have

emerged in factor one. They were speed dribbling which has a
loading of 0.82, shooting from 16 yards which has a loading of
0.69, straight flick which has a loading of 0.60 and slap hit
which has a loading of 0.59. This factor indicates the
importance of technique involved in stick work, hence the
best suited name for this factor could be, ‘stick work ability’.
In terms of relative contributions, this factor has accounted
for 59.0% of the total common factor variance accounted by
the two factors. The graphical representation of Factor 1 was
shown in Illustration - 11.
97
Figure II. Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 1
Table - X
Factor 2 (two) of Rotated Factor Loadings
(Varimax Solution)
Name of the Test Factor Loadings
Multi Target Push 0.80
Straight Drive Hit 0.75
Table - X indicated that only two test items have

emerged in factor two. They were multi target push which has
a loading of 0.80 and straight drive hit which has a loading of
0.75. This factor indicates the importance of accuracy related
ability of a player, hence the best-suited name for this factor
would be ‘Accuracy in Ball Playing Ability’. In terms of relative
contributions, this factor has accounted for 41.0% of the total
common factor variance accounted by the two factors. The
graphical representation of Factor 2 was shown in Illustration
- 12.
98
Figure III. Comparison of Loading Values for

Factor 2.
Development of Final Test Battery
Inefficient test batteries were those with too many tests

on one factor and none from one or more of the other factors
identified. The test items to be included in the Field Hockey
skill test battery were selected on the basis of Product
Moment Correlation among all the nine test items and by
applying factor analysis to extract the factors. Only the
extracted test items which had higher loading from both the
factors, were selected to constitute the final test battery. The
test items that constituted the final test battery was shown in
table - XI.
99
Table – XI
Field Hockey Skill Tests Battery
S.
Name of the Test Item Name of the Factor
No.
1 Speed Dribbling
2 Shooting from 16 Yards

Stick Work Ability
3 Straight Flick
4 Slap Hit
5 Multi Target Push

Accuracy in Ball
Playing Ability
6 Straight Drive Hit
Development of Norms
A norm is a scale that permits conversion from a raw

score to a score capable of comparisons and interpretations. It
is obvious that if a test is accompanied by norms, its
usefulness is enhanced. Its characteristics of average and
range are known. The test accompanied by norms has several
advantages over tests without norms. Norms enable one to
interpret player’s scores in relation to a large group in the
same population. Their use enables a comparison of
performance of a player with other players, and gives uniform
meaning to the comparison of a player’s score on one test with
his score on another. In addition, norms provide a reliable
and useful basis for interpretation and evaluation of test
results.
100
One of the most commonly used methods of describing

relative status of the performance is the percentile rank.
Percentile norms have been developed for several popular
tests in Physical Education. It is impossible to know how well
one has done on a test unless his score is shown in relation to
others taking or having taken the same test. Norms using
percentiles are widely applicable, appropriate for many
situations, and easy to interpret by players as well the
coaches and trainers. A percentile score norm indicates a
player’s relative position in a group and informs the player of
the percentage of players who score below his score.
Since, there is a lack of standardized evaluative criteria

in Field Hockey for assessing the ability, grading and
predicting the performance of Field Hockey players, an effort
was undertaken to construct norms for skill test battery for
Field Hockey players were presented in table - XII and XIII.
Table – XII
Descriptive Analysis of Raw Scores on all the

Skill Test Items
S.No Name of the test Mean Median SD (±)
1. Speed Dribbling 5.27 5.24 0.67
2. Shooting from 16 Yards 11.22 11 1.87
3. Straight Flick 16.69 16.00 2.82
4. Slap Hit 15.01 15.00 4.54
5. Multi Target Push 17.14 17.00 3.44
6. Straight Drive Hit 16.63 15.00 4.38
Table - XII shows that the descriptive of raw scores

on the final skill test items.
101
Table – XIII
Percentile Norms for all the

Skill Test Items
Test Percentiles
Items 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed
4.45 4.70 4.93 5.08 5.24 5.40 5.59 5.80 6.13 8.89
Dribbling
Shooting
From 16 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 15
Yards
Straight
13 14 15 16 16 18 18 19 20 24
Flick
Slap Hit 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 20 20 25
Multi
Target 12 15 15 16 17 18 19 21 21 23
Push
Straight
10 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 20 25
Drive Hit
Development of Grading Scale for Interpreting Playing

Ability
All the individual performance of the skill test was

converted as composite score. Based on the norms found in
table - XIII a 6-sigma scale, i.e. 3 standard deviations above
the mean and 3 standard deviations below the mean was
developed to calculate the playing ability scores which were
given in table - XIV.
Table-XIV
6 - Sigma Scale for Playing Ability Scores
6-Sigma Scale Playing Ability Performance Scores

3σ 55.73
2σ 49.97
1σ 44.20
σ 38.44
-1 σ 32.67
102
-2 σ 26.90
-3 σ 21.14
Finally from the norms a grading scale was developed to

interpret the playing ability of the players which was
presented in table - XV.
Table - XV
Grading Scale for the Interpretation

of Playing Ability
Scores Alphabetical Grade Interpretive Grade
Above 55.73 A Excellent

44.20 to 55.73 B Good
32.68 to 44.20 C Average
21.15 to 32.67 D Satisfactory
Below 21.14 E Poor
Discussion on Findings
The prime intention of the researcher was to construct a

comprehensive module with limited number of test items and
greater level of dependability. While analyzing results it was
revealed that there was an inter-relationship between the
performances of selected test items and yielded two factors
constitute of six test items. The above said tests were found to
be highly reliable and fully valid final test battery.
Although ordinarily one would not confidently conclude

that skills other than six items really do not matter in the
final playing ability, it is of statistical interest to say that they
103
do not possess significant influence in the current context.

The high validity and reliability scores for the six test items in
the final test battery module also affirm the fact that the
administration of these six tests have been good, thereby
assuring the administrative feasibility of the tests.
Final test battery was believed that a significant

contribution for the promotion of the game. The battery, when
employed by the coaches, is expected to help them to come up
with useful and reliable data that may be processed for
monitoring and improving the playing ability of the subjects.
The factor analysis yielded two factors.
Factor 1
The factor 1 of the factor analysis shows that only four

test items have emerged in factor one. They were speed
dribbling which has a loading of 0.82, shooting from 16 yards
which has a loading of 0.69, straight flick which has a loading
of 0.60 and slap hit which has a loading of 0.59. Speed
dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight flick and slap hit
were taken for the final test battery. The other test items had
a loading less than 0.5 and hence were not considered for the
battery. In terms of relative contributions, this factor has
accounted for 59.0% of the total common factor variance
accounted by the two factors.
Speed dribble which was used for open field runs with
the ball. The dribbling technique contains several common
elements found in ball-control movements. In addition to the
close control of the ball, these include sudden change of
104
direction of speed, body swerves and fakes and deceptive side

steps. Inside attack players need closer stickwork and
dribbling techniques because of the frequently encountered
tight spaces. The outside attack players have more open space
often uses the dribbling skill.

pressures forced upon the attackers as they are about to
shoot at goal are so great that the target is frequently missed.
Some players appear to be born with the ability to overcome
theses pressures and score more easily. Goal shooting is the
most important and probably most neglected facet of forward
play.
The flick is a push pass lifted into the air. Good players
will utilise a flick to move the ball over the opponents, heads
into open space rather than attempt to hit through the barrier
of opponents. Consequently good players use it often for
shooting goals, particularly when the goalkeeper is in off
balanced condition. After introduction of artificial grass
surfaces, the game has gone tremendous changes. Slap hit is
often used by all the players irrespective of their playing
positions. The skill is used for giving long pass very accurately
and fastly. The European players were masters in this skill.
Speed dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight flick

and slap hit were four important skills in Field Hockey so they
have rightly emerged with high loadings and are taken for the
final test battery. Since this factor indicated that, the
importance of technique involved in stick work, hence the
best suited name for this factor could be, ‘stick work ability’.
105
Factor 2
The factor 2 of the factor analysis shows only two test

items have emerged in factor two. They were multi target push
which has a loading of 0.80 and straight drive hit which has a
loading of 0.75. Multi target push and straight drive hit were
taken for the final test battery. The other test items had a
loading less than 0.5 and hence were not considered for the
battery. In terms of relative contributions, this factor has
accounted for 41.0% of the total common factor variance
accounted by the two factors.
The push stroke is work-horse of modern Hockey

because, it enables a player travelling at any speed to deftly
pass the ball in any desired direction instantly without prior
indication of the direction or the timing of the pass. Although
the stroke lacks the power possible with hit, good players at
senior level can easily push a ball seventy five metres. The hit
is used to score more often than any other Hockey passing
technique. There are many situations during a game when
maximising the speed of the ball is more important than
disguising the intention to deliver it. Players use the hit to
move the ball quickly over longer distances and to score
Multi target push and straight drive hit indicates the

importance of accuracy related ability of a player, hence the
best-suited name for this factor would be ‘Accuracy in Ball
Playing Ability’.
Chapter – V
Summary Conclusions and

Recommendations
CHAPTER – V
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
In sports and games, performance of players is judged by

competition results. Apart from competition, the assessment of a
player in any sports discipline can be done either by subjective or
objective means. Generally the subjective assessment is done by
the experts, which has certain limitations. The objective
assessment can be done by the skill tests of the relevant sports
discipline. Sports skill tests are designed to measure the basic
skills used in the playing of a specific sport. The nature of the game
should be analysed in steps in order to determine the skills that are
to be measured. Because of the wide range of skills in most sports,
a selection of the most important skill is invariably necessary. The
skill tests batteries have been used in physical education and sport
to assess the skills of the players. The degree of perfection of sport
skills obviously varies significantly with the level and sex of the
players.
High level performance in any game depends upon the

mastery of the fundamental skills. Norms are necessary if the test
scores are to be adequately interpreted. There are several types and
it depends on the purpose of the test and characteristics of the
group to be tested as to which type is selected.
107
Moreover recent developments in Field Hockey, such as the

playing surface, new stick material, and rolling substitution rule,
have increased the number of technical demands made on Field
Hockey players at all levels. Due to the modern demands of the
game, there is a need of highly reliable and valid test for Field
Hockey. The skill tests constructed by various experts in the field of
Hockey are outdated and day by day the nature of the game
changes its structure. Coaches, trainers and players are
continually searching for effective methods of identifying and
developing those characteristics in a player that may enhance
performance. Several earlier studies of skill test batteries were
examined and found that the studies are having limited scope and
ignored the contribution of fundamental skills. Those studies never
attempted to include the variables as purely contributed to the
performance.
The batteries of tests for measuring skills in Field Hockey are

very few. More over very limited study has been found so far in
Field Hockey especially in astro turf surfaces. The investigator
being a Hockey player, qualified coach and umpire is keen in
constructing the skill tests in almost all the vital skills in Hockey.
Lack of test in certain skills in Field Hockey motivated the
investigator to take up this study. Therefore, the present study
evolved a new approach to construct a skill test battery for the
Field Hockey players. The purpose of the study was to construct a
new skill test battery and to develop standard norms for Field
Hockey players.
108
After extensive discussions and critical analysis a set of 23

test items were constructed and conducted a pilot study with 52
male Field Hockey players from Chennai region age ranged between
17 and 20 years. In the consultation with the experts those who
were present at the pilot study, nine test items were finalised by
establishing its validity, reliability and objectivity. The selected
skills were as follows,
Skills Test No. Name of Test Item
1 Zig Zag Dribbling

Dribbling
2 Speed Dribbling

Hit
4 Slap Hit
Push 5 Multi Target Push
Flick 6 Straight Flick
Scoop 7 Scoop for distance
8 Shooting from 16 yards

Goal Shooting
9 Shooting from Three Different Spots
The construction of a Field Hockey skill test battery was

based on the administration of nine skill test items to a sample of
four hundred and fifty four male college level Field Hockey players
excluding goal keepers were randomly selected from various
colleges of Tamilnadu state, India their age ranged between 17 and
20 years. The subject had past experience of at least three years in
109
the Field Hockey and those who represented their respective college
teams were only taken as subjects. The study was based on true
randomized group design and the nine skill test items that
significantly correlated were subjected to Factor Analysis. The
factor analysis yielded two factors.
Factor 1
The factor 1 of the factor analysis shows that only four test
items have emerged in factor one. They were speed dribbling which
has a loading of 0.82, shooting from 16 yards which has a loading
of 0.69, straight flick which has a loading of 0.60 and slap hit
which has a loading of 0.59. Speed dribbling, shooting from 16
yards, straight flick and slap hit were taken for the final test
battery. The other test items had a loading less than 0.5 and hence
were not considered for the battery. In terms of relative
common factor variance accounted by the two factors.
Speed dribble which is used for open field runs with the ball.
The dribbling technique contains several common elements found
in ball-control movements. In addition to the close control of the
ball, these include sudden change of direction of speed, body
swerves and fakes and deceptive side steps. Inside attack players
need closer stickwork and dribbling techniques because of the
frequently encountered tight spaces. The outside attack players
have more open space often uses the dribbling skill.
110

pressures forced upon the attackers as they are about to shoot at
goal are so great that the target is frequently missed. Some players
appear to be born with the ability to overcome theses pressures and
score more easily. Goal shooting is the most important and
probably most neglected facet of forward play.
The flick is a push pass lifted into the air. Good players will
utilise a flick to move the ball over the opponents, heads into open
space rather than attempt to hit through the barrier of opponents.
Consequently good players use it often for shooting goals,
particularly when the goalkeeper is in off balanced condition. After
introduction of artificial grass surfaces, the game has gone
tremendous changes. Slap hit is often used by all the players
irrespective of their playing positions. The skill is used for giving
long pass very accurately and fastly. The European players were
masters in this skill.
Speed dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight flick and

slap hit are four important skills in Field Hockey so they have
rightly emerged with high loadings and are taken for the final test
battery. Since this factor indicates the importance of technique
involved in stick work, hence the best suited name for this factor
could be, ‘stick work ability’.
111
Factor 2
The factor 2 of the factor analysis shows only two test items
have emerged in factor two. They were multi target push which has
a loading of 0.80 and straight drive hit which has a loading of 0.75.
Multi target push and straight drive hit were taken for the final test
battery. The other test items had a loading less than 0.5 and hence
were not considered for the battery. In terms of relative
common factor variance accounted by the two factors.
The push stroke is work-horse of modern Hockey because, it

enables a player travelling at any speed to deftly pass the ball in
any desired direction instantly without prior indication of the
direction or the timing of the pass. Although the stroke lacks the
power possible with hit, good players at senior level can easily push
a ball seventy five metres. The hit is used to score more often than
any other Hockey passing technique. There are many situations
during a game when maximising the speed of the ball is more
important than disguising the intention to deliver it. Players use
the hit to move the ball quickly over longer distances and to score
Multi target push and straight drive hit indicates the

importance of accuracy related ability of a player, hence the best-
suited name for this factor would be ‘Accuracy in Ball Playing
Ability’.
112
S. No. Name of the Test Item Name of the Factor

1 Speed Dribbling
2 Shooting from 16 Yards
Stick Work Ability
3 Straight Flick
4 Slap Hit
5 Multi Target Push
Accuracy in Ball Playing Ability
Finally norms were developed using percentiles and 6-sigma

scale. All the individual performance of the skill test was converted
as composite score. Based on the norms, a 6-sigma scale, i.e. 3
standard deviations above and below the mean was developed to
calculate the playing ability scores. Finally from the norms a
Grading Scale was developed to interpret the playing ability of the
players.
Scores Alphabetical Grade Interpretive Grade
Above 55.73 A Excellent
44.20 to 55.73 B Good
32.68 to 44.20 C Average
21.15 to 32.67 D Satisfactory
Below 21.14 E Poor

113
Conclusions
1. The result reveals that there was an inter-relationship

between the performances of selected test items.
2. The factor analysis yielded two factors which were named as

‘stick work ability’ and ‘accuracy in ball playing ability.
3. Six test items from the two factors which had high loading
were selected to constitute the ‘Battery of Field Hockey Skill
Tests’ for the inter-collegiate Field Hockey men players in
the age ranged between 17 and 20 years. The tests were
speed dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight flick, slap
hit, multi target push and straight drive hit.
4. The playing ability performance (overall performance) score of

the players were interpreted by using a grading scale on the
basis of 6-Sigma Scale as A, B, C, D & E (or) Excellent, Good,
Average, Below Average and Poor respectively according to
their overall performance score based on the percentiles
norm, which was developed for all the selected test items.
Recommendations
Recommendations for implication
1. The skill test battery developed in this study might be used to

evaluate the performance of college level Field Hockey players.
2. The norms developed in this study will be help to the player

to understand where he stands in terms of scores.
114
Recommendations for further study
1. Similar study may be undertaken with Field Hockey players

of different levels such as District, University, State, National
and International.
2. Similar study may be conducted on women Field Hockey

players and also for other games.
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Congress on Sport Science, 7-13 September - Brisbane,
Australia.
Appendix
APPENDIX – I
Expert’s Priority of Fundamental skills
QUESTIONNAIRE
M.Suresh kumar
Research Scholar (Full-Time)
Bharathidasan University
Tamilnadu-620 024, India
Dear Sir,
I am working on a problem entitled “Construction of Skill Tests and

Computation of Norms in Field Hockey” for my Ph.D programme. Below
are listed the Field Hockey fundamental skills. Keeping in view the
importance of each skill as a contributing factor in the performance of Field
Hockey game kindly, give priority in order of preference and award points
out of 10. You may add more if you think necessary. I shall be grateful if
you kindly give me your valuable suggestions and cooperation in this work.
1. Name of the Teacher/Player/Coach/Expert ………………………………..

2. Institution/Department …………………………………
3. Experience …………………………………
S.No. Name of the Skill Score in order of priority
1. Goal Shooting ………………………………….

2. Dribbling ………………………………….
3. Hit ………………………………….
4. Flick ………………………………….
5. Push ………………………………….
6. Scoop ………………………………….
7. Dribbling ………………………………….
8. Passing ………………………………….
Signature ____________________________
Address ____________________________

Construction of Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey - M. Suresh Kumar

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CONSTRUCTION OF SKILL TESTS AND

COMPUTATION OF NORMS IN FIELD HOCKEY

A thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University

Under the Guidance of

Department of Physical Education

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Construction of

I do here by declare that the thesis entitled “Construction of

Place: Tiruchirappalli (M. SURESH KUMAR)

I gratefully acknowledge and sincerely appreciate my guide

I am eternally grateful to Dr. K. Chandrasekaran, Former

I extend my feelings of gratitude to my fellow scholars

I extend my deep heart felt thanks to Dr. B. S. Sha-in-Sha,

Mr. P. Veeramani, Mr. V. Saminathan, Mr. P. Babu who has

I acknowledge with all humility and deep gratitude to Dr. L.

I would like to give my sincere thanks to Mr. A. S. Sivakumar

I extend my gratitude and sincere thanks to scholars from

I extend my feelings of gratitude to Mr. P. Prabakaran,

I express my sincere thanks to who actively involved as the

Name :M. Suresh Kumar

Educational Qualifications (10th Std. onwards):

Examination Board Month & Marks Percentage Class

Educational Qualifications (UG Degree onwards):

Degree Subject University/Institute Percentage Year of

University Designation Duration Length of

o Awarded UGC-JRF (Dec. 2006)

 Represented University of Kerala Hockey Team which participated

 Member of the Trivandrum Hockey team which bagged Second

 Participated in UGC Sponsored Interaction Programme for Ph.D.

 Attended the Hockey Umpiring course conducted by Karnataka

 Passed the official examination in Kho-Kho organised by State

 Presented 20 research papers/articles in the National and

S.No Title Authors Publishers

2. Research articles published in Journals:

S.No Title Name of the Publishers

Certificate by the Supervisor - ii

Skills in Field Hockey

Table Title Page No

Reliability Co-Efficient of Test-Retest Scores for

II Objectivity Co-Efficient Scores for all the 67

III Selection of Skill Tests 69

IV Testing Schedule & Collection of Data 70

V Descriptive Analysis of all the Skill Tests Items 89

Correlation Co-Efficient Matrix of the Skill Test

Principal Component Analysis (Un rotated

VIII Rotated Factor Loading (Varimax solution) 94

Factor 1 (one) of Rotated Factor Loadings

X Factor 2 (tw0) of Rotated Factor Loadings 97

Descriptive Analysis of Raw Scores on all the

6 - Sigma Scale for Playing Ability Scores

XV Grading Scale for the Interpretation of Playing 102

III Straight Drive Hit 74

V Multi Target Push 78

VII Scoop for Distance 81

VIII Shooting from 16 Yards 83

IX Shooting From Three Different Spots 85

I Percentage Variance of Rotated Factor Loadings 95

II Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 1 97

III Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 2. 98

The purpose of this study was to construct a new skill test

In sports and games the performance is inevitable.

Sport Skill Test

The development of sports skill has had a long and

school teachers. The measurement and evaluation council of the