FLUID MECHANICS

- deals with the action of fluids at rest or in motion.

HYDRAULICS
- deals with the application of fluid mechanics to
engineering
Where: devices involving liquids, usually water or oil.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
 TYPES OF FLUIDS:
1. IDEAL FLUIDS
• Assumed to have no viscosity – no resistance to shear
• Incompressible
• Have uniform velocity when flowing
• No friction between moving layers of fluid
Where:
• No eddy currents or turbulence

2. REAL FLUIDS
• Exhibit infinite viscosities
• Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
• Compressible
• Experience friction and turbulence in flow
MASS DENSITY, ρ
- the density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume.

M where:
ρ= M = mass of liquid
V V = volume

For Ideal Gas

Where:
where:
p p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa.
ρ= R = gas constant, J/kg-°K
RT For air:
R = 287 J/kg-°K
R = 1,716 lb-ft/slug - °R
T = absolute temperature in °K
°K = °C + 273
°R = °F + 460
SPECIFIC VOLUME, Vs
- is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

1
Vs =
ρ
UNIT WEIGHT / SPECIFIC WEIGHT, γ
Where:
- is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid.

where:
W
γ = = ρg W
V
= weight of liquid
= volume
V g = gravitational
acceleration,
9.81m/s²
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- is dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some
standard reference density.

ρ liquid
Gs =
ρ water
VISCOSITY,
Where:
µ
- property of a fluid which determines the amount of its
resistance to the shearing forces in Pa-sec / lb.sec/ft²
where:
τ τ
µ= µ
=
=
shear stress
viscosity
dV dy y = dist. Bet. plates
V = velocity
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, ν
- is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its
mass density.

µ where:
µ
ν = ρ
= absolute viscosity
ρ = density

SURFACE TENSION, σ
- the membrane of skin that seems to form on the free
surface of a liquid.

pd where:
σ = p = gage pressure, Pa
d = diameter of the droplet, m
4
CAPILLARITY
Where: / CAPILLARY ACTION
- the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-
bore tube. The rise or fall of a fluid in a capillary tube is
caused by surface tension.
θ

h h
θ

adhesion > cohesion

cohesion > adhesion
when θ = 0
4σ cos θ where:
h= 4σ h = capillary rise or fall, m
γd h= d = diameter of the tube, m
γd δ = unit weight, N/m³
σ = surface tension, Pa
UNIT PRESSURE / PRESSURE
Where:
- is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a
body or surface, with the force acting at right angles to
the surface uniformly in all directions.

Force , F
P=
Area , A
GAGE PRESSURE / RELATIVE PRESSURE
- are pressure above or below the atmosphere and can be
measured by pressure gauges or manometers.
ATMOSPHERIC
Where: PRESSURE
- is the pressure at any point on the earth’s surface from
the weight of the air above it.

Patm = 2166 lb/ft²

= 14.7 psi
= 29.9 in of mercury(Hg)
= 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
- is the pressure above absolute zero.

Pabs = Pgage + Patm

BOYLE’S
Where: LAW

P1V1 = P2 V2

where:
P1 = initial absolute pressure of gas
P2 = final absolute pressure of gas
V1 = initial volume of gas
V2 = final volume of gas
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
 PLANE SURFACES

y
L.S.

θ dF = p.dA p = δ.h = δ.ysinθ

h
ĥ dF y x ∫dF = ∫(δysinθ).dA
hp
Ў yp
F = δsinθ∫y.dA
F
dA recall: ∫ydA = A.Ў
e
c.g. F = δsinθ(AЎ) = δ(Ўsinθ)A
c.p. note: ĥ = Ўsinθ

F = δ.ĥ.A
 y  SOLVING FOR LOCATION OF F:
L.S.

θ Apply Varignon’s Theorem:

h y
ĥ dF x F (yp) = ∫dF (y)
hp Ў
yp
F δ(Ўsinθ)(A)(yp) = (∫δysinθdA) (y)

e dA AЎ (yp)= ∫y² dA

c.g. recall: ∫y²dA = Ix

c.p. AЎ (yp)= Ix

_2
Ix By transfer theorem: Io + A y _
Io
yp= _ yp=
_
=y+ _
Ay Ix = Io + AЎ²
Ay Ay
let: Io
e= _ yp = Ў + e
Ay
 y
L.S. where:
θ ĥ = vertical dist. from LS to c.g. of
submerged area.
h y
hp ĥ dF Ў x
yp Ў = inclined dist. from x-axis to c.g. of
submerged area along the axis of the
F area.
e dA
A = submerged area
c.g.
Io = centroidal moment of inertia of
c.p.
submerged area.

yp = inclined dist. from x-axis to c.p.

hp = vertical dist. from LS to c.p.

Note: If the submerged area is vertical,

θ = 90°, then
Ў=ĥ
 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVE SURFACES
CASE I : Fluid above curve surface

C l.s.
D
Horizontal Component:

FV F ĥ FH = δ.ĥ.A

•
A
c.g. Vertical Component:
c.g.
θ
• FV = wt. of fluid above the

•
e
FH •
c.p.
curve surface.
c.p.
B FV = δ.VABCD

Resultant Force:
Angle of inclination:
F= FH + FV
2 2
FV
θ = tan −1

FH
CASE II : Fluid below curve surface

l.s.
C D Horizontal Component:

FH = δ.ĥ.A
ĥ
A Vertical Component:

•
c.g. FV = wt. of imaginary fluid
c.p.
FH e • above the curve surface.
•
c.p.
FV = δ.VABCD
B θ
FV F Resultant Force:

F= FH + FV
2 2
Angle of inclination:

FV
θ = tan −1

FH
CENTROIDAL MOMENT OF INERTIA OF COMMON
GEOMETRIC SHAPES

A. RECTANGLE B. TRIANGLE

b bh
A=
c.g.
A = bh 2/3h 2
h • h
c.g.
•
3
bh
Io = 1/3h bh 3
12 Io =
b 36
C. CIRCLE

π D2
c.g. A = π r2 =
D • r 4
π r4 π D4
Io = =
4 64
D. SEMI-CIRCLE E. QUARTER CIRCLE

c.g. π r2 π r2
• A= r c.g. A=
•
4r
3π 2 4r 4
r r 3π r
Io = 0.11 r 4
Io = 0.055 r 4
4r
3π

E. ELLIPSE

A = π ab
c.g. a
b
•
π ab 3 π ba 3
Iox = Ioy =
4 4
  STRESSES IN PIPES (HOOP TENSION):
A. CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS

t
Q
D P
t
where:
1 unit strip
F = P. A = P (D x 1.0)
where:
D F = bursting force
T = σt . Awall = σt (t x 1.0)
1.0 T = tensile (resisting) force ΣF = 0
• develop @ pipe wall
P = internal pressure 2T = F
D = internal diameter
T t = thickness of pipe
2(σt)(tx1.0) = P(Dx1.0)
F σt = circumferential/ PD
T tangential stress σt =
2t
B. LONGITUDINAL STRESS ( at ends of pipe/tanks)

T t
ΣF = 0
T=F
F D
(σt)(∏.D.t) = P(∏/4.D²)

PD
t σt =
4t
DAMS
-a hydraulic structure primarily built for impounding water for
industrial, agricultural and domestic used.

TYPES OF DAM:

A. GRAVITY DAM
- a type of dam which mainly depend on its weight for stability

B. ARCH DAM
- a type of dam which depend on arch action for stability.
ILLUSTRATION:

WT
upstream side
l.s.

FH1 downstream side

l.s.
FH2
heel toe
• •
U
ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY DAM (consider 1-unit strip)
A. COMPUTE FOR THE FORCES ACTING
 Wt. of dam & other structures
upstream side WT
placed on it.
l.s.
 Hydrostatic Force (FH) downstream
FH1 side
 Hydrostatic Uplift Force (U) l.s.
FH2
•toe
heel
 Silt Forces @ heel of dam
•
 Earthquake Force U
_
x
Ry
B. COMPUTE FOR THE BASE REACTIONS

RX = Σ FX

Ry = Σ Fy
C. COMPUTE FOR THE MOMENTS OF THE FORCES ABOUT THE TOE

 RESISTING MOMENT (R.M.)

- the moment of the forces that will help stability of the dam
- rotation towards upstream side

 OVERTURNING MOMENT (O.M.)

- the moment of the forces that will tend to overturn the dam
- rotation towards downstream side

D. COMPUTE FOR THE LOCATION OF Ry FROM THE TOE

Σ Mtoe = 0 Ry(x)= R.M. – O.M.

_
R.M . − O.M .
x=
Ry
E. COMPUTE FOR THE FACTORS OF SAFETY

 FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST SLIDING (FSS)

RESISTING FORCE µRy

FS S = = ≥ 1.0
SLIDING FORCE Rx

 FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING (FSO)

RESISTING MOMENT R.M .

FSO = = ≥ 1.0
OVERTURNING MOMENT O.M .

 FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST BEARING CAPACITY FAILURE (FSb)

ACTUAL SOIL PRESSURE

FSb = ≥ 1.0
ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION @ BASE OF DAM
 CASE I:  CASE II:
RESULTANT @ MIDDLE OF BASE RESULTANT @ EXTREMELY OF
MIDDLE THIRD NEAR TOE
cL
B/2 B/2
B/3 B/3 B/3

heel
• •P
toe
heel
• •
toe

P
Ry x = B/2
Ry
x = B/3
note:
Ry = vol. of pressure diag. Ry = vol. of pressure diag.
Ry = P (B x 1.0) Ry = ½ P (B x 1.0)

Ry 2 Ry
P= P=
B B
 CASE III:
RESULTANT WITHIN THE MIDDLE THIRD

cL
B/3 B/3 B/3 P = axial stress ± bending stress
Ry Ry
Axial Stress = =
heel Bx1.0 B
• •
toe

Pmin Pmax Bending Stress, f

e
f =
Mc
=
( Ry.e )(B 2 ) 6eRy
=
( )
B/3 < x < B/2
Ry
I 1 12 (1.0 ) B 3
B2
note:
Ry 6eRy
e = B/2 – x , for x < B/2 P= ± 2
B B
e = x – B/2, for x > B/2 (+) for Pmax
Ry  6e 
P= 1± 
B  B (-) For Pmin
 CASE IV:
RESULTANT OUTSIDE THE MIDDLE THIRD

B/3 B/3 B/3

Ry = vol. of pressure diag.

Pten
• •
toe Ry = ½ (3x) (Pcomp) (1.0)
heel
Pcomp.
2 Ry
B -3x Ry Pcomp =
x < B/3 _
3x
3x
Point of tensile crack By R & P:

Ptension Pcomp
_
= _
B −3x 3x
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE (BOUYANCY):
-any body submerged in fluid is subjected by an upward force
(BOUYANT FORCE) which is equal to the weight of displaced fluid.

l.s.
ΣFv = F2 – F1 ≠ 0 (unbalanced upward force)
h1 F1
a Since: F2 > F1
h2 note: unbalanced upward force = BF
a
a
h2-h1= a BF = F2 – F1 = P2.A – P1.A

BF = δ.h2.a² - δ.h1.a²

F2 = δ.a² (h2- h1) = δ.a³

where: a³ = vol. of submerged object

= vol. of displaced fluid

BF = δ.VD
 FOR FLOATING OBJECT OF UNIFORM X-SECTION

l.s.
H
d(draft) Vs

where:

d , (draft ) = (H )
S BODY VT = total vol. of floating object
S = specific gravity
S FLUID
In general, to solve problems in
buoyancy, just apply the condition’s
of equilibrium.
Vs =
S BODY
(VT )
S FLUID ΣFv = 0
ΣFH = 0
 STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
-any floating object / body will assume different conditions
of stability.

A. UPRIGHT POSITION
- a floating body is said to be in the upright position when the
weight (W) and the buoyant force (BF) are collinear.
axis of body

l.s. W

•G
Bo•

BF

where:
G = location of c.g. of floating body
Bo = center of buoyancy in upright position
(or c.g. of submerged volume)
B. STABLE IN TILTED POSITION
- a floating body is said to be stable in the tilted position when
“W” and “BF” produced a righting or restoring couple. This will
happen if the metacenter (M) is above the c.g. (G).

axis of body
R.M. •M
W θ

l.s. •G
Bo•
Bo’
•

x BF
where:
METACENTER = the point of intersection of line of action of
BF and the axis of the body.
Bo’ = center of buoyancy in the tilted position.
C. UNSTABLE IN TILTED POSITION
- a floating body is said to be unstable in the tilted position when
“W” and “BF” produced an upsetting or overturning couple.
This will happen if the metacenter (M) is below the c.g. (G).

axis of body
W

•G
l.s. M •θ O.M.

Bo•
•
Bo’
BF
x
D. NEUTRAL STABILITY / EQUILIBRIUM
- neutral stability exist when “W” and “BF” of a floating body are
are always collinear.

axis of body

l.s. W

•G
Bo•

BF
 MAGNITUDE OF MOMENT DEVELOP
R.M. or O.M. = W(x) = BF (x)

where:
x = MG (sinθ) ; MG = metacentric height

used:
MG = MBo ± GBo
(+) if G is below Bo
(-) if G is above Bo
also;
MG is (+)  STABLE
MG is (-)  UNSTABLE

 FORMULA FOR MBo

A. FOR ANY SHAPED

I where:
MBo = I = moment of inertia of an area in the water
VD line section about the weak/rolling axis.
(for small value of θ) VD = displaced volume of floating object
A. FOR RECTANGULAR PARALLELLIPIPED

l.s.

B 2  tan 2 θ 
MBo = 1 + 
(for any value of θ)
12 D  2 

where:
B = width of scow
D = draft / depth of floatation
θ = tilting angle
 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF FLUIDS
A. LINEAR TRANSLATION
CASE I: HORIZONTAL MOTION

FBD of Particle:
a
n.l.s
particle o.l.s W θ
θ
θ
• REF =(W/g) a
θ
N

REF W g x a a
N θ tan θ = = tan θ =
W W W g
Principle:
REF =(W/g) a If no liquid spilled-out during acceleration; the
new liquid surface will bisect the original liquid
surface.
CASE II: VERTICAL MOTION

prism of fluid
o.l.s

h
a

Σ Fv = 0
dA
F – W - REF= 0

W REF F = W + REF = W + (W/g)a

h
p.dA = W [1 + (a/g)]

p.dA = δ (h.dA) [1 + (a/g)]

F
used:
 a (+) for upward
P = δ h 1 ± 
 g (-) for downward
CASE III: INCLINED MOTION

n.l.s
particle o.l.s FBD of Particle:

av REFV =(W/g) aV
θ
a
W θ
aH
• REFH =(W/g) aH
β θ
N
N θ
W [1+(aV/g)]
aH
tan θ =
(g + aV )
REFH =(W/g) aH
In General:

W g (a H ) aH used:
tan θ = tan θ = (+) for accel.
W (1 + aV g ) (g ± aV ) (-) for accel.
B. ROTATION (ROTATING VESSEL)

ω y FBD of Particle:
o.l.s
n.l.s W t.l.
θ
Fc
particle •
θ N
θ y x
θ

r W V2
Force Triangle: Fc = x
recall: g r

W
θ
N
Fc = m.an
tan θ = =
(
Fc W V 2 / ( gr ) )
V2 W W
Fc an =
r
 V 2 dy ω 2 x
tan θ = tan θ = =
gx dx g
Recall: V = r . ω y ω2 x
∫
0
dy =
g ∫
0
xdx
x .ω
2 2
tan θ =
gx ω 2 x2 gen. eq’n of L.S. during
y= rotation
ω2 .x 2g
tan θ =
g let: ω2
k= then, y = k x2 (parabola)
2g
Recall:
tan θ = slope of T.L. @ any Therefore: During the rotation, the L.S.
point “x” along the curve. assumes paraboloid of rotation.
@ P(r, h)
or:
tan θ =
dy ω2 r2
dx h= (ht. of paraboloid)
2g
Principle:
If no liquid spilled-out during rotation,
the original liquid surface will bisect the
height of paraboloid.

h/2 d
h
h/2
x

h
d=
2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
 DISCHARGE / FLOWRATE
-The amount of fluid passing a given x-section per unit of time.
It can be expressed as volume, mass, or weight flow rate.

A. VOLUME FLOWRATE
- The product of x-sectional area and average velocity of flow.
Q = AV

B. MASS FLOWRATE
- The product of density of fluid to its volume flow rate.
mQ = ρQ

C. WEIGHT FLOWRATE
- The product of unit weight of fluid to its volume flowrate.
WQ = δQ
 STEADY FLOW
-The flow is steady when the discharge at a particular section is
constant w/ time, otherwise it is unsteady.
 UNIFORM FLOW
-The flow is uniform when, for a given length (or reach) of flow,
the velocity at any section are the same, otherwise the flow is
non-uniform.
 CONTINUOUS FLOW
-The flow is continuous when the flowrate at any section at any
given time are the same.
 CONTINUOUS EQUATION

Q 3
A. FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = . . . . . = Qn

A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3 = . . . . . = AnVn

A. FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

mQ1 = mQ2 = mQ3 = . . . . . = mQn

ρ1Q1 = ρ1Q2 = ρ1Q3 = . . . . . = ρnQn

WQ1 = WQ2 = WQ3 = . . . . . = WQn

δ1Q1 = δ1Q2 = δ1Q3 = . . . . . = δnQn

 TOTAL FLOW ENERGY
-The total flow energy (per unit of weight) is the sum of Kinetic
and Potential energies.

KINETIC ENERGY
- The energy possessed by fluids due to its velocity.

1 1 W  2  1
K .E. = mV = 
2
 V x  
2 2 g  W 

K .E. V 2 - Kinetic Energy Head

= - Velocity Head
W 2g
 POTENTIAL ENERGY
- The energy possessed by fluids due to its height above certain
datum.

•
P
Q γ
• (liquid particle) h

DATUM

P   1  where:
P.E. = mgh = W  + z  x  
γ  W  P
= pressure energy head
P.E. P γ
= +z V2 P
W γ E= + +z z = elev. Energy head
2g γ
POWER
- is the rate of doing work.

work ( force )(dist.)

P= =
time (time )
For fluids;

FORCE = weight of fluid, W

DISTANCE = total flow energy, E

W . E γ .Vol . E
P= =
t t
P =Qγ E

Unit conversion;
1 HP = 746 watts = 0.76kW = 550 lb-ft/s
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
- neglecting losses, the total energy at a given point (say pt. 1) is
equal to the total available energy at any other point (say pt. 2)

2
V1
2g HL 1− 2

P1 2
γ V2
Q 2g
•1
E1
P2 E2
γ
z1
•2
z2
DATUM
E1 = E2

2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
2g γ 2g γ

 CASES OF APPLYING B.E.E.

A.) B.E.E. Considering Losses bet. two points
E1 - HL1-2 = E2
2 2
V1 P1 V2 P2
+ + z1 − HL 1− 2 = + + z2
2g γ 2g γ

B.) B.E.E. with presence of pumps between two points

E1 + H.A. - HL1-2= E2

Where;
H.A. = flow energy added (HEAD ADDED) by the pump.
also;

Ppump = Q γ (H .A.) (output power)

B.) B.E.E. with turbine between two points

E1 – H.E. - HL1-2= E2

Where;
H.E. = head extracted by the turbine.

also;

Pturbine = Q γ (H .E.)
EFFICIENCT (e);
- ratio of output to the input power.

e=
POUTPUT
(100% )
PINPUT
 VENTURI METER
- a device (conical in shape) installed between pipes for the
purpose of measuring the flow of fluids.
pipe
Throat/
neck
Q
•1 •2

manometer

APPLY B.E.E. FROM 1 TO 2

V2 − V1 P1 − P2
2 2 2 2
+ ( z1 − z 2 )
V1 P1 V2 P2
+ + z1 = + + z2 = 1
2g γ 2g γ 2g γ
BY CONTINUITY:
π π
D1 V1 =
2 2
Q = Q2  A1V1 = A2V2 D2 V2
4 4
2
 D2 2   D2 
V1 =  2  .V2 V1 =   .V2
 D1   D1 
Let: 2
 D2 
n =   V1 = nV2 2
 D1 
Equate 2 in 1:

V2 − (nV2 ) P1 − P2 P1 − P2
( )
2 2 2
+ ( z1 − z 2 )
V2
= + ( z1 − z 2 ) 1− n =
2

2g γ 2g γ

2 g  P1 − P2 
+ (z1 − z 2 )
THEORITICAL THROAT
V2 =
(2 
1− n  γ ) 
VELOCITY
SOLVING FOR Q:

Qt = A2 .V2 THEORITICAL DISCHARGE

ALSO,

Qa = C . Qt ACTUAL DISCHARGE

C = meter coeff. or coeff. of discharge

P1 − P2 S y − Sx APPLICABLE IF POINTS 1 &

= (y) 2 ARE ON THE SAME LEVEL.
γ Sx
where:
Sy = sp.gr. Of the liquid in manometer
Sx = sp.gr. Of flowing liquid
y = deflection / manometer reading
 FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS
PIPES – are closed conduit through which fluid flows full under
pressure.

NOTE:
• Pipes are normally circular in cross-section to minimize losses.

 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

A. LAMINAR FLOW
- The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid
particles (or pathlines) do not crosses each other (or it flows in
layer of laminae).
- It is represented by a reynolds number Re < 2000.

B. TURBULENT FLOW
- The flow is said to be turbulent when the pathlines of
individual fluid particles continuously crosses each other.
- It is represented by a reynolds number Re > 3000.
NOTE:
• Re between 2000 – 3000 is normally regarded as
“TRANSITIONAL FLOW” wherein the flow changes from laminar
to turbulent.
• Re = 2000 is known as “CRITICAL FLOW” and the
corresponding velocity is called “CRITICAL VELOCITY (Vc)”.

 REYNOLD’S NUMBER
- ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.
• For circular pipe:

VDρ VD D = 4R
Re = =
µ υ
where:
V = average velocity of flow area of flow , A
D = diameter of pipe R=
ρ= density of fluid wetted perimeter , Pw
µ = absolute viscosity (hydraulic radius)
υ = kinematic viscosity
 FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS
Laminar Flow (Parabolic)
Turbulent Flow (Logarithmic)

Q
ro
r
Vc
x
Vro

A. LAMINAR FLOW
- The velocity distribution for laminar flow is parabolic with the
centerline velocity equal to twice of average velocity.

Vc = 2 .Vave.   ro  
2 (velocity at any dist. ro
Vro = Vc 1 −    from the pipe center)

  r   
γ hf hf = headloss in pipe
Vro = Vc − (ro )2 L = length of pipe
4µ L
B. TURBULENT FLOW
- The velocity profile for turbulent flow follows a logarithmic
variation.

(
Vc = Vave. 1 + 1.33 f ) (centerline/max. velocity)

(vel. At any dist. “ro”

τo  r  from the pipe center)
Vro = Vc − 5.75 log  
ρ  r − ro 
where:
f = pipe friction factor/roughness
τ o = shearing stress at pipe wall
 SHEAR STRESS VARIATION IN PIPES
-The shear stress in pipes varies linearly from zero at pipe
center to maximum at pipe wall.

τo
Q ro
r

γ hf (shear stress at any dist.

τ= (ro ) “ro” from pipe center)
2L
When ro = r

γ hf γ hf (shear stress at pipe wall or

τ= (r )= (D ) max. shear stress)

2L 4L
 FRICTION FACTOR IN PIPES
A. FOR LAMINAR FLOW B. FOR TURBULENT FLOW

64 8τ O
f= f= (universal formula)
Re ρV 2
0.316 (BLASIUS FORMULA)
f= 4
Re Re up to 3,000,000

 SHEAR / FRICTION VELOCITY

- is the minimum velocity to overcome frictional resistance.

τo
Vs =
ρ
 HEADLOSSES IN PIPES
- the total headlost in pipes is the sum of major loss (due to
friction/roughness) and minor losses (due to obstruction).

let:
hf = major loss HLT= hf + hm (total headlost in pipe)
hm = minor loss

NOTE:
2 (GEN. MINOR LOSS FORMULA)
V
hm = ∑ k k = coeff. of minor losses
2g
• MAJOR / FRICTION LOSS
A. DARCY – WEISBACH FORMULA

f LV 2 0.0826 f L Q 2 0.0525 f L Q 2
hf = hf = hf =
2g D D5 D5
(S.I. & ENGLISH) (S.I.) (ENGLISH)
B. MANNING’SFORMULA
(S.I.) (ENGLISH)

1 23 12 1.486 2 3 1 2
V= R S V= R S
n n

6.35 n 2 L V 2 2.87 n 2 L V 2
hf = hf =
D4 3 D4 3

10.29 n 2 L Q 2 4.65 n 2 L Q 2
hf = hf =
D16 3 D16 3
where:
n = roughness coeff.
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of energy grade line
= hf/L
C. HAZEN WILLIAM’S FORMULA
(S.I.) (ENGLISH)

V = 0.8492 C R 0.63
S 0.54
V = 1.318 C R 0.63
S 0.54

Q = 0.2785 C D 2.63
S 0.54
Q = 0.4322 C D 2.63
S 0.54

10.64 L Q1.85 4.72 L Q1.85

hf = h f = 1.85 4.87
C 1.85 D 4.87 C D
where:
C = Hazen-Williams coeff.
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of energy grade line
= hf/L
 PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES
Q
1 2 3

 PRINCIPLES:
- the flow in all pipes are equal.

Q1= Q2 = Q3 . . . . . = Qn

- the total headlost is equal to the sum of individual losses.

HLT= hf1 + hf2 + hf3. . . . . + hfn

 PIPES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
1

Q 2

NOTES:
• Two or more pipes are connected parallel if they have common
junctions.
 PRINCIPLES:
- the total flow is equal to the sum of all pipes
QT= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 . . . . . + Qn

- the headlosses in all pipes are equal

hf1 = hf2 = hf3. . . . . = hfn
 EQUIVALENT PIPES
– two pipes are equivalent if their flow and headlosses are equal.

QORIGINAL= QEQUIVALENT

hfORIGINAL= hfEQUIVALENT
 THREE RESERVOIRS:
CASE I:
 Given the flow in one of the pipe leading to (inflow) of flowing
out (outflow) from a reservoir of known elevation. The problem is
to solve for the flow of other pipes, or maybe the diameter /
length of the other pipe, or maybe the elevation of the other
reservoir.
 ANALYSIS:
1. Solve first for the headloss of the pipe in which the
discharge is known.
2. Locate the elevation of EGL at pipe junction
Note: The difference in elevation of EGL at junction and
reservoir surface gives the headloss of the pipes.
3. Solve for the required unknown in the problem.
CASE II:
 Given all pipe properties (length, diameter) and reservoir
surface elevations. The problem is to determine the quantity and
direction of the flow of each pipe.

 ANALYSIS:
1. Determine first the direction of flow of each pipe.
Note: The highest reservoir is always the outflow while the
lowest is always the inflow.
2. For the middle reservoir (say, B), assume first that the flow
in this pipe is zero (QB = 0), solve for the trial flow of the
other pipes (QA & QB).

Note:
If: QA > QC, there QB is inflow
QA < QC, there QB is outflow
3. Express all the headloss in terms of single variable and solve
it by trial & error.
4. Solve for the flow of each pipe.
 PIPE NETWORK:
 ANALYSIS:
1. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow
leaving it.
2. Around a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the headloss is
equal to zero.

let: where:
∑ k Qa
Qa = Assumed Flow n
α = Correction to be applied
α =−
n ∑ k Qa
n −1
Q = Qa ± α

SIGN CONVENTION: note:

1. Within a particular loop, clowkwise flow k = constant for headloss
is assume positive and CCW flow is n = 2 (for Darcy & Manning)
negative. = 1.85 (Hazen-William)
α
2. In solving for , the numerator is sum-
up algebraically while denominator is
absolute summation.
α
3. At a particular loop, correction is
added for CW flow and subtracted for
CCW flow.
 WATER HAMMER:
- refers to the rise (increase) in pressure in a pipeline
due to sudden decrease (or stoppage) of flow.

W.S. HGL due to closure of valve

Ph
γ
Static HGL
P
γ T VALVE
V • C

 CELERITY (C):
- Is the velocity of the pressure wave.
 FOR RIGID / NON-ELASTIC  FOR NON- RIGID / ELASTIC

EB EB
C= C=
ρ  EB D 
ρ 1 + 
 E t 
where:
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material
ρ = density of fluid
D = internal diameter of pipe
t = thickness of pipe
 WATER HAMMER PRESSURE (Ph):
A. INSTANTENEOUS / SUDDEN CLOSURE, (tc = 0)

Ph = ρ C (∆V )
note:
tc = time of closure

B. RAPID CLOSURE, (tc < t)

Ph = ρ C (∆V )
note:
t = roundtrip time = (2L)/C
C. SLOW CLOSURE, (tc > t)

t 
Ph = ρ C (∆V ) 
 tc 
 ORIFICE UNDER VARIABLE HEAD
Qin

• Qin = Qout  STEADY FLOW

• Qin > Qout
dh As • Qin < Qout UNSTEADY FLOW
h1 • Qin = 0
h
h2

Qout
h2
∫ ∫
dQ = Qin - Qout t As . dh
dV dt =
= Qin - Qout 0 h1Qin − Qout
dt
As. dh h2 As . dh
dt
= Qin - Qout
t= ∫
h1 Qin − Qout
As = f (h)
 IF Qin = 0 (h1 > h2)

h1 As . dh
t= ∫h2 Qout
 IF As = constant, Qin = 0 and Qout is through orifice

As . dh
h1 As h1 dh
t =∫ = ∫
h2 h2
C Ao 2 gh C Ao 2 g h

t =
2 As
C Ao 2 g
( h1 − h2 )
where:
As = cross-sectional area of tank
h1, h2 = initial and final head
 ORIFICE DISCHARGING BETWEEN ADJACENT TANKS

initial liquid surface

A
final liquid surface

h2 h1

B
ORIFICE

t =
2B A ( h1 − h2 ) (in seconds)

(B + A)C Ao 2g
where:
A, B = cross-sectional area of adjacent tank
h1, h2 = initial and final head
 TUBES
- are orifice with prolonged sides.
 STANDARD TUBE  RE-ENTRANT TUBE
- a tube having their length - a tube w/ sides projected
equal to 2.5 times its inward of the tank wall.
diameter. NOTE:
BORDA’S MOUTHPIECE
W.S.
-A special case of re-entrant tubes
wherein the length is 2.5 times its
diameter.
h W.S.
2 C Cv = 1.0
h
D
D

L = 2.5D
L = 2.5D
  OPEN CHANNEL
- these are conduit in which liquid flows w/ a free surface
under the influence of gravity.
 UNIFORM FLOW (S = So)
- a flow is uniform when the depth, cross-sectional area
and velocity of flow for given length / reach are equal.
NOTE:
o For uniform flow, the slope of channel bed (So) is equal
to the slope of EGL (S).

2
V1 hf
2g
w.s.
2
E V2
d1 2g
FOR UNIFORM FLOW:
d2
d1 = d2
L A1 = A2
V1 = V2
 SPECIFIC ENERGY:
- it refers to the total energy per unit of weight of liquid with
respect to channel bottom.

V2
E= +d
2g
 BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS:
- it refers to the shear stress (or unit tractive force) at the
channel bottom.

τ =γ R S
where:
V = average velocity of flow
d = depth of flow
R= hydraulic radius
γ = unit weight of flowing liquid
S = slope of EGL (hf/L)
 VELOCITY FOR UNIFORM FLOW:
where:
V = C RS (CHEZY FORMULA) C = chezy’s coeff.

o FORMULA FOR C:
A.) KUTTER’S FORMULA:

1 0.00155
+ 23 +
C= n S (S.I.)
n  0.00155 
1+  23 + 
R S  where:
n = mannings’
1.811 0.00281 roughness coeff.
+ 41.65 +
C= n S (ENGLISH)
n  0.00281 
1+  41.65 + 
R S 
B.) MANNING’S FORMULA:
NOTE:
1 16
C= R (S.I.) 1 16 12 12
V = C RS = R . R . S
n n
1 23 12
V = R S (S.I.)
n
also,

1.486 1 6
C= R (ENGLISH)
n

1.486 2 3 1 2
V= R S (ENGLISH)
n
C.) BAZIN’S FORMULA:

87 157.6
C= C=
m (S.I.) m (ENGLISH
1+ 1+
R R
where:
m = bazin’s roughness coeff.

D.) UNIVERSAL FORMULA:

8g
C= (S.I. or ENGLISH)
f
where:
f = friction factor
 MOST EFFICIENT SECTION
- these are sections in open channel at which, for constant
area of flow (A), slope (S), and roughness (say n), will give
the maximum flow (Qmax).
Recall:
A 23 12
Q = A.V = R S
n
NOTE:
o Q is maximum when “R” is maximum.

A
R= o R is maximum when “Pw” is minimum.
Pw
Therefore:
The MOST EFFICIENT SECTION is the one
with the minimum wetted perimeter.
 PROPERTIES OF MOST EFFICIENT SECTION
A. RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
w.s.
b = 2d d
R=
d 2

b
 top width = sum of sides
B. TRAPEZOIDAL SECTIONS
B B =2y d
w.s.
R=
2
y y  for minimum seepage
θ θ
θ 
b = 4 d tan  
b 2
θ= 60⁰  most eff. of all eff. trapezoidal section / half of reg. hexagon.
 C. TRIANGULAR SECTIONS D. CIRCULAR SECTIONS

B = 2d
d d w.s.
w.s.

D
d θ θ d

2θ = 90 0  for maximum flow

B = 2d d = 0.81 D
 for minimum flow

d = 0.938 D
Note:
o The ME circular section is the SEMI-CIRCLE.
o The ME of all sections is the SEMI-CIRCLE.
 SECTION / SHAPE FACTOR (z)

A z = A dm
z=A
B

where:

A
dm = (ave. depth / hydraulic depth)
B
 NON-UNIFORM FLOW (S ≠ So)
ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW
(d)
EGL
2 2
V1 Vc 2
2g 2g V2
Qmax
E 2g
d1
dc
d2
(Q)

V2 Q = AV = A 2 g (E − d )
E= +d
2g if:
d=0 Q=0
V = 2 g (E − d ) d=E Q=0
NOTE:
- An open channel can flow at a different depth (d1 & d2) with
the same amount of flow (Q). This phenomenon is known as
“Alternate Stages of Flow”.

d1 = Upper Stage  Sub-Critical Flow; F<1.0

d2 = Lower Stage  Super-Critical Flow; F>1.0
dc = Critical Stage  Critical Flow; F=1.0

 CRITICAL DEPTH (dc)

 The depth at which, for constant specific energy, the flow
is maximum.
 The depth at which, for constant flow, the specific energy
is minimum.
 FROUDE NUMBER(F)
 The ratio of inertia force to gravity force.
where:
V
F= V = average velocity of flow
g dm dm = ave. depth or hydraulic depth

A
dm =
B
 FOR RECTANGULAR SECTION

A bd
dm = = =d
B b
V
F=
gd
 FORMULA FOR CRITICAL DEPTH
A. RECTANGULAR SECTION
where:
2
q
dc = 3 q=
Q (unit flow/flow per unit width)
g b
also;
Vc = g d c (critical velocity)

 To solve for Sc, just apply Manning’s

1 23 12
Vc = R S
n
2
d c = Emin (for any section)
3
B. NON-RECTANGULAR SECTION

2 3
where:

A, B = f (d c )
Q A
=
g B
B = f(dc)
w.s.

A = f(dc)
dc
 HYDRAULIC JUMP:
- an abrupt rise in water surface due to a retarding water
flowing at the lower stage.
Note:
The flow is from super-critical to sub-critical.

EGL
2 HLjump
2
V1 V2
2g 2g

E1 E2
d2
d1

Note:
d1 = depth before jump
d2 = depth after jump
A. RECTANGULAR SECTION

q 2 d1 d 2
= (d1 + d 2 )
g 2

HL jump = E1 − E2 (GENERAL FORMULA)

HL jump =
(d 2 − d1 )
3
L1− 2 =
E1 − E2
4 d1 d 2 S − So
B. NON-RECTANGULAR SECTION

_ _
q2  1 1 
A2 h 2 − A1 h1 =  − 
g  A1 A2 
 WEIRS
- an overflow structure built across an open channel for the
purpose of measuring or controlling the flow of water.
w.s.

H
d
P Va

Elements:
• CREST  the top portion of weir plate
• HEAD, H  the head acting over the weir
• P  the height of weir plate
• d  the depth of approach channel d =H +P
• Va  the approach velocity at the back of weir
• L  length of crest of weir
 SUPPRESSED WEIR
- Full width weir, having length of crest equal to the width of
approach channel.
 CONTRACTED WEIR
- Weir with end contractions, having length of crest less than
the width of approach channel.

A. RECTANGULAR SUPPRESSED WEIR

L
Where:
w.s.
C = coeff. of discharge
H
Va 2
WEIR PLATE
hv =
2g
 CONSIDERING APPROACH VELOCITY

2
3
[
Q = C 2 g L (H + hv ) − hv 3 2
32
]
 NEGLECTING APPROACH VELOCITY

2
Q = C 2g L H 3 2
3
let:
2
Cw = C 2 g (weir constant factor)
3
 FOR FRANCIS FORMULA:
Cw = 1.84 (S.I.)

Cw = 3.33 (English)

also: (If C is not given)

H  C=
0.65
C = 0.611 + 0.075  
P 1 + (H P )
(for sharp-crested weir) (for broad-crested weir)
B. RECTANGULAR CONTRACTED WEIR
 same formula in suppressed weir except for length of crest.

2
Q = C 2 g L' H 3 2
3
where:

L’ = L – 0.10H (for one-end contraction)

L’ = L – 0.20H (for two-ends contraction)

 B. TRIANGULAR V-NOTCHED WEIR
w.s.
where:
H = head acting over the weir
H
θ= vertex/notch angle
θ

8 θ  5 2
Q = C 2 g tan  H
15 2
 FOR 90⁰ V-NOTCH WEIR (θ=90⁰)

Q = 1.40 H 5 2 (S.I.)

Q = 2.50 H 52
(ENGLISH)
C. CIPOLLETTI WEIR
 A trapezoidal weir with sideslopes of 1H:4V
w.s.

4 4
H 1 1
θ=75.96⁰ θ=75.96⁰

Q = 1.859 H 3 2 (S.I.)

Q = 3.367 H 3 2 (ENGLISH)
D. SUBMERGED WEIR
w.s.

H1
H2

 DISCHARGED OF SUBMERGED WEIR

0.385
 H  32

Qs = Q 1 −  2  
  H1  
where:
Q = discharge if weir is not submerged under H1
H1= upstream head
H2= downstream head
 HYDRODYNAMICS:
A.) FORCE EXERTED BY FLUIDS ON FIXED FLAT PLATE (V’=0)
FLAT PLATE
(V’=0)

Q V F

γ
F = ρ QV = QV
g
where:
Q = discharge of fluid
ρ γ
, = density / unit weight of fluid
V= average velocity of flow
V’= velocity of flat plate
B.) FORCE EXERTED BY FLUIDS ON MOVING FLAT PLATE (V≠0)
V’
Q V F

let: where:
V’= velocity of flat plate
Q’ = AU (relative discharge)
F = ρ Q 'U U = V-V’ (relative velocity)

then: F = ρ AU = ρ A (V − V ')
2 2

 WORK DONE BY FLUID ON MOVING PLATE PER SECOND:

W = F .V ' (J/s ; lb-ft/s)

C.) FORCE EXERTED BY FLUIDS ON FIXED CURVE VANE:
F V2y
Fy
V2

Fx θ •2 V2x
V1
•1
β = deflection angle

FIXED CURVE
VANE
 X-Component of Dynamic Force, F

γQ
Fx = ρ Q (V1x − V2 x ) = (V1x − V2 x )
g
 Y-Component of Dynamic Force, F

γQ
Fy = ρ Q (V1 y − V2 y )= (V 1y − V2 y )
g
 Resultant of Dynamic Force, F

F = Fx 2 + Fy 2

 Inclination of Resultant

 Fy 
θ = tan  −1

 Fx 
• Sign Convention:
 To the right & upward forces & velocities are
positive while to the left forces & velocities are
negative.
D.) FORCE EXERTED BY FLUIDS ON CLOSED CONDUIT:
F2.cosβ

F2 F2.sinβ
•2

F1 β
•1 Rx

Ry
γQ
∑ Fx = (V2 x − V1x ) where:
g Σ Fx = F1 – F2 cos β - Rx

γQ
∑ Fy = (V2y − V1 y )
where:
Σ Fy = Ry – F2sinβ
g

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 (RESULTANT FORCE)