115

CHAPTER 5

STREAM GAUGING

INTRODUCTION

Stream flow is the largest operation among the various hydrologic networks.
The necessity for stream gauging arises because of many reasons; streams
provide water supply for men and animals, irrigation water for plants,
dilution and transport for removal of waste, and energy for production of
power. Records of stream flow are important in each of these uses.

Water in streams can also be a hazard. Floods cause extensive damages and
hardships. Records of flood events obtained at gauging stations serve as the
basis for the design of bridges, culverts, spillways, reservoirs, etc.

RIVER STAGE
River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the elevation of the water
surface at a specified station above some arbitrary datum.

The zero elevation is some times taken as mean sea level but more often it is
set slightly below the point of zero in the stream. The river stage is denoted
by “g”. Fig 5.1 shows definition sketch.

FIG 5.1
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CHANNEL CONTROL

This is another term often used in stream gauging. It is the reach of a channel
or a channel section where there is a unique relationship between stage and
discharge. There are two types of channel control. It may be an artificial or
natural one.

ARTIFICIAL CONTROL

It is an amended section or length of stream for measurement purposes.

Examples are weir, flumes etc. The design of an artificial control should be
based on the following considerations.

1. The profile of crest should be such that a small change in discharge

indicates appreciable change in stage.
2. The structure should not create undesirable disturbance in the channel
above or below the control.
3. The control should have structural stability and should be permanent.

SELECTION OF A GAUGING SITE

The conditions regarding depth of water are depending upon the physical
features of the stream on the downstream side. The relation between stage
and discharge is controlled by the physical features of the channel
downstream from the gauge site. Essential requirements for stream gauging
are:

1. Permanence of control
2. Opportunity to install an artificial control
3. Possibility of no backwater effect from downstream tributaries or
other sources.
4. Availability of a good metering station where good discharge
measurement can be made.
5. Availability of a site for proper placement of stage gauge to record all
fluctuations of water level and free from debris and floating matter
with respect to the control and the metering section.
 117

6. Suitability of existing structures for use in making flood discharge

measurements, or the availability of a site for the proper placement of
a cable way for this purpose.
7. There is no possibility of flow bye-passing the site in ground water or
in flood channels.
8. Availability of power line or telephone lines, where needed for special
instrumentation.
9. Accessibility of the site by roads, particularly during floods.
10. Economic construction is possible.

MEASUREMENT OF RIVER STAGE

The river stage is measured by two types of gauges.

1. Non-recording gauges
2. Recording gauges.

1. NON-RECORDING GAUGES:

The non-recording gauges are of three types

i. Staff gauge
ii) Float type gauge
iii) Electric tape gauge

(i) STAFF GAUGE

The staff gauges are further of the following types.

(a) Vertical Staff Gauge

The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff gauge. A

portion of the vertical staff gauge is immersed in the water at all times. The
gauge may consist of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge pier, or other
structure that extends into the low water channel of the stream. Figure 5.1
shows a typical vertical staff gauge.
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Figure 5.1 Vertical Staff Gauge

(b) Sectional Staff Gauge:

If no suitable structure exists in a location, which is accessible at all stages, a

sectional staff gauge (as shown in figure 5.2) may be used. Short sections of
staff are mounted on available structures or on specially constructed supports
in such a way that one section is always accessible.

Fig. 5.2 Sectional Staff Gauge

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(c) Inclined Staff Gauge:

An alternative to the sectional staff gauge is an inclined staff gauge as shown

in the figure 5.3. Inclined staff gauge is placed on the slope of the stream
bank and graduated so that the scale reads directly in the vertical depth. The
inclined staff gauges are considered better than the sectional staff gauges due
to better accuracy.

Figure 5.3 Inclined Staff Gauge

(ii) FLOAT TYPE GAUGE

This gauge is generally used as an inside reference gauge and is installed in a

stilling well to avoid wave effects. The stilling well is 1.20 m in diameter or
with inner dimensions 1.20 m x 1.20 m. It is built on side of a bank. A pipe
connects well to river at its lowest level.

The gauge consists of a float, graduated steel tape, counter weight and a
pulley. The pulley is grooved to accommodate the tape and mounted on a
 120

stand. An arm extends from the stand to a point slightly beyond the tape to
carry an adjustable index, which shows the gauge reading. The index is
adjusted at the initial setting of the gauge at the site. If the adjustments to the
tape readings are too large to be accommodated by the adjustable index
further adjustments can be made with the help of a clamp connecting the tape
to the float.

Fig. 5.4 Float Type Gauge

(iii) ELECTRIC TAPE GAUGE

It consists of a graduated steel tape, a cylindrical weight, a reel for the tape, a
battery and voltmeter. One terminal of the battery is attached to ground
connection and the other to one terminal of the voltmeter. The other terminal
of the voltmeter is connected through the frame reel, and tape to the weight.
The weight is lowered until it touches the water surface. This contact
completes the electric circuit and produces a signal on the voltmeter. The
tape reading is then taken at the index provided on the reel mounting. This
gives river stage with respect to a datum on the site. To find stage with
respect to another datum further addition/subtraction will be required.

2. RECORDING GAUGES:

These are similar to the non-recording gauges but have some arrangement to
give a continuous record. In recording gauges motion of a float for example
is recorded on a chart, and in a continuous recorder, the motion of the float
 121

moves a pen across a long strip chart. The chart is usually 25 cm wide and at
a scale of 1:12. When the pen reaches the edge of the chart it is reverses
direction and records the next readings in the other directions across the
chart. The chart roll contains enough paper to operate for a year at a scale of
6 cm/day.

A float type water stage recorder requires a shelter house and stilling well as
shown in figure 5.4. The stilling well serves to protect the float and counter-
weight cables from floating debris and if the intakes are properly designed,
suppress fluctuations resulting from surface waves in the stream.

3. CREST - STAGE GAUGE

A third type of stage measuring device is the crest gauge, used to obtain a
record of flood crests at sites where recording gauges are not installed. It
gives the information about maximum water level in the past.
A variety of such gauges have been devised, including small floats which rise
with the increase in stage but are restrained at the maximum level. Water-
soluble paints on bridge piers where they are protected from rain and can
indicate a definite high water mark are also in use as crest stage gauge. The
piers of bridge are repainted after a flood. The gauge used by U.S. geological
survey consists of a length of vertical pipe containing a graduated stick and a
small amount of ground cork. The cork floats, as the water rises and some
adheres to the stick at the highest level reached by water. The stick can be
removed, the crest reading recorded, the cork wiped off and the stick replaced
ready for the next reading. Fig 5.5 shows crest type staff guage.

FIG 5.5
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DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

Stream discharge represents the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle. Stream
discharge can be measured more accurately than other components of
hydrologic cycle such as precipitation, evaporation, infiltration etc. In this
section methods of measurement of discharge are described. Methods for
determining discharge can be classified as.

(1) Velocity area method (free flow method).

(2) Measurement by permanent structures.
(3) Chemical gauging method.

1. FREE FLOW METHOD (Velocity Area Method)

In these methods certain instruments are used to observe, the velocity in the
stream, and the discharge is calculated from the data thus obtained. In this
method the regime of the channel is not affected. i.e. for example depth
remains unaffected when instrument is inserted in stream. Also free flow
method can be employed at any suitable section. The basic principle that Q
=AV is used in this method.

Where
Q = Discharge
A = Area of cross-section of flow and
V = mean flow velocity.

This needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the flow cross-
sectional area. The channel is divided in to sub-sections, the mean velocity
and the area of flow is measured at each sub-section and finally the total
discharge is the sum of the discharges through these sub-sections.

Q=q1+q2+q3+………………..+qn 5.1

Where Q is total discharge and qi is discharge through a sub-section „i‟ of

stream.
 123

Finding Mean Velocity:-

The velocity in the free flow method is found by

(A) Current meter

(B) Pitot tube
(C) Floats.

(A) Current Meter

A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of water in open

channels or streams. One of the most commonly used current meter is the
Price Meter. This type of current meter is used by U.S. geological survey. It
consists of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis. Electric contacts
driven by the cups close a circuit through a battery and a wire of supporting
cable, causes a click in headphones worn by the operator for each 5 or 10
revolutions of cups. For shallow depths wadding (depth measurement by
rods) is done and for measurements in deep water the meter is suspended
from a cable. The meter reader is either in a boat or on a bridge. There is a
heavy weight suspended at the bottom of this cable to keep the whole family
vertical. The velocity of water is given as

V= a + bN 5.2

Where N is the number of revolutions per second of cups and a , b are the
coefficients for a given current meter.

Following steps are adopted to take measurements by the current meter.

(a) Measuring depth of flow (sounding)

(b) Taking reading for “N”, the revolutions per second.
Figure 5.5 shows a photograph of current meter.
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Figure 5.5 Price Current Meter

(a) Measuring depth of flow (Sounding):-

The depth is measured by a rigid rod called wading rod or by a sounding

weight suspended from a cable. The cable is controlled either by a reel fixed
on a pulley or by hand line of a bridge. The wadding rod is placed in the
stream so that the base plate rests on the stream bed and the depth of water is
read on the graduated main rod.

A sounding weight (Coulomb‟s Weight) is suspended below the current

meter to keep it stationary in the water. The weights offer minimum
resistance to flowing water and have sufficient weight not to be taken away
by the water. Reading is taken when the weights just touch the water surface.
These are further lowered till these touch the base of the channel. The reading
of reel is taken again. The difference of these readings gives the depth of
flow.

(b) Methods of Measuring Average Velocity:-

There are four alternatives for current meter readings.

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1. Single point Method

2. Two point Method
3. Multiple Point Method
4. Direct Integration Method

To decide which method should be used, the governing factors are

(1) How much accuracy is required?

(2) The time available
(3) The behavior of stream

(1) Single Point Method:

The current meter is placed at 0.6 of depth to find mean velocity. This is least
time consuming method. This is done when the depth of flow is less than 1
m. The average velocity is denoted as V=V0.6d, Where V0.6d represents
velocity at 0.6 of depth.

(2) Two point Method:

The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at 0.2 of
depth and then at 0.8 of the depth. This is more accurate than one point
method. The average velocity is mean of the velocity at 0.2 depth and that at
0.8 depth. V= (V0.2d +V0.8d)/2

(3) Multiple Point Method:

In this method current meter is placed at different points. Velocity at each

point is measured and then mean of these velocities is taken. This method is
although accurate but is very time consuming.

(4) Direct Integration Method:

This method is same as that at No. (3). In this method it is essential that the
worker should be an experienced person. The current meter is lowered from
the surface to the bed of stream with the uniform velocity and from bed of
channel to the surface with the same velocity. The number of revolutions
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made by the propeller is recorded and the dividing by time consumed in this
operation gives the mean velocity directly. The behavior of flow in channel
is also an important factor. i.e. in case of unsteady flow where the discharge
is changing during the measurements as that in floods etc, we have to use
the quickest method.

Methods of Holding Current Meter:

(i) Measurement By Wading Rods:

The wading rod is placed in the stream so that the base of the rod rests on the
stream bed and the depth of water is read on the graduated main rod.

The wading rod is used to hold the current meter when the depth of stream is
not high and the stream section is known to be safe. For deep streams which
are dangerous for wading the current meter is held by cable having sounding
weights.

When the depth is 0.45 to 0.75 m., then the top setting rod (the position of
Current meter should be at 0.6d and velocity is then found and if depth is
more than 0.75 m, then at 0.2d and 0.8d the two velocities are found and the
mean velocity V=( V0.2d +V0.8d) ÷ 2

(ii) Measurement From Bridge:

We can measure the depth of water from upstream as well as down stream
side of the bridge. On the upstream side the hydraulic characteristics are
usually more favorable, the approaching drift can be seen and avoided and
the stream bed is less likely to scour. On the other hand, on the down steam
side vertical angles are more easily measured in case the cable is not exactly
vertical because of the sounding lines moving away from the bridge.
Moreover, the flow lines may be straight.

The meter is suspended from a handrail of the bridge or a sounding reel

supported by a bridge board or a portable crane, the latter is most commonly
used. The method of measurement of depth and velocity is same as discussed
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earlier. However the current meter is not used near the bridge piers and
abutments.

(iii) Measurements from a Cable-Way:

The cable way provides a track for the operation of a cable from which an
observer takes measurement on current meter. Cable also supports the
sounding reel and other necessary equipment. The car is moved from one
point to another on the cable-way by means of rollers. As a rule of thumb the
size of the sounding weight in pounds should be greater than the maximum
product of velocity and depth in the cross-section. The depth is measured by
sounding reel and the velocity is measured by current meter.

(iv) Measurement From Boat:

If the cable- way and bridge are not available and the water depth is too deep
to be waded, a boat is used. The measurement is made by first stretching the
tag line across the steam and then moving the boat at each tag to take depth
and velocity measurements. When the stream is very wide and the tag line
can not be used the boat can be kept in position at the cross-section by lining
up with flags position on each end of the cross - section. The position of the
boat is determined by a transit on the stand and a standard rod held in the
boat.

(B) PITOT TUBE

A pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to

calculate discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams. However the
use of pitot tube may not be recommended for rivers due to following reason.
Supporting the pitot tube is very difficult when the channel is very wide and
deep. The head generated by a pitot tube in open channel is generally very
small due to very low velocities, and therefore discharge can not be
accurately measured. The use of pitot tube may however be recommended
for estimating discharge in laboratory flumes and small channels. The
formula for calculating velocity is

V=(2gh)0.5 5.3
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Where h is water height in tube above surface of water. It is the velocity

head. Fig 5.6 shows method of velocity measurement by a pitot tube.

Fig 5.6
(C) FLOATS:

This method consists of putting a float in the channel and noting the time and
distance covered by the float, the velocity will be equal to the distance
traveled in a unit time. i.e.

V=S/t 5.4
Where S is distance covered by float in time t.

A straight reach of the channel is to be selected where the depth is nearly

uniform. Following alternatives can be used to find average velocity.

(a) Type-1 floats: The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance
and time is noted as mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is determined
which is the velocity at the surface of water. The mean velocity then is about
0.85 of surface velocity.

(b) Type-2 floats: Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept
above water surface, the string length is so adjusted so that the weight is at a
depth of 0.60 of total depth. This directly gives the mean velocity.

(c) Type-3 floats: A hollow box is provided at top. Canvas skirts are
connected with stiffening rings. The mean velocity is found by the formula.

Vm=Vo (1.012 - 0.116 d/d1) 5.5

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Vm = Mean velocity, Vo = Observed velocity, d=Total depth

d1= Clearance of lower edge of float from the bed of channel.

Processing field data and calculation of discharge.

Mid-Section Method of Estimating Discharge

The following data is required for estimation of discharge by mid-section

method:

1. Location of sampling points 1, 2, 3,...., n across the stream in

reference to the distance from an initial point on one of the banks. Say
b1, b2, b3,.........,bn are the distances from the initial point to the
observation points 1, 2, 3,...., n

2. Stream depth d, at each observation point. Say d1, d2, d3,.........,dn

represent depths of water at observation point to the observation
points 1, 2, 3,...., n

3. Mean stream velocity perpendicular to the cross-section at each

observation point.1, 2, 3,......, n (observation points)

With the above information being known, the partial discharge can be
computed for any partial section at location „i‟ as qi=di Vi ( bi -1 +b i+1 )/2

Where q i = discharge through partial section i

Vi = Mean velocity at location “i”
bi = distance from initial point to location “i”
bi-1 =distance from initial point to location i-1 .
bi+1 =distance from initial point to location i+1.
di = depth of water at location “i”.

The discharge at first section 1 and last section n are calculated separately as
follows.

q1=d1 V1 ( b1 +b 2 )/2 5.6

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qn=dn Vn ( bn +b n+1 )/2 5.7

The total discharge
Q=q1+ q2+ q3+…………………….+ qn 5.8

ESSENTIAL REQUIRMENTS FOR GOOD DISCHARGE

MEASUREMENT: -

The essential requirements for good discharge measurement are;

1. Keep the current meter clean and properly oiled to reduce the friction
losses.
2. The stream cross-section should be sub-divided into as small sub-
sectors as possible (15-20 sub-stations). If this requirement causes
verticals to be less than 0.15 m. then increase the spacing accordingly.
3. Use the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth when the
depth is greater than 0.60 m otherwise take a single measurement at
0.6 times the depth.
4. Keeping the meter clean of floating materials by raising the meter out
of water to let the debris pass by.
5. When using the wading rod keep it vertical and keep your feet 0.45 –
0.60 meters down stream from the meter.
6. Read and record the river stage from an auxiliary staff gauge
periodically during the discharge measurement. If the stage begins to
change by greater than 5% the procedure may be speeded up by
(i) Decreasing the sounding time.
(ii) Reducing the number of verticals.

Example 5.1

Compute the stream flow for the measurement data given below columns 1 to
5 of table 5.1 below. Take the meter rating from equation. V=a+bN with
a=0.03 and b=0.66

Solution
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As V = a + bN
So V=0.03 + 0.66 N V is in m/s and N is in revolutions/s. Using this
the following calculations in columns 6 to 11 of Table 5.1 below are made.
Find the discharge using Mid-Section method.
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Table 5.1 Computations for Current Meter Observations

Width of
Distance Depth Meter Revol- Velocity at Mean in Disc-
Time N sub- Area
from bank (m) Depth utions. point vertical harge
section
(m) (m) (m) (Sec) (Rev./s) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m²) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)= a+bN (8) (9) (10)=(2)x(9) (11)= (8) x (10)

0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50 0.20 0.162 0.162 0.60 0.18 0.03

1.20 1.05 0.84 22 55 0.40 0.294 0.384 0.60 0.63 0.242
0.21 35 52 0.67 0.474
1.80 1.56 1.26 28 53 0.53 0.379 0.432 0.60 0.94 0.404
0.3 40 58 0.69 0.485
2.70 1.89 1.5 32 58 0.55 0.394 0.460 0.60 1.134 0.521
0.39 45 60 0.75 0.525
3.30 1.32 1.15 28 45 0.62 0.441 0.472 0.60 0.792 0.374
0.27 33 46 0.72 0.503
3.90 0.66 0.39 22 50 0.44 0.320 0.320 0.60 0.396 0.127
4.50 0.24 0.15 12 49 0.24 0.192 0.192 0.60 0.144 0.028
5.10
Total 4.212 1.726
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Q=1.726 m³/s
Total area, A= 4.212 m²
Average velocity = V = (Q/A) = (1.726/4.212) = 0.41 m/sec
Average depth (hydraulic depth) “D”
= AREA / TOP WIDTH = 4.212/5.10= 0.826 m

Example 5.2

From the data given in columns 1 to 4 of the table 5.2 below find discharge.

Table 5.2 Calculation of Discharge

Distance Width
Mean
from Depth(m) of sub- Area Discharge
Velocity
bank section
(m) (m) (m/s) (m) (m²) (m³/s)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2.00 0.50 2.50 2.00 1.00 2.50
5.00 2.00 3.00 4.50 9.00 27.00
8.00 2.50 3.00 6.00 15.00 45.00
11.00 2.40 3.00 6.00 14.40 43.20
14.00 1.50 3.00 4.00 6.00 18.00
17.00 1.00 3.50 2.00 2.00 7.00
21.00 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.00

Total 47.90 143.70

Q=143.7 m³/s

(ii) CHEMICAL GAUGING METHOD (Dilution Method)

This method is particularly useful when plenty of turbulence exist in the flow
and the measurement of discharge by current-meter is not feasible. The
situation may include a weir, or a fall, a sharp bent or turbine. A reach in
 134

which hydraulic jump is taking place, is most appropriate. In this method one
section is selected upstream and other at down stream end of the reach of
channel. The upstream section is called the “dosing section” and down-
stream end is called sampling section. At the dosing section some soluble
chemical salt made up to a known concentration is fed into the stream at a
measured rate. By the time the flow reaches the sampling section the salt
solution is properly mixed with the whole flow. Samples of water are drawn
from the sampling section from the down-stream section and are analyzed
for the quantity of salt. There are two alternatives for injection;

(i) Sudden injection

(ii) Injection at constant rate.

(i) Sudden Injection.

In this method a know volume “V” of the dosing solution or tracer is added to
the stream as rapidly as possible. The concentration at the sampling point
rises rapidly to a peak and then slowly diminishes. Samples are then taken at
regular intervals of time and chemical concentration is determined in
laboratory. A concentration-time curve is then drawn. Discharge ‘Q’ is
V C1
Q= t 2 -------------------------------------------------5.9
 C 2  C o  dt
t1

 C  C  dt =area under the concentration-time curve

t2

2 o
t1

V = Volume of injected solution

C1 = Concentration of chemical in dozing solution.
Co = Conc. of chemical already existing in stream water
C2 = Conc. of chemical in water at sampling point.
 135

(ii) Constant rate of Injection.

In this method the dosing of the chemical or any other tracer has to be
continued at a constant, pre-determined rate say q until the concentration of
the chemical is constant at the sampling point down stream where mixing is
adequate. The discharge is given as

Q=q(C1 – C2 )/ (C2 – Co ) ------------------------------------5.10

Where Co = Concentration of chemical already existing in flowing fluid of

stream

NC3 q
Q = -------- -----------------------------------------------5.11
C2
q = constant rate of injection of chemical
C2 = Concentration of chemical in water at sampling point
C3 = Difference in concentration at dozing and sampling point
The sampling point is determined on the basis of mixing length. Formulae
have been given by various researchers for mixing length.

Example 5.3:

A 30 g/l solution of a chemical was discharged into a stream at a constant rate

of 10x10-6 m3/sec. The same chemical was not found in stream water at all.
The concentration of chemical at sampling section was found to be 5000
parts per million. Estimate the stream discharge.

Solution

From Equation 5.10, we have

Q=q(C1 – C2 )/ (C2 – Co )
q=10x10-6 m3/sec.
C1 =30g/l=0.030 g/ml
C2 =5000 parts per million = 0.005x10-6 g/ml
Co =0
 136

Q= [10x10-6 x (0.03-5x10-9)]÷( 5x10-9 )= 60 m3/sec.

(iii) DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT BY PERMANENT

STRUCTURES

Permanent structures for the measurement of discharge are built at the sites
where regular discharge measurements are required. Structures built for
other purposes may also be used. i.e. spillways of dam, or a fall, or a barrage.

This may be a masonry structure built in the bed of the channel across the
flow. The height is so designed that for all possible discharges in the channel,
the depth over the sill remains the critical depth, as such a hydraulic jump
must form down stream of the structure say weir.

If “H” is the head over the weir just upstream of the weir, “V”, is the critical
velocity “yc” is the critical depth, on neglecting the approach velocity and
applying energy equation. (In MKS system)

Q = Cd 1.7BH1.5---------------------------------------------------------5.12

Where
B = width of weir,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge

Example 5.4:

Depth of water just upstream of a broad crested weir was measured to be 0.5
m in a 10m wide channel. Find discharge. The height of weir was 0.2 m

Solution

Given Data
Head avove weir crest = H =0.5-0.2 = 0.3 m
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.60
B = Width of weir = 10 m
Q = 0.6x1.7x10x(0.3)1.5 = 1.676 m³/s
 137

The coefficient of discharge depends on type of weir structure.

STAGE AND DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP (RATING CURVE):

The graphical curve between stage and discharge is called the stage-discharge
curve or rating curve. The rating curve is nothing but the graph giving the
relation between stage and discharge. Stage is plotted along y-axis and
discharge is plotted along x-axis. The shape of rating curve looks like
parabola.

The stage discharge rating depends upon the channel control. For a
permanent control this relation may be applicable for years. It may be
necessary to take at least three discharge measurements in a week to check
the rating curve because of random shifting of the stream channel particularly
during flood season.

There may be three types of rating curve for any type of river.

1. Low Flow Rating Curve:-

It is the most frequently occurring.

2. Intermediate Flow Rating Curve:-

It is the stage between a flood and low flows.

3. High flow Rating Curve:

This occurs in high flood days, so is for rarely occurring situation. Because
of this, it is often represented by dotted lines and is obtained by extension of
low flow rating curve.

Not all rating curves are divided into three segments. This division is purely
artificial.
 138

EXTENSION OF RATING CURVE.

The most important use of the stage discharge rating curve is obtaining
discharge for any measured stage. Because of infrequency of floods it may
seldom be practicable to obtain correct rating curve for high flows. Some
times due to unprecedented floods the stage may be so high that it may not be
possible to get the discharge from the original rating curve. So we need an
extension of the rating curve to obtain discharge during high stage floods.
Special methods have to be used to extend the original rating curve to
extrapolate the discharge corresponding to the measured high stage. The
most reliable method would be the one which straightens the approximated
parabolic rating curve for the convenience of its extension. The most
commonly used methods which comply with this condition are

(i) The Logarithmic Method

(ii) A√D Method
(iii) Slope area Method.

(i) THE LOGARITHMIC METHOD:

This method is used if the cross section of the stream at the gauging station is
of a regular shape and there is no possibility of getting a number of straight
lines of varying slopes. In general

Q = C(g-a)n ------------------------------------------------------------------5.13

where (g-a) is the actual water depth and “a” is the vertical distance between
the zero flow and zero datum. C and n are any constants.

Now taking “log” on both sides

log Q = log C(g-a)n = log C+ log (g-a)n
log Q = log C + n log (g-a) --------------------------------------------------5.14

The equation (5.14) is the equation of a straight line with Log C being the
intercept and “n” the slope. In this equation the zero gauge height “a” is
determined by assuming the various values of „a” until log Q” when plotted
 139

against log (g-a), forms a straight line. This straight line can then be extended
to extrapolate discharge corresponding to the measured gauge height.

2. A√D Method

This method is based on the Chezy‟s formula

Q = AC√RS ----------------------------------------------------------------------5.15

where
C= roughness coefficient (Chezy‟s Constant)
S= Slope of energy line
A= Cross sectional area
R= Hydraulic radius

if C√S is assumed to be constant for the station and “D” the mean depth is
substituted for “R”, only when the section is wide, then

Q = K A √D ---------------------------------------------------------------------5.16

This can be explained as follows:

If the stream is assumed to be a large rectangular channel (wide channel),
then

R = A/P = Bxy/(B+2y) (where P = Wetted perimeter)

For a wide channel „2y‟ can be neglected.
R= A/P = Bxy/(B+2y) ≈ y = D
Q= K A√D
or Q α A√D

Knowing the values of Q and A we can plot a graph and get a straight line,
which may be extended. Values of A for stages above the existing rating can
be obtained by field measurements and used with the extended curve for
estimates of Q.
 140

3. SLOPE AREA METHOD.

This method of estimating high flows is by application of hydraulic

principles. Sufficient high water marks must be located along a reach of
channel to determine water surface slope at the time of peak.
Cross sections of the channel may be determined by leveling or sounding,
and the area and hydraulic radius calculated. The Chezy -Manning formula is
ordinarily used to calculate discharge.

Manning‟s Formula is different for both M.K.S. & F.P.S.

Q= A(1/n) R2/3√Sf (M.K.S) ------------------------------5.17

Q= A(1.49/n) R2/3√Sf (F.P.S) --------------------------------5.18
A= Area of cross section, Sf = Frictional slope
n= Manning‟s Constant , R= Hydraulic Radius

The main source of error in applying this equation is in estimating the

roughness coefficient “n”. Since Q depends upon 1/n and the average value
of “n” for natural stream is about 0.035, an error of 0.001 in “n” represents
about 3% in discharge.

Under the most favorable conditions an error of 10% may be expected in a

slope area estimate of flow.

Example 5.5

Find discharge in a rectangular channel having Manning‟s n=0.04,

Sf=0.0005, width of 5 m and depth of flow of 1.5 m.

SOLUTION
From Equation 5.17
Q= A (1/n) R2/3√Sf
We have the values of
n = 0.04 &
Sf =0.0005
B=5 m and
y=1.5 m.
 141

So we have to calculate R(hydraulic radius) R=A/P

where P= wetted perimeter

Now P=5+2x 1.5 = 5 + 3=8 m

area A=5x1.5=7.50 m2
R=A/P=7.5/8=0.94 m
Discharge Q=7.5x(1/0.04)x(0.94)0.667x(0.0005)0.5
Q=4.02 m³/s

Example 5.6

Given in Table 5.4 below is data for a station rating curve. Find the flow at
4.42 m stage, both by logarithmic and A√D methods.

Table 5.4 Stage vs Discharge Data

A=
D=
Cross-
Stage Mean Discharge
Sectional
‘g’ (m) Depth 'Q' (m³/s)
Area
(m)
(m²)
0.52 24.43 0.46 29
0.76 62.62 0.55 76
1.06 111.5 0.64 139
1.23 145.86 0.85 187
1.3 166.3 0.98 218
1.55 199.74 1.19 268
1.71 221.11 1.4 303
1.82 270.35 1.49 371
2.04 304.72 1.58 428
2.08 317.73 1.65 456
2.38 367.9 1.74 538
2.67 447.79 1.83 682
2.81 464.52 1.86 708
3.02 487.74 1.98 773
4.42 761.81 2.74
 142

SOLUTION:

Logarithmic Method:

The method involves choosing trial values of „a‟, finding logarithm of (g-a)
and Q. Then plotting Log Q against Log (g-a) as shown in Fig. 5.7. The best
fit line is drawn through points for most suitable „a‟ value. This line is
extended to read required discharge.

The calculations are shown in Table 5.5 and graph is shown in Figure 5.6.
The value of „a‟ for which we obtain a straight line is 0.4 m. The discharge
required is corresponding to log (4.42-0.4) = 0.60. The value of log Q against
stage of 4.42 m is therefore 3.1 which corresponds to a discharge of = 1260
m³/s.

The value of discharge found by logarithmic method is approximated one

because it depends upon plotting accuracy and judgment of drawing best fit
line. Suppose for example if value of log Q would have been read as 3.15, the
discharge value would have been 1412 m³/s which is 12 % more than
previous computed value of 1260 m³/s.

Fig 5.7 Rating Curve

Extension of Rating Curve by Logarithmic Method

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
log Q

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
log (g-a)

a =0.3 a = 0.4 a = 0.5

 143

Table 5.5 Extension of Rating Curve

Stage Discharge Log10(g-a)

Log10Q
'g' (m) 'Q' (m³/s) a = 0.3 a = 0.4 a = 0.5
0.52 29 1.46 -0.649 -0.906 -1.615
0.76 76 1.88 -0.335 -0.441 -0.582
1.06 139 2.14 -0.121 -0.182 -0.254
1.23 187 2.27 -0.034 -0.083 -0.139
1.30 218 2.34 -0.001 -0.047 -0.098
1.55 268 2.43 0.096 0.060 0.021
1.71 303 2.48 0.149 0.117 0.083
1.82 371 2.57 0.183 0.153 0.121
2.04 428 2.63 0.241 0.215 0.188
2.08 456 2.66 0.251 0.226 0.199
2.38 538 2.73 0.318 0.296 0.274
2.67 682 2.83 0.374 0.355 0.336
2.81 708 2.85 0.399 0.382 0.363
3.02 773 2.89 0.434 0.418 0.401
4.42 0.615 0.604 0.593

A√D Method

The cross sectional area A and Mean Depth D are given. Value of A√D is
calculated for each stage value as shown in table 5.6. A√D is plotted against
Q as shown in Fig 5.8. The value of Q corresponding to stage in question is
required discharge. For example, for a stage of 4.42 m, value of A√D is 1261.
This corresponds to 1375 m³/s. Here again an estimated discharge is found.

Table 5.6 Extension of Rating Curve

A =
D =
Cross-
Stage Mead Discharge
Sectional A√D
'g' (m) Depth 'Q' (m³/s)
Area
(m)
(m²)
0.52 24.43 0.46 29 16.57
0.76 62.62 0.55 76 46.44
1.06 111.5 0.64 139 89.20
1.23 145.86 0.85 187 134.48
 144

1.3 166.3 0.98 218 164.63

1.55 199.74 1.19 268 217.89
1.71 221.11 1.4 303 261.62
1.82 270.35 1.49 371 330.00
2.04 304.72 1.58 428 383.03
2.08 317.73 1.65 456 408.13
2.38 367.9 1.74 538 485.29
2.67 447.79 1.83 682 605.76
2.81 464.52 1.86 708 633.52
3.02 487.74 1.98 773 686.31
4.42 761.81 2.74 1261.02

Fig 5.8 Rating Curve

Extension Of Rating Curve by Chezy's

2000 Method
Discharge (Q m³/s)

1500

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Value of AxSQRT(D)

STREAM FLOW UNITS

(i) RATE OF RUN OFF:

It may be measured in cubic foot per second or cubic meter per second. One
cubic foot per second is a volume of one ft³ when collected in one second.
 145

The ft³/second are also called cusec or cfs. In the metric system the cubic
meter per second are also called cumec.

(ii) VOLUME RUN OFF:

Volume of flow is expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, cubic inches and
also in Acre foot and second foot days.

SECOND FOOT DAY (SFD)

It is the volume of water collected in 24 hours (one day) at the rate of 1 cubic
foot per second.

: 1 Sfd = 24 x 60x60 =86400 ft³.

The smaller unit is second foot hour i.e. volume collected in one hour at the
rate of 1cfs.

: 1 sfh = 60x60 =3600 ft³.

ACRE FOOT

If an area of one acre is converted by a uniform depth of 1ft of water. The

total volume thus collected is 1 Acre foot.

One Acre = 4840 (yards)²

: 1 Acre - foot = (4840x9)x1 = 43560 ft³
and 1 Sfd = 1.9835 Acre foot.

HECTARE METER

If an area of one hectare is covered by a uniform depth of 1m of water. The

total volume thus collected is 1 Hectare-meter.

One Hectare-meter = 104 m³

 146

INCHES OF RUN OFF:

If a certain catchment area is having a uniform depth of 1 cm of water, the

total Run off is 1 cm for that very catchment area.

Example 5.7
What volume is represented by 3.5 cm of run off from a basin of 650 Square
Kilometers. Give answer in cubic meters and Hectare-meter.

Solution
Volume = 3.5x10-2x650x106
=22.75x106 m³
=2275 Hectare-meters

Example 5.8
Given below are the daily mean flows in Cubic meters per second at a
gauging station for a period of 5 days. What is the mean flow rate for the
period in cubic meters per second? What is the total flow during the period
in Hectare-meters. The drainage area is 1935 square kilometers what is run
off volume in cm.

Table 5.7
Discharge
Day
'Q' (m³/s)
1 20
2 136
3 88
4 57
5 37

SOLUTION
Mean Flow = 338 = 67.6 m³/s.
5
Discharge in Hectare-meters = 67.6x5x24x3600/104 = 5x584.06 Hectare-
meters = 2920.32 Hectare-meters.
 147

Drainage area = 1935 km²

Volume in cm = 5x584.06x104x10²÷1935x106
= 5x0.30 cm = 1.50 cm

COMPONENTS OF RUN OFF:

The components of run off are following

(I) OVERLAND OR SURFACE FLOW:

When rain falling on ground attains sufficient depth, water begins flowing
down slope and establish surface channel. A route to the channel is formed.
Then the water is designated as over land flow and upon entering channel it
becomes surface run off.

(2) INTER FLOW OR SUB SURFACE FLOW:

Water which infiltrates the soil may move laterally through the upper layer of
the soil until it enters a stream channel. this water is known as inter flow or
sub surface flow.

(3) BASE FLOW OR GROUNDWATER FLOW:

The infiltrated water may percolate downward until it reaches the water table.
This water may ultimately discharge into the stream as groundwater flow if
the water table intersects the stream channel. this type of flow is known as
Dry Weather Flow.

However, the total flow is divided into two parts depending upon the time of
arrival in the stream rather than the path of flow. they are (i) Direct runoff
(DRO) (ii) Base Flow.

The direct run off is the sum of surface run off and the initial part of the inter
flow and the base flow is the sum of the ground water and the latter portions
of the inter flow.
 148

QUESTIONS

1. Define „River Stage‟. Describe the „Staff Gauges‟ used for measuring
river stage?
2. Describe with the help of a neat sketch the „Price Current Meter‟.
What is the difference between Price Current Meter and Propeller
Type Current Meter?
3. Why is the stage-discharge relationship important in hydrologic
analysis? What are the different methods of extending the stage-
discharge relationship?
4. What do you understand by the term „control point‟ with reference to
a stream gauging station?
5. What is meant by a „Rating Curve‟. Describe the „Logarithmic
Method‟ of extension of rating curves?
6. Describe the working principle and use of „Water Stage Recorder‟?
7. Explain measurement of depth of flow in a river?
8. Describe chemical gauging method of discharge measurement?
9. Describe discharge measurement by
(i) Floats
(ii) Current Meter
 149

EXERCISE

Problem 5.1

Following is the data for a rating curve given in Table 5.8. Extend this rating
curve to find out the discharge against a stage of 4.42 m by

(i) Logarithmic Method

(ii) Chezy‟s Method

Table 5.8 Data for Rating Curve

Stage (m) Discharge (m³/s)

0.52 28.88
0.76 76.46
1.06 138.75
1.23 186.89
1.30 218.04
1.55 267.60
1.71 302.99
1.82 370.95
2.04 427.59
2.08 455.90
2.38 538.02
2.67 682.44
2.81 707.92
3.02 773.05
4.42 --

Problem 5.2

Using the current meter data given in Table 5.9 below, determine the cross-
sectional area, the discharge, the mean velocity and the average depth for the
entire section.
 150

Table 5.9 Data for Discharge Measurement

Distance from Depth of Flow Observatinal Velocity

initial point on Depth
bank
(m) (m) (m) (m/sec)

4.57 (LEW) 0.0 - -

4.88 0.55 0.33 0.51
5.49 0.67 0.13 0.81
0.54 0.61 6.10 0.64
0.13 0.81 0.21 0.68
7.01 0.37 0.22 0.34
7.32 (REW) 0.0 - -

Problem 5.3

Given below in, Table 5.10, are the daily mean flows (m³/s) at a gauging
station for a period of 5 days. What is the mean flow rate for the period in
m³/s. What is the total discharge during the period in second-m-days and
Hectare-m.If the drainage area is 2048 km², what is the runoff volume in mm.

Table 5.10 Mean Flows

Day Flow (m³/s)

1 26.90
2 143.00
3 94.86
4 72.77
5 44.17
 151

Problem 5.4

Using the data obtained with the help of a current meter having constants
a=0.05 and b=2.3 as given in Table 5.11 below, determine the cross-sectional
area, discharge, mean velocity and average depth for the entire stream.

Table 5.11 Current Meter Observations

Distance from Depth MeterDepth Revolution Time (sec)

the bank of Stream
(m) (m) (m)

0.90 0.30 0.20 15 40

1.50 0.90 0.75 25 42
0.20 30 45
2.10 1.40 1.10 40 43
0.27 50 48
2.75 1.90 1.50 60 48
0.40 50 44
3.70 1.50 1.20 35 42
0.30 25 40
4.60 0.45 0.30 20 35
5.20 0 - - -

Problem 5.5

One field party measured the following data given in Table 5.12 using the
current metering approach to measure the discharge. Assuming a=0.05 and
b=2.3 for computing velocity in m/s. Calculate the discharge of the stream.
 152

Table 5.12 Current Meter Observations

Distance
Meter Depth
fromthe Depth (m) Revolution Time (sec)
(m)
bank (m)

0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50

1.20 1.07 0.85 22 55
0.21 35 52
1.80 1.59 1.28 28 53
0.30 40 58
2.70 1.92 1.52 32 58
0.40 45 60
3.30 1.34 1.07 28 45
0.27 33 46
3.90 0.67 0.40 22 50
4.50 0.24 0.15 12 49
5.10 0.00 - - -