Food science is the science of nature devoted to the study of food; it is often confused with "food technology".

The Institute of Food Technology defines food science as "the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and
physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food
processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public". The textbook Food Science defines food science in
simpler terms as "the application of basic sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical
nature of foods and the principles of food processing".Activities of food technologists include the development of new
food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-l ife studies, sensory
evaluation of products using survey panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food
scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its
properties. Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines. It incorporates concepts from fields such
as chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, biochemistry. Food technology incorporates concepts from chemical
engineering, for example.
Introduction A diet is all that we consume in a day. And a balanced diet is a diet that contains an adequate quantity of the
nutrients that we require in a day. A balanced diet includes six main nutrients Fats, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fibber,
Vitamins and minerals.
All these nutrients are present in the foods that we eat. Different food items have different
proportions of nutrients present in them. The requirements of the nutrients depend on
the age, gender, and health of a person.
Importance of a Balanced Diet The following are the importance of a balanced diet
 Balanced Diet leads to a good physical and a good mental health.
 It helps in proper growth of the body.
 Also, it increases the capacity to work
 Balanced diet increases the ability to fight or resist diseases.
Components of a balanced diet Some components of a balanced diet are as follows :
Fats Some part of our energy requirement is fulfilled by fats. Fats can be found in fatty foods such as butter, ghee, oil,
cheese, etc.
Proteins We need proteins for growth purposes and to repair the wear and tear of the body. Protein also helps in building
muscle. It is found in dairy products, sprouts, meat, eggs, chicken, etc
Carbohydrates We need the energy to process and it is fulfilled by carbohydrates. Carbs provide us
energy. Carbohydrates can be found in rice, wheat, chapati, bread, etc. Cereals are our staple food.
Minerals and Vitamins Vitamins, Minerals, and Fibre improve the body’s resistance to disease. We mainly obtain it
from vegetables and fruits. Deficiency diseases like Anemia, Goitre, etc can be caused due to lack of mineral in the body.
A balanced diet is one that gives your body the nutrients it needs to function correctly. To get the proper nutrition from
your diet, you should consume the majority of your daily calories in: fresh fruits, fresh vegetables, whole grains, legumes,
nuts, lean proteins.
Calories The number of calories in a food is a measurement of the amount of energy stored in that food. body uses
calories from food for walking, thinking, breathing, and other important functions. The average person needs to eat about
2,000 calories every day to maintain their weight. However, a person’s specific daily calorie intake can vary depending on
their age, gender, and physical activity level. Men generally need more calories than women, and people who exercise
need more calories than people who don’t. The following examples of daily calorie intake are based on United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA)Trusted Source guidelines:
 children ages 2 to 8 years: 1,000 to 1,400 calories
 girls ages 9 to 13 years: 1,400 to 1,600 calories
  boys ages 9 to 13 years: 1,600 to 2,000 calories
 active women ages 14 to 30 years: 2,400 calories
 sedentary women ages 14 to 30 years: 1,800 to 2,000 calories
 active men ages 14 to 30 years: 2,800 to 3,200 calories
 sedentary men ages 14 to 30 years: 2,000 to 2,600 calories
 active men and women over 30 years: 2,000 to 3,000 calories
 sedentary men and women over 30 years: 1,600 to 2,400 calories
A balanced diet is important because your organs and tissues need proper nutrition to work effectively. Without good
nutrition, your body is more prone to disease, infection, fatigue, and poor performance. Children with a poor diet run the
risk of growth and developmental problems and poor academic performance, and bad eating habits can persist for the rest
of their lives. Learn more about healthy meal plans for kids. Rising levels of obesity and diabetes in America are prime
examples of the effects of a poor diet and a lack of exercise. The Center for Science in the Public Interest reports that 4 of
the top 10 leading causes of death in the United States are directly influenced by diet. These are: heart disease, cancer,
stroke, diabetes. At the core of a balanced diet are foods that are low in unnecessary fats and sugars and high in vitamins,
minerals, and other nutrients. The following food groups are essential parts of a balanced diet.
Fruits Besides being a great source of nutrition, fruits make tasty snacks. Choose fruits that are in season in your area.
They’re fresher and provide the most nutrients. Fruits are high in sugar. This sugar is natural, though, so fruit can still be a
better choice for you than other foods with added sugar. If you’re watching your sugar intake or have a condition such as
diabetes, you may want to opt for low-sugar fruits. Read on to learn about the 11 best low-sugar fruits, from citrus to
peaches. People who are watching their carbohydrate intake may reach for fruits such as melons and avocadoes.
Vegetables are primary sources of essential vitamins and minerals. Dark, leafy greens generally contain the most nutrition
and can be eaten at every meal. Eating a variety of vegetables will help you obtain the bountiful nutrients that all
vegetables provide. Examples of dark leafy greens include: spinach, kale, green beans, broccoli, collard greens, Swiss
chard
Grains According to the USDA, Americans consume refined white flour more than any other grain. Refined white
flour has poor nutritional value because the hull of the grain, or outer shell, is removed during the refining process. The
hull is where the majority of the grain’s nutrition lies. Whole grains, however, are prepared using the entire grain,
including the hull. They provide much more nutrition. Try switching from white breads and pastas to whole-grain
products.
Proteins Meats and beans are primary sources of protein, a nutrient that is essential for proper muscle and brain
development. Lean, low-fat meats such as chicken, fish, and certain cuts of pork and beef are the best options. Removing
the skin and trimming off any visible fat are easy ways to reduce the amount of fat and cholesterol in meats. The health
and diet of the animal are important and influence the fatty acid profile of the meat, so grass-fed choices are ideal. Nuts
and beans are good sources of protein and contain many other health benefits, as well as fiber and other nutrients. Try to
eat: lentils, beans,peas, almonds, sunflower seeds, walnuts, Tofu, tempeh, and other soy-based products are excellent
sources of protein and are healthy alternatives to meat.
Dairy products provide calcium, vitamin D, and other essential nutrients. However, they’re also major sources of fat, so it
may be best to choose small portions of full-fat cheeses, and reduced-fat or fat-free milk and yogurt. Plant-based milks,
such as those made from flaxseed, almonds, or soy are typically fortified with calcium and other nutrients, making them
excellent alternatives to dairy from cows.
Oils should be used sparingly. Opt for low-fat and low-sugar versions of products that contain oil, such as salad dressing
and mayonnaise. Good oils, such as olive oil, can replace fattier vegetable oil in your diet. Avoid deep-fried foods because
they contain many empty calories. The USDA has an online checklist that can help you determine how much of each food
group you should consume daily. Besides adding certain foods to your diet, you should also reduce your consumption of
certain substances to maintain a balanced diet and healthy weight. These include: alcohol, refined grains, solid fats,
saturated fats, trans fats, salt, sugars
A balance diet is one which contains the correct proportions of all the different food requirement of the body.
A balanced diet should supply enough energy for each day activities
A balance diet consist of the following food requirement
Carbohydrates and lipids to provide energy for all the activities in the body
Protein to build new tissues for growth and repair damaged tissues
Vitamins to prevent diseases and for normal healthy development
Mineral salts which are essential for normal healthy growth and development
Fibres as roughage to stimulate peristalsis and prevent constipation
Water which is needed as medium for all chemical reactions in the cells. It helps to transport substances that are needed
by the cells and remove metabolic wastes. It also help to distribute and regulated body heat
Factors affecting the daily energy requirement of the body Individual requires energy that is sufficient to carry out all
living processes such as heart beating, breathing, growing, excreting and regulating body temperature of 37 C
Energy is obtained from the oxidation of glucose during cell respiration
The unit for energy is joule (J)
The energy value or calorific value is the quantify of heat produced when one gram of food is completely oxidised.
Example of energy value in certain food are as follow:
Carbohydrates 22.2 kJ per gram, Protein 17.2 kJ per gram, Lipids – 38.5 kJ per gram
One calorie or 4.2 J is the quantity of heat required to raise temperature of 1 gram of water by 1C. The energy value in a
certain food can be determined by using the following formula:
Energy value = (Mass of water gram x Increase in temp C x 4.2) mass of food (g)
The daily energy requirement of the body varies from individual to individual and depends on the following factors:
Age, Sex, Body size and weight, Occupation
Nutritionally adequate diet should be consumed through a wise choice from a variety of foods.
 Nutrition is a basic prerequisite to sustain life.
 Variety in food is not only the spice of life but also the essence of nutrition and health.
 A diet consisting of several food groups provides all the required nutrients in proper amounts.
 Cereals, millets and pulses are major sources of most nutrients.
 Milk which provides good quality proteins and calcium must be an essential item of the diet, particularly for
infants, children and women.
 Oils and nuts are calorie-rich foods, and are useful for increasing the energy density.
 Inclusion of eggs, flesh foods and fish enhances the quality of diet. However, vegetarians can derive almost all the
nutrients on cereal/pulse/milk-based diets.
 Vegetables and fruits provide protective substances such as vitamins / minerals / phytonutrients.
 Choose a variety of foods in amounts appropriate for age, gender, physiological status and physical activity.
 Use a combination of whole grains, grams and greens. Include jaggery or sugar and cooking oils to bridge the
calorie or energy gap.
 Prefer fresh, locally available vegetables and fruits in plenty.
 Include in the diets, foods of animal origin such as milk, eggs and meat, particularly for pregnant and lactating
women and children.
 Adults should choose low-fat, protein-rich foods such as lean meat, fish, pulses and low-fat milk.
 Develop healthy eating habits and exercise regularly and move as much as you can to avoid sedentary lifestyle
Nutrients that we obtain through food have vital effects on physical growth and development, maintenance of normal
body function, physical activity and health. Nutritious food is, thus needed to sustain life and activity. Our diet must
provide all essential nutrients in the required amounts. Requirements of essential nutrients vary with age, gender,
physiological status and physical activity. Dietary intakes lower or higher than the body requirements can lead to under
nutrition (deficiency diseases) or over nutrition (diseases of affluence) respectively. Eating too little food during certain
significant periods of life such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, pregnancy and lactation and eating too much at any age
can lead to harmful consequences. An adequate diet, providing all nutrients, is needed throughout our lives. The nutrients
must be obtained through a judicious choice and combination of a variety of foodstuffs from different food groups.
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are macronutrients, which are needed in large amounts. Vitamins and minerals constitute
the micronutrients and are required in small amounts. These nutrients are necessary for physiological and biochemical
processes by which the human body acquires, assimilates and utilizes food to maintain health and activity.
Carbohydrates are either simple or complex, and are major sources of energy in all human diets. They provide energy of
4 Kcal/g. The simple carbohydrates, glucose and fructose, are found in fruits, vegetables and honey, sucrose in sugar and
lactose in milk, while the complex polysaccharides are starches in cereals, millets, pulses and root vegetables and
glycogen in animal foods. The other complex carbohydrates which are resistant to digestion in the human digestive tract
are cellulose in vegetables and whole grains, and gums and pectins in vegetables, fruits and cereals, which constitute the
dietary fibre component. In India, 70-80% of total dietary calories are derived from carbohydrates present in plant foods
such as cereals, millets and pulses. Dietary fibre delays and retards absorption of carbohydrates and fats and increases the
satiety value. Diets rich in fibre reduce glucose and lipids in blood and increase the bulk of the stools. Diets rich in
complex carbohydrates are healthier than low-fibre diets based on refined and processed foods.
Proteins are primary structural and functional components of every living cell. Almost half the protein in our body is in
the form of muscle and the rest of it is in bone, cartilage and skin. Proteins are complex molecules composed of different
amino acids. Certain amino acids which are termed “essential”, have to be obtained from proteins in the diet since they are
not synthesized in the human body. Other nonessential amino acids can be synthesized in the body to build proteins.
Proteins perform a wide range of functions and also provide energy (4 Kcal/g). Protein requirements vary with age,
physiological status and stress. More proteins are required by growing infants and children, pregnant women and
individuals during infections and illness or stress. Animal foods like milk, meat, fish and eggs and plant foods such as
pulses and legumes are rich sources of proteins. Animal proteins are of high quality as they provide all the essential amino
acids in right proportions, while plant or vegetable proteins are not of the same quality because of their low content of
some of the essential amino acids. However, a combination of cereals, millets and pulses provides most of the amino
acids, which complement each other to provide better quality proteins.
Fats Oils and fats such as butter, ghee and vanaspathi constitute dietary visible fats. Fats are a concentrated source of
energy providing 9 Kcal/g, and are made up of fatty acids in different proportions. Dietary fats are derived from two
sources viz. the invisible fat present in plant and animal foods; and the visible or added fats and oils (cooking oil). Fats
serve as a vehicle for fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K and carotenes and promote their absorption. They
are also sources of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is necessary to have adequate and good quality fat in the diet
with sufficient polyunsaturated fatty acids in proper proportions for meeting the requirements of essential fatty acids
(Refer chapter 7). The type and quantity of fat in the daily diet influence the level of cholesterol and triglycerides in the
blood. Diets should include adequate amounts of fat particularly in the case of infants and children, to provide
concentrated energy since their energy needs per kg body weight are nearly twice those of adults. Adults need to be
cautioned to restrict intake of saturated fat (butter, ghee and hydrogenated fats) and cholesterol (red meat, eggs, organ
meat). Excess of these substances could lead to obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins are chemical compounds required by the body in small amounts. They must be present
in the diet as they cannot be synthesized in the body. Vitamins are essential for numerous body processes and for
maintenance of the structure of skin, bone, nerves, eye, brain, blood and mucous membrane. They are either water soluble
or fat-soluble. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat-soluble, while vitamin C, and the B-complex vitamins such as thiamin (B ),
1 riboflavin (B ), niacin, pyridoxine (B ), folic 2 6 acid and cyanocobalamin (B ) are water- 12 soluble. Pro-vitamin like
beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body. Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body while water-soluble
vitamins are not and get easily excreted in urine. Vitamins B-complex and C are heat labile vitamins and are easily
destroyed by heat, air or during drying, cooking and food processing.
Minerals are inorganic elements found in body fluids and tissues. The important macro minerals are sodium, potassium,
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulphur, while zinc, copper, selenium, molybdenum, fluorine, cobalt, chromium and
iodine are micro minerals. They are required for maintenance and integrity of skin, hair, nails, blood and soft tissues. They
also govern nerve cell transmission, acid/base and fluid balance, enzyme and hormone activity as well as the blood-
clotting processes.
A balanced diet is one which provides all the nutrients in required amounts and proper proportions. It can easily be
achieved through a blend of the four basic food groups. The quantities of foods needed to meet the nutrient requirements
vary with age, gender, physiological status and physical activity. A balanced diet should provide around 50-60% of total
calories from carbohydrates, preferably from complex carbohydrates, about 10-15% from proteins and 20-30% from both
visible and invisible fat. In addition, a balanced diet should provide other non-nutrients such as dietary fibre, antioxidants
and phytochemicals which bestow positive health benefits. Antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene,
riboflavin and selenium protect the human body from free radical damage. Other phytochemicals such as polyphenols,
flavones, etc., also afford protection against oxidant damage. Spices like turmeric, ginger, garlic, cumin and cloves are
rich in antioxidants. Balanced Diet for Adults - Sedentary/Moderate/Heavy Activity is given in annexure 2 and figures 3
& 4. Also, sample menu plans for sedentary adult man and woman are given in annexure 2a and 2b respectively. Foods
are conventionally grouped as:
1. Cereals, millets and pulses
2. Vegetables and fruits
3. Milk and milk products, egg, meat and fish
4. Oils & fats and nuts & oilseeds
However, foods may also be classified according to their functions .

MAJOR NUTRIENTS OTHER NUTRIENTS

ENERGY RICH FOODS Carbohydrates & fats

Whole grain cereals, millets Protein, fibre, minerals, calcium,iron & B-

complex vitamins

Vegetable oils, ghee, butter Fat soluble vitamins, essential fatty acids

Nuts and oilseeds Proteins, vitamins, minerals

Sugars Nil

BODY BUILDING FOODS Proteins

Pulses, nuts and oilseeds B-complex vitamins, invisible fat, fibre

Milk and Milk products Calcium, vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin B12

Meat, fish, poultry B-complex vitamins, iron, iodine, fat

PROTECTIVE FOODS Vitamins and Minerals

Green leafy vegetables Antioxidants, fibre and other carotenoids

Other vegetables and fruits Fibre, sugar and antioxidants

 Eggs, milk and milk products Protein and fat
and flesh foods

What are nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances (RDA)? Requirements are the quantities of
nutrients that healthy individuals must obtain from food to meet their physiological needs. The recommended dietary
allowances (RDAs) are estimates of nutrients to be consumed daily to ensure the requirements of all individuals in a given
population. The recommended level depends upon the bioavailability of nutrients from a given diet. The term
bioavailability indicates what is absorbed and utilized by the body. In addition, RDA includes a margin of safety, to cover
variation between individuals, dietary traditions and practices. The RDAs are suggested for physiological groups such as
infants, pre-schoolers, children, adolescents, pregnant women, lactating mothers, and adult men and women, taking into
account their physical activity. In fact, RDAs are suggested averages/day. However, in practice, fluctuations in intake may
occur depending on the food availability and demands of the body. But, the average requirements need to be satisfied over
a period of time. Our diet must provide adequate calories, proteins and micronutrients to achieve maximum growth
potential. Therefore, it is important to have appropriate diet during different stages of one’s life . There may be situations
where adequate amounts of nutrients may not be available through diet alone. In such high risk situations where specific
nutrients are lacking, foods fortified with the limiting Nutrients become necessary. A good example of such fortified foods
is the salt fortified with iron and iodine.
Importance of Diet during Different Stages of Life
Senior Citizens: For being physically active and healthy
require nutrient dense low fat foods.
Pregnancy: For maintaining health, productivity and
prevention of diet-related diseases and to support
pregnancy/lactation require nutritionally adequate diet with
extra food for child bearing/rearing.
Adolescent: For growth spurt, maturation and bone
development require body building and protective foods.
Child Age: For growth, development and to fight infections
require Energy, body building and protective food.
Infant: For growth and appropriate milestones require
Breast milk, energy rich foods.
Balanced diet for adult man (sedentary)

Balanced diet for adult woman (sedentary)

A good diet is important for our health and can help us feel
our best - but what is a good diet? Apart from breastmilk as a
food for babies, no single food contains all the essential
nutrients the body needs to stay healthy and work properly. For this reason, our diets should contain a variety of different
foods, to help us get the wide range of nutrients that our bodies need. This is illustrated by the UK’s healthy eating model
– the Eatwell Guide.
A healthy diet should provide us with the right amount of energy (calories or kilojoules), from foods and drinks to
maintain energy balance. Energy balance is where the calories taken in from the diet are equal to the calories used by the
body. We need these calories to carry out everyday tasks such as walking and moving about, but also for all the functions
of the body we may not even think about. Processes like breathing, pumping blood around the body and thinking also
require calories. So, foods and drinks provide the calories we need to go about our daily lives, but consuming more
calories than we need over a period of time will cause weight gain. This is because, any extra calories we consume but we
don’t use, will just be stored as fat. Over 50% of adults in the UK are overweight or obese. There is also a huge concern
about childhood obesity, where 1 in 3 children aged 4-5, and 1 in 5 children aged 10-11, are overweight or obese. Being
overweight as a child increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease and some cancers in adulthood. So,
maintaining a healthy weight is really important for health. How much energy you need from foods and drinks depends on
many different things, such as how active you are. But, on average:
Eating only as many calories as you need will help to maintain a healthy weight. However, the foods and drinks you
choose need to be the right ones, and in the right proportions to stay healthy. Having this balance in your diet can be
achieved by following the Eatwell Guide.
For most people, eating a healthy, balanced diet based around the Eatwell Guide should provide all of the nutrients needed
to stay healthy. However, at some stages in our lives we may need to take supplements to make sure we get enough of a
particular vitamin or mineral.
Vitamin D, All babies under 1 year should have a daily 8.5 to 10 microgram vitamin D supplement to ensure they get
enough. Children who have more than 500ml of infant formula a day do not need any additional vitamin D as formula is
already fortified. Children aged 1 to 4 years should have a daily 10 microgram vitamin D supplement. Everyone age 5
years and over During the autumn and winter months, we cannot make enough vitamin D from sunlight and it may be
difficult to get the 10 micrograms we need from food alone, so taking a 10 microgram vitamin D supplement in these
months should be considered. People with very little or no sunshine exposure (e.g. those who are seldom outdoors such as
frail or housebound individuals and those who are confined indoor, such as in institutions like care homes) People who
habitually wear clothes that cover most of their skin while outdoors. These groups should take a daily supplement
containing 10 micrograms vitamin D throughout the year.
Folic acid is important for pregnancy, as it can help to prevent birth defects known as neural tube defects, including spina
bifida. 400 micrograms should be taken daily for women trying to conceive, and for the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (or
higher amounts for women at increased risk).
Vitamin B12 is typically only found naturally in foods from animal sources, although there are some fortified vegan
sources like B12 fortified breakfast cereals, soya drinks and yeast extract. Sources for vegans are therefore limited and a
vitamin B12 supplement may be needed. *Babies should be exclusively breastfed until around 6 months of age.
A balanced diet meets the nutrient needs: A balanced diet meets nutrient needs because of the amounts and
proportions of the foods selected.
Balanced diets provide for periods of leanness: We have now examined the first two aspects of the definition of a
balanced diet. Balanced diets also provide for periods of leanness. This implies that there is a "safety margin" or a "little
extra" for those times when you do not meet your nutrient needs adequately. A normal individual consumes a variety of
foods. It is possible that on a given day he may not consume foods in the amounts he requires. How, then, can we
provide for such periods of leanness? Actually we do not need to make any special adjustments because RDIs already
include a margin of safety. Planning diets on the basis of RDIs would take care of this aspect as well.
The importance of nutrition and a balanced diet Nutrition is vital for your body and all of its systems to function
properly, by having good nutrition it will help you maintain a healthy weight, reduce body fat, provide your body with
energy, promote good sleep and generally make you feel better. This has been proven through many scientific studies and
is now well documented. By having good nutrition it has been proven that you are less likely to develop many of the
present-day diseases.
What is a balanced diet? The Foods Standards Agency defines a balanced diet as having ‘a variety of foods, basing
meals on starchy foods and eating at least 5 portions of fruit and veg a day.’ They also recommend having moderate
amounts of fish (2 portions a week one being oily) moderating the amount of protein you have and having small or
occasional amounts of food high in fat or sugar.
What defines a balanced diet? A balanced diet should be one based on eating a variety of different foods, and eating
foods that have not been processed. This means trying natural unprocessed foods. People should look to eat 5 portions or
more of fruit and vegetables a day, to reduce the amount of processed food they eat, to ensure they drink at least 2 litres of
water a day, to have a balance between the amount of carbs, fats and protein they consume, to eat oily fish weekly, to
reduce the amount of table salt they have (below 6g) and to reduce the amount of sugar in their diet. Help your future
clients divise their perfect balanced diet with knowledge gained from our Personal Training Courses here at TTR.

Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients that your body needs in small amounts to work properly. Fat-soluble
vitamins Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E and K) are mainly found in: animal fats, vegetable oils, dairy foods, liver,
oily fish. While your body needs these vitamins to work properly, you don't need to eat foods containing them every day.
Water-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins (vitamin C, the B vitamins and folic acid) are mainly found in: fruit and
vegetables, grains, milk and dairy foods, These vitamins aren't stored in the body, so you need to have them more
frequently.
Minerals include calcium and iron amongst many others and are found in: meat, cereals, fish, milk and dairy foods, fruit
and vegetables, nuts. Minerals are necessary for 3 main reasons: building strong bones and teeth, controlling body fluids
inside and outside cells, turning the food you eat into energy.
Trace elements are also essential nutrients that your body needs to work properly, but in much smaller amounts than
vitamins and minerals. They include iodine and fluorine. Trace elements are found in small amounts in a variety of foods
such as meat, fish, cereals, milk and dairy foods, vegetables and nuts. Good nutrition depends on eating all the essential
nutrients - fats, carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals, and water - and eating them in a balance that nourishes your
body. There are three main nutrients in all foods: carbohydrates, protein and fats.
Carbohydrates (carbs) are the body’s main source of energy and are essential for healthy muscles, tissues and brain
function. They also help with the digestion process itself. When you eat carbohydrates, the process of chewing and
digestion releases glucose (blood sugar), a simple sugar that our bodies need for energy. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
nuts and seeds are good carbohydrate sources. Sugar, sugar-sweetened beverages and candy are also carbs, but they are
not nutritious choices.
Protein is the major building material for cells throughout the body: blood, skin, organ tissue and muscle. It forms
hormones and helps regulate the body’s metabolism — the rate of breathing and digesting food, among other things.
Protein comes from animal sources like meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy products as well as beans, soy products, nut
and seeds.
Fats Our bodies need some fat to stay healthy. They help carry vitamins and minerals through the blood and they
“lubricate” tissues throughout the body. But too many or the wrong kind of fats — saturated and trans fats - can build up
the in body’s tissues and arteries.
Vitamins and Minerals Nearly all of the foods in the main three food groups contain vitamins and minerals. Our bodies
need them for key functions such as heart health, metabolism, bone growth, blood pressure control, and vision.
 It is essential to good health that we get a healthy balance of vitamins and minerals. The best way to do this is to
eat a well balanced diet with a good amount of fruits, vegetables, fortified foods, whole grains, beans, protein, and
dairy products.
 Although vitamins and supplements can be beneficial, they can also be harmful for some patients. Tell your
doctor if you are taking any over-the-counter vitamins and supplements, and talk to him or her before adding any
new vitamins or supplements.
Breakfast cereals advertise that they're packed with vitamins and minerals. Sports drinks claim they can rev up your
flagging energy with a jolt of vitamins or minerals (sorry, but even powerful vitamins and minerals can't act that fast!).
Vitamins and minerals make people's bodies work properly. Although you get vitamins and minerals from the foods you
eat every day, some foods have more vitamins and minerals than others.
Vitamins fall into two categories: fat soluble and water soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins — A, D, E, and K — dissolve in
fat and can be stored in your body. The water-soluble vitamins — C and the B-complex vitamins (such as vitamins B6,
B12, niacin, riboflavin, and folate) — need to dissolve in water before your body can absorb them. Because of this, your
body can't store these vitamins. Any vitamin C or B that your body doesn't use as it passes through your system is lost
(mostly when you pee). So you need a fresh supply of these vitamins every day.
Whereas vitamins are organic substances (made by plants or animals), minerals are inorganic elements that come from the
soil and water and are absorbed by plants or eaten by animals. Your body needs larger amounts of some minerals, such as
calcium, to grow and stay healthy. Other minerals like chromium, copper, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc are called trace
minerals because you only need very small amounts of them each day.
Vitamins and minerals boost the immune system, support normal growth and development, and help cells and organs do
their jobs. For example, you've probably heard that carrots are good for your eyes. It's true! Carrots are full of substances
called carotenoids that your body converts into vitamin A, which helps prevent eye problems. Another vitamin, vitamin K,
helps blood to clot (so cuts and scrapes stop bleeding quickly). You'll find vitamin K in green leafy vegetables, broccoli,
and soybeans. And to have strong bones, you need to eat foods such as milk, yogurt, and green leafy vegetables, which are
rich in the mineral calcium.
Fuel for Growth People go through a lot of physical changes — including growth and puberty — during their teenage
years. Eating right during this time is especially important because the body needs a variety of vitamins and minerals to
grow, develop, and stay healthy.
Eating a variety of foods is the best way to get all the vitamins and minerals you need each day, as well as the right
balance of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and calories. Whole or unprocessed foods — like fresh fruits and vegetables,
whole grains, low-fat dairy products, lean meats, fish, and poultry — are the best choices for providing the nutrients your
body needs to stay healthy and grow properly.
Vitamin B12, which is important for manufacturing red blood cells, is not found in plant foods. If you don't eat meat, you
can find vitamin B12 in eggs, milk and other dairy foods, and fortified breakfast cereals. Vegans (vegetarians who eat no
animal products at all, including dairy products) may need to take vitamin supplements.
Common Concerns Lots of teens wonder if they should take vitamin or mineral supplements. If your diet includes a wide
variety of foods, including whole-grain products, fresh fruits and vegetables, dairy products, nuts, seeds, eggs, and meats,
then you are probably getting the vitamins and minerals your body needs.
Check with your doctor before taking vitamin or mineral supplements. Some people think that if something is good for
you, then the more you take in, the healthier you'll be. But that's not necessarily true when it comes to vitamins and
minerals. For example, fat-soluble vitamins or minerals, which the body stores and excretes more slowly, can build up in
your system to levels where they could cause problems.
There are hundreds of supplements on the market and of course their manufacturers want you to purchase them. Beware
of unproven claims about the benefits of taking more than recommended amounts of any vitamin or mineral. A healthy
teen usually doesn't need supplements if he or she is eating a well-rounded diet.
Your best bet for getting the vitamins and minerals you need is to eat a wide variety of healthy foods and skip the vitamin
pills, drinks, and other supplements. You'll feel better overall and won't run the risk of overdoing your vitamin and
mineral intake.
 Vitamins are nutrients required by the body in small amounts, for a variety of essential processes.
 Most vitamins cannot be made by the body, so need to be provided in the diet.
 Vitamin D can be made by the body in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight.
 Vitamins are grouped into fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.
 Requirements for vitamins change across life stages.
Vitamins are molecules required by the body in small amounts for a variety of essential processes in the body. They are
classified as micronutrients because they are normally required in small amounts: usually a few milligrams (mg) or
micrograms (μg) per day. Most vitamins cannot be synthesised by the body so must be obtained by the diet. An exception
is vitamin D which can be synthesised by the action of sunlight on the skin. Small amounts of niacin (a B vitamin) can be
made from the amino acid, tryptophan. Vitamins have a diverse range of functions in the body, including:
 Co-factors in enzyme activity
  Antioxidants (prevent damage from free radicals)
 Pro-hormone (only vitamin D)
If insufficient amounts of vitamins are available to the body because of a poor diet or some medical condition, such as
malabsorption disorders or inborn errors of metabolism, a deficiency disease can develop. Vitamin deficiency diseases are
rare in the UK but still occur in some parts of the world. Vitamins have been grouped into two categories: fat soluble
vitamins and water soluble vitamins. Originally vitamins were given letters (A, B, C etc.) but are now more commonly
referred to by their names, e.g. folate, riboflavin.
Requirements and recommended dietary intakes The body requires different amounts of each vitamin because each
vitamin has a different set of functions. Requirements vary according to age, sex and physiological state (for example
pregnancy). They may also be influenced by state of health. The Department of Health has drawn up recommendations in
the form of Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) for vitamins for different groups of healthy people. The Reference Nutrient
Intake (RNI) is the amount of a nutrient that will satisfy the needs of practically all the population (97.5%); in other words
it is usually not necessary to exceed the RNI. Lower Reference Nutrient Intakes have also been established. These are
levels to be sufficient for only 2.5% of a given population, everyone else will require more. So if, say, 10% of a
population group have intakes of a nutrient below the LRNI for that nutrient, it is highly likely that the majority of these
people are having insufficient intakes for their needs.
Fat soluble vitamins
Vitamin A can be obtained in two forms: • preformed retinol (retinyl esters) found in animal derived foods, •
carotenoids which are mainly plant derived (beta carotene being the most abundant carotenoid), some of which can
be converted to retinol in the body; 6mg of beta carotene is equivalent to 1mg of retinol. The total vitamin A content of
the diet (from both animal and plant sources) is normally expressed as retinol equivalents (RE). Vitamin A is essential to
the normal structure and function of the skin and mucous membranes such as in the eyes, lungs and digestive system.
Therefore, it is vital for vision, embryonic development, growth and cellular differentiation, and the immune system.
Deficiency Vitamin A deficiency is a serious public health problem worldwide,. It can lead to night blindness (impaired
adaptation to low-intensity light) and an eye condition called xerophthalmia (dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea) and
eventually total blindness. Marginal deficiency contributes to childhood susceptibility to infection, and therefore
morbidity and mortality, in both developing and developed countries. Vitamin A deficiency is common in many
developing countries especially among young children. In the UK, frank deficiency is rare but low intakes are relatively
common. For example, depending on age and sex between 6% and 20% of children have intakes that are unlikely to be
adequate (below the Lower Reference Nutrient intake, LRNI). In adults, intakes tend to be higher although 16% of men
aged 19-24 have intakes below the LRNI. In the UK, supplements containing 233µg of vitamin A are recommended for
infants and young children from age 1 to 5 years (from 6 months for infants that receive breast milk as their main drink).
Toxicity Excess retinol during pregnancy can increase the risk of birth defects. As a precautionary measure, women who
are pregnant, or who might become pregnant, are advised not to consume high dose vitamin A supplements (>2800-3300
μg/day). Liver and liver products may contain a large amount of vitamin A, so these should also be avoided in pregnancy.
Large amounts of retinol can also cause liver and bone damage. To prevent adverse effects on bones, intakes above 1500
µgrams of retinol equivalents from food or supplements should be avoided. The Food Standards Agency advises that, as a
precaution, regular consumers of liver (once a week or more) should not increase their intake of liver or take supplements
containing retinol (for example, cod liver oil).
Food sources Liver, whole milk, cheese, butter and many reduced fat spreads are dietary sources of retinol. Carrots, dark
green leafy vegetables and orange-coloured fruits, e.g. mangoes and apricots are dietary sources of carotenoids. Vitamin
A is also often voluntarily added to reduced fat spreads, as is vitamin D.
Vitamin D There are two sources of vitamin D: sunlight (resulting in skin synthesis of vitamin D) and the diet.
Vitamin D exists as either vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) or vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D2 is widely
distributed in plants and fungi, derived from UV irradiation of the plant sterol ergosterol. Vitamin D3 is formed from the
action of UV irradiation on 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of animals including humans. Skin production is,
quantitatively, a more important source of vitamin D than the diet because there are not many rich food sources of vitamin
D. However, dietary sources are essential when exposure to sunlight is limited. Vitamin D is not classically a vitamin but
a pro-hormone, acting as a precursor to one of the hormones involved in calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D is metabolised
first to 25 hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) and then to the active hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D) in the
liver and kidney. In this form it works as a hormone regulating calcium and phosphorus metabolism, which are essential
for bone mineralisation. Calcium homeostasis is also important for neuromuscular function.
Deficiency of vitamin D results in poor calcification of the skeleton. Prolonged deficiency of vitamin D during periods of
bone growth in children leads to rickets. Rickets can cause bone pain, poor growth and deformities of the skeleton, such as
bowed legs, curvature of the spine, and thickening of the ankles, wrists and knees. Children with rickets are also more
likely to fracture their bones. Poor vitamin D status and rickets in children used to be commonplace in the UK but
fortification and supplementation policies implemented after the Second World War made rickets a disease of the past.
However, in recent years, cases are again being reported, particularly in some ethnic minority groups.
In adults, vitamin D is required to maintain healthy bone. Deficiency can lead to osteomalacia, commonly presenting with
aching bones and muscles, and proximal muscle weakness, which makes standing up and walking difficult and results in a
marked waddling gait. Osteoporosis is not directly due to vitamin D deficiency but vitamin D may be helpful in managing
the disease. There is limited evidence for links between vitamin D status and other non-musculoskeletal health outcomes,
including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, autoimmune diseases (e.g. multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes),
neuropsychological function and cancer. This evidence-base mainly includes observational studies and so findings may be
confounded by other factors or due to reverse causality (i.e. the illness is the cause, and not the consequence, of low
vitamin D status).
Poor vitamin D status is defined by the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) as a blood level of 25
hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) below 25 nmol/L, although definitions vary internationally. Low vitamin D status is
commonplace in the UK, with approximately 20% of the population having serum concentrations below the 25 nmol/L
level (NDNS 2008-12). Low vitamin D status is particularly prevalent in institutionalised adults over the age of 65 years
[38% of men and 37% of women (assessed in NDNS 1994/95 only)], girls aged 11-18 years (24%) and men aged 19-64
years (24%) (NDNS 2008-12). As sunlight is the major source, status tends to be lower in the winter/spring than
summer/autumn, and lower in Scotland than England.
In the UK some groups of people are vulnerable to vitamin D deficiency, such as those with dark skin, those who do not
spend much time outdoors (e.g. institutionalised or housebound people) and those who habitually cover the skin.
Currently the UK government recommends that the following groups of people take vitamin D supplements: pregnant and
lactating women (10 µg per day); infants and children aged under 4 years (7-8.5 µg per day); people aged 65 years and
older (10 µg per day); those with limited exposure to the sun (10 µg per day); and people of Asian origin (10 µg per day).
However, an update to these recommendations has been proposed by SACN in their Draft Vitamin D and Health report
(2015), which suggests that a reference nutrient intake (RNI) should be set for the whole UK population aged 4 years and
over at 10 µg per day. SACN reported that there was insufficient data to set RNIs for infants and children aged 0-3 years.
As a precaution, a ’Safe Intake’ of vitamin D was proposed for these ages: 8.5-10 μg/day for ages 0 to < 1 year (including
exclusively breast-fed infants) and 10 μg/day for ages 1 to < 4 years.
Sources Most vitamin D is obtained through the action of sunlight on skin during the summer months. The latitude and
strength of the sun in the UK means that the skin can make vitamin D only between 11 am and 3 pm, during the months of
April to October.
Dietary sources of vitamin D in the UK are natural food sources, fortified foods and supplements. Foods that contain
significant amounts of vitamin D include oily fish, eggs, fortified cereals, meat and fat spreads; further information can be
found here. Human milk contains low levels of vitamin D, but infant formula is fortified with 0.001-0.0025 mg/100 kcal.
Toxicity Skin synthesis of vitamin D is self-regulated and so long sun exposure does not lead to excessive vitamin D
production. Excessive dietary vitamin D intake can have toxic effects and may lead to hypercalcaemia (high calcium level
in the blood). Hypercalcaemia can result in deposition of the excess calcium in soft tissues and demineralisation of bones,
and heart and kidney damage. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (2012) has set the Tolerable Upper Intake
Level of vitamin D at 100 µg/day.
Vitamin E is a group of eight lipid-soluble compounds synthesised by plants, tocopherols and tocotrienols. Alpha-
tocopherol accounts for 90% of the vitamin E in human tissues. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and is required to
protect cells against oxidative damage from free radicals, for example oxidation of the lipids in cell membranes. Vitamin
E content in food is expressed in terms of mg equivalents based on the biological activities of the tocopherols present.
Deficiency Existence of dietary vitamin E deficiency is not considered to be a problem even in people consuming a
relatively poor diet. Deficiency only occurs in people with severe fat malabsorption and rare genetic disorders.
Toxicity Vitamin E has very low toxicity and humans appear to be able to tolerate high levels of the vitamin without
untoward effects (e.g. between 540-970 mg/day). However, at very high doses vitamin E may have negative effects on
other fat-soluble vitamins; it exacerbates the effects of vitamin K deficiency and interferes with the absorption of vitamin
A.
Food sources Foods containing large amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids will generally contain large amounts of
vitamin E, therefore the richest sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils, nuts and seeds. Since vegetable oils are the richest
source, deficiency is rare.
Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of several of proteins required for normal blood clotting and bone structure.
Vitamin K is synthesised by bacteria in the large bowel and is also present in both plant and animal foods.
Deficiency is rare as vitamin K is widely available from the diet and is also provided by gut bacteria. Thus, deficiency is
generally secondary to conditions such as malabsorption or impaired gut synthesis. However, there is growing interest in
the role of vitamin K in optimising bone health. Newborn babies up to six weeks old have low levels of vitamin K, which
puts them at risk of potentially fatal ‘haemorrhage disease of the newborn’, and is known as vitamin K deficiency
bleeding in infancy. Therefore, is it usual to give all newborn infants prophylactic vitamin K.
Toxicity Few toxic reactions to Vitamin K have been identified.
Food sources Dietary vitamin K is obtained from green leafy vegetables, dairy products and meat.
Water soluble vitamins
The B vitamins
Thiamin (vitamin B1) Thiamin is a co-enzyme for several central energy-yielding metabolic pathways, and
therefore is required to release energy from carbohydrate. As a result thiamin requirement is related to the amount of
energy consumed. Thiamin is also involved in the normal function of the nervous system and other excitable tissues, such
as skeletal muscles and the heart.
Deficiency of thiamin causes the peripheral nervous system disease beri-beri. This became a public health issue in the Far
East in the nineteenth century with the introduction of highly milled (polished) rice. While beriberi is now rare, it remains
a problem in some parts of the world where rice is the staple food. A different condition due to thiamin deficiency,
affecting the central nervous system rather than the peripheral is sometimes seen in alcoholics and people with HIV,
known as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. This is caused by a combination of low intake and impairment of absorption
and utilisation of the vitamin.
Toxicity There is no evidence of any toxic effect of high doses of thiamin as the body excretes any excess.
Food sources Whole grains, nuts, meat (especially pork), fruit and vegetables and fortified breakfast cereals are sources
of thiamin in the diet. In the UK, white and brown bread flour are fortified with thiamin by law (and also with calcium,
iron and niacin).
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) Riboflavin functions as a coenzyme in a wide variety of reactions that take place in the body.
Riboflavin is required to release energy from protein, carbohydrate and fat. It is also involved in the transport and
metabolism of iron in the body and is needed for the normal structure and function of mucous membranes and the skin.
Deficiency According to UK surveys, intakes of riboflavin are low in a number of population subgroups, in particular
teenage girls (over 20% have intakes below the LRNI), young women (15% of 19-24 year olds below the LRNI) and
women over 65 years living at home (10% of those 65-84, 15% of those over 85 years with intakes below the LRNI). A
low status of riboflavin is also common but there is no clear deficiency disease because there is very efficient conservation
and reutilisation of riboflavin in tissues; therefore deficiency is never fatal. Deficiency is characterised by dryness and
cracking of the skin around the mouth and nose and a painful tongue that is red and dry (magenta tongue).
Toxicity; No toxic or adverse reactions to riboflavin in humans have been reported. The body excretes excess riboflavin in
urine. Food sources: Milk, eggs, fortified breakfast cereals, liver, legumes, mushrooms and green vegetables are all
sources of riboflavin.
Niacin (nicotinic acid) Niacin is required for the release of energy from food (it is the precursor to the coezymes
NAD and NADP which are fundamental to key reactions in carbohydrate metabolism). As a result niacin
requirement is related to the amount of energy consumed. Niacin is also required for the normal function of the skin and
mucous membranes and for normal functioning of the nervous system. Niacin can be synthesised from the essential amino
acid tryptophan to meet daily requirements and dietary intake is only necessary when tryptophan metabolism is disturbed
or intake of this amino acid is inadequate.
Deficiency of niacin results in the disease pellagra. It is characterized by sun-sensitive skin producing effects similar to
severe sunburn. Advanced pellagra also results in dementia and if untreated is fatal. Pellagra is now rare but was a major
public health problem in the early part of the last century up until the 1980s in some parts of the world. It was usually seen
in communities where maize forms the staple diet as maize contains little tryptophan and the niacin that is present is in an
unavailable form.
Toxicity Reports of niacin/nicotinic acid toxicity in humans have been observed from its use as a treatment of
hyperlipidaemia (high blood lipid levels). Adverse effects are dose related and generally subside with a reduction in dose
or the cessation of treatment. Acute toxic symptoms include flushing, itching of the skin, nausea and gastrointestinal
disturbances.
Food sources Meat, wheat and maize flour, eggs, dairy products and yeast are all dietary sources of niacin.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Vitamin B6 comprises 3 forms (vitamers): pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine, and
has a central role in the metabolism of amino acids. It is involved in breaking down glycogen and has a role in the
modification of steroid hormone action. It is also essential for the formation of red blood cells and the metabolism and
transport of iron. Together with folate and vitamin B12, vitamin B6 is required for maintenance of normal blood
homocysteine levels. Raised homocysteine is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
Deficiency of vitamin B6 is rare because it is widely distributed in foods and is synthesised by the body’s gut flora.
Deficiency may only occur as a complication of disease or prolonged administration of certain drugs.
Toxicity Long-term intake of high dose vitamin B6 from supplements (typically >200mg/day) has been reported to result
in sensory nerve damage.
Food sources Poultry, white fish, milk, eggs, whole grains, soya beans, peanuts and some vegetables are sources of
vitamin B6.
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) serves as a cofactor for enzymes involved in the normal function of the nervous system,
the formation of red blood cells and for the metabolism of folate. It is also involved in energy production. Together with
folate and vitamin B6, vitamin B12 is required for maintenance of normal blood homocysteine levels. Raised homocysteine
is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
Deficiency Dietary deficiency is rare in younger people and only occurs among strict vegans. It is more common in older
people as a result of impaired absorption, usually due to chronic inflammation of the stomach lining (atrophic gastritis) or
lack of intrinsic factor (the substance required for vitamin B12 absorption). Deficiency results in the development of
pernicious anaemia, in which red blood cells are enlarged (megaloblastic), and peripheral neurological damage develops.
Toxicity There are few reports of any adverse effects of high intakes of vitamin B12.
Food sources Vitamin B12 is found in almost all foods of animal origin. Green plants provide none but it can be
synthesized by some algae and bacteria, although the bioavailability of such forms has been disputed. Meat, fish, milk,
cheese, eggs, yeast extract and fortified breakfast cereals are all dietary sources.
Folate/folic acid The term folate describes a group of derivatives of pteryl glutamic acid. Folic acid is the synthetic
form of folate. It is used in supplements and for food fortification. Folate functions together with vitamin B12 to form
healthy red blood cells. It is also required for normal cell division, the normal structure of the nervous system and
specifically in the development of the neural tube (which develops into the spinal cord and skull) in the embryo. There is
conclusive evidence that supplements of 400μg/day of folic acid taken before conception and during the first 12 weeks of
pregnancy prevent the majority of neural tube defects (e.g. spina bifida) in babies. It is recommended that all women of
childbearing age who are planning a pregnancy take a daily supplement as it is difficult to achieve 400μg/day from diet
alone. Together with vitamins B6 and B12, folate is involved with the maintenance of normal blood homocysteine levels.
The amino acid homocysteine is an intermediate in folate metabolism and evidence suggests that raised blood
homocysteine (hyperhomocysteinemia) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. High intakes of folate
have been found to lower the blood concentration of homocysteine in people genetically at risk of hyperhomocysteinemia
and, as a result it has been proposed that folic acid supplementation might reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
However, a recent meta-analysis of a number of large trials failed to demonstrate an effect of folic acid on either coronary
heart disease or stroke risk.
Deficiency results in megaloblastic anaemia and may be due to poor diet or increased requirement, for example in
pregnancy, from prolonged drug use or malabsorption. Megaloblastic anaemia is characterized by the release of immature
red blood cell precursors into the circulation due to impairment of the normal process of maturation in the bone marrow.
There may also be a low white cell and platelet count in the blood. Deficiency is often accompanied by insomnia,
depression, forgetfulness and irritability.
Toxicity Few adverse effects have been reported although high intakes may mask vitamin B12 deficiency and excessive
intakes can cause complications if taken with certain drugs, for example anticonvulsants used in the treatment of epilepsy.
Food sources Green leafy vegetables, brown rice, peas, oranges, bananas and fortified breakfast cereals are sources of
folate.
In various parts of the world folic acid is added by law to flour and bread e.g. USA, Canada and Chile. The UK is yet to
commit to this fortification, largely because of concerns that high intakes of folic acid mask vitamin B12 deficiency in
older people who are particularly susceptible, and some concerns regarding the relationship between folic acid and cancer.
In 2005 the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) reviewed the research to underpin potential folic acid
fortification in the UK and recommended that ‘mandatory fortification’ with folic acid should be implemented. Their
conclusions were considered by the Food Standards Agency’s Board and it was agreed by the Board that mandatory
fortification should go ahead. But before the recommendations were finalized, it was agreed to wait for the findings of
ongoing trials investigating the relationship between folic acid and cancer. These trials have now finished and have been
considered by SACN: an outcome is awaited.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin C has antioxidant properties, potentially protecting cells from oxidative damage
caused by free radicals. Vitamin C is also involved in the synthesis of collagen which is required for the normal
structure and function of connective tissues such as skin, cartilage and bones. It is therefore an important nutrient for the
healing process. It is also involved in the normal structure and function of blood vessels and neurological function.
Vitamin C also increases the absorption of non-haem iron (iron from plant sources) in the gut.
Deficiency Severe deficiency of vitamin C leads to scurvy. Signs of deficiency do not manifest until previously
adequately nourished individuals have been deprived of vitamin C for 4-6 months. Deficiency is associated with fatigue,
weakness, aching joints and muscles. Most of the other symptoms of scurvy are due to impaired collagen synthesis and
are characterized by bleeding gums, poor wound healing and damage to bone and other tissues.
Toxicity Acute high doses of vitamin C are occasionally associated with diarrhoea and intestinal discomfort. A significant
number of people take high dose (1000mg) vitamin C supplements (the RNI for adults is 40mg/day); however there is no
evidence that this either confers any benefit or presents negative health consequences.
Food sources Fresh fruits especially citrus fruits and berries; green vegetables, peppers and tomatoes are all sources of
vitamin C. It is also found in potatoes (especially new potatoes).
The bioavailability and absorption of vitamins The bioavailability of a vitamin (i.e. how readily it can be absorbed and
used by the body) may be influenced by a variety of factors. The proportion of a vitamin absorbed from the diet following
consumption can vary, and will depend upon the individual person’s needs, their ability to absorb nutrients, the amount
available to them and other components of the diet. For example, vitamin C can enhance the absorption of non-haem iron
when foods or drink containing both vitamin C and non-haem iron are consumed in the same meal. Some vitamins, e.g.
vitamin C and riboflavin, are labile and susceptible to damage by heat, light, oxygen, enzymes and minerals and these
losses may occur during food processing, preparation and storage.
Vitamin supplements Although most people are able to meet their requirements for vitamins by eating a varied diet,
there are certain groups of the population who have higher than normal requirements for some nutrients, e.g. ill people,
those taking certain drugs and pregnant women. Such people need to ensure they eat foods rich in particular vitamins and
sometimes supplements are advised. Infants and young children are recommended to have supplements of vitamins A, C
and D up to age 5 years. Vitamin D supplements are also recommended for older people and pregnant and lactating
women. Some women may require additional iron if menstrual losses are high and folic acid is advised for women
planning a pregnancy and for pregnant women in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. A UK survey of adults undertaken in
2000/2001 found that 40% of women and 29% of men were taking dietary supplements compared with 17% and 9%
respectively in 1986/1987. The use of vitamin and mineral supplements in the UK was assessed by the Expert Vitamin
and Mineral Committee in 2000. Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients because they perform hundreds of roles in
the body. There is a fine line between getting enough of these nutrients (which is healthy) and getting too much (which
can end up harming you). Eating a healthy diet remains the best way to get sufficient amounts of the vitamins and
minerals you need.
Essential nutrients for your body Every day, your body produces skin, muscle, and bone. It churns out rich red blood
that carries nutrients and oxygen to remote outposts, and it sends nerve signals skipping along thousands of miles of brain
and body pathways. It also formulates chemical messengers that shuttle from one organ to another, issuing the instructions
that help sustain your life. But to do all this, your body requires some raw materials. These include at least 30 vitamins,
minerals, and dietary components that your body needs but cannot manufacture on its own in sufficient amounts. Vitamins
and minerals are considered essential nutrients—because acting in concert, they perform hundreds of roles in the body.
They help shore up bones, heal wounds, and bolster your immune system. They also convert food into energy, and repair
cellular damage. But trying to keep track of what all these vitamins and minerals do can be confusing. Read enough
articles on the topic, and your eyes may swim with the alphabet-soup references to these nutrients, which are known
mainly be their initials (such as vitamins A,B,C,D,E, and K—to name just a few).
Micronutrients with a big role in the body Vitamins and minerals are often called micronutrients because your body
needs only tiny amounts of them. Yet failing to get even those small quantities virtually guarantees disease. Here are a
few examples of diseases that can result from vitamin deficiencies:
 Scurvy. Old-time sailors learned that living for months without fresh fruits or vegetables—the main sources of
vitamin C—causes the bleeding gums and listlessness of scurvy.
 Blindness. In some developing countries, people still become blind from vitamin A deficiency.
 Rickets. A deficiency in vitamin D can cause rickets, a condition marked by soft, weak bones that can lead to
skeletal deformities such as bowed legs. Partly to combat rickets, the U.S. has fortified milk with vitamin D since
the 1930s.
Just as a lack of key micronutrients can cause substantial harm to your body, getting sufficient quantities can provide a
substantial benefit. Some examples of these benefits:
 Strong bones. A combination of calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K, magnesium, and phosphorus protects your bones
against fractures.
 Prevents birth defects. Taking folic acid supplements early in pregnancy helps prevent brain and spinal birth
defects in offspring.
  Healthy teeth. The mineral fluoride not only helps bone formation but also keeps dental cavities from starting or
worsening.
The difference between vitamins and minerals Although they are all considered micronutrients, vitamins and minerals
differ in basic ways. Vitamins are organic and can be broken down by heat, air, or acid. Minerals are inorganic and hold
on to their chemical structure. So why does this matter? It means the minerals in soil and water easily find their way into
your body through the plants, fish, animals, and fluids you consume. But it’s tougher to shuttle vitamins from food and
other sources into your body because cooking, storage, and simple exposure to air can inactivate these more fragile
compounds.
Many micronutrients interact. Vitamin D enables your body to pluck calcium from food sources passing through your
digestive tract rather than harvesting it from your bones. Vitamin C helps you absorb iron. The interplay of micronutrients
isn’t always cooperative, however. For example, vitamin C blocks your body’s ability to assimilate the essential mineral
copper. And even a minor overload of the mineral manganese can worsen iron deficiency.
A closer look at water-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins are packed into the watery portions of the foods you eat.
They are absorbed directly into the bloodstream as food is broken down during digestion or as a supplement dissolves.
Because much of your body consists of water, many of the water-soluble vitamins circulate easily in your body. Your
kidneys continuously regulate levels of water-soluble vitamins, shunting excesses out of the body in your urine.
Water-soluble vitamins B vitamins: Biotin (vitamin B7), Folic acid (folate, vitamin B9), Niacin (vitamin B3),
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), Riboflavin (vitamin B2), Thiamin (vitamin B1), Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12
Vitamin C Although water-soluble vitamins have many tasks in the body, one of the most important is helping to free the
energy found in the food you eat. Others help keep tissues healthy. Here are some examples of how different vitamins
help you maintain health:
 Release energy. Several B vitamins are key components of certain coenzymes (molecules that aid enzymes) that
help release energy from food.
 Produce energy. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin engage in energy production.
 Build proteins and cells. Vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid metabolize amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins) and help cells multiply.
 Make collagen. One of many roles played by vitamin C is to help make collagen, which knits together wounds,
supports blood vessel walls, and forms a base for teeth and bones.
Contrary to popular belief, some water-soluble vitamins can stay in the body for long periods of time. You probably have
several years’ supply of vitamin B12 in your liver. And even folic acid and vitamin C stores can last more than a couple of
days. Generally, though, water-soluble vitamins should be replenished every few days.
Just be aware that there is a small risk that consuming large amounts of some of these micronutrients through supplements
may be quite harmful. For example, very high doses of B6—many times the recommended amount of 1.3 milligrams (mg)
per day for adults—can damage nerves, causing numbness and muscle weakness.
A closer look at fat-soluble vitamins Rather than slipping easily into the bloodstream like most water-soluble vitamins,
fat-soluble vitamins gain entry to the blood via lymph channels in the intestinal wall (see illustration). Many fat-soluble
vitamins travel through the body only under escort by proteins that act as carriers.
 Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
1. Food containing fat-soluble vitamins is ingested.
2. The food is digested by stomach acid and then travels to the
small intestine, where it is digested further. Bile is needed for the
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. This substance, which is produced
in the liver, flows into the small intestine, where it breaks down fats.
Nutrients are then absorbed through the wall of the small intestine.
3. Upon absorption, the fat-soluble vitamins enter the lymph
vessels before making their way into the bloodstream. In most cases,
fat-soluble vitamins must be coupled with a protein in order to travel
through the body.
4. These vitamins are used throughout the body, but excesses are
stored in the liver and fat tissues.
5. As additional amounts of these vitamins are needed, your body
taps into the reserves, releasing them into the bloodstream from the
liver.
Fatty foods and oils are reservoirs for the four fat-soluble vitamins. Within your body, fat tissues and the liver act as the
main holding pens for these vitamins and release them as needed. To some extent, you can think of these vitamins as time-
release micronutrients. It’s possible to consume them every now and again, perhaps in doses weeks or months apart rather
than daily, and still get your fill. Your body squirrels away the excess and doles it out gradually to meet your needs.
Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K
Together this vitamin quartet helps keep your eyes, skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and nervous system in good repair.
Here are some of the other essential roles these vitamins play:
 Build bones. Bone formation would be impossible without vitamins A, D, and K.
 Protect vision. Vitamin A also helps keep cells healthy and protects your vision.
 Interact favorably. Without vitamin E, your body would have difficulty absorbing and storing vitamin A.
 Protect the body. Vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant (a compound that helps protect the body against damage
from unstable molecules).
Because fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your body for long periods, toxic levels can build up. This is most likely to
happen if you take supplements. It’s very rare to get too much of a vitamin just from food.
A closer look at major minerals The body needs, and stores, fairly large amounts of the major minerals. These minerals
are no more important to your health than the trace minerals; they’re just present in your body in greater amounts. Major
minerals travel through the body in various ways. Potassium, for example, is quickly absorbed into the bloodstream,
where it circulates freely and is excreted by the kidneys, much like a water-soluble vitamin. Calcium is more like a fat-
soluble vitamin because it requires a carrier for absorption and transport.
Major minerals: Calcium, Chloride, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Sulfur
What they do One of the key tasks of major minerals is to maintain the proper balance of water in the body. Sodium,
chloride, and potassium take the lead in doing this. Three other major minerals—calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium—
are important for healthy bones. Sulfur helps stabilize protein structures, including some of those that make up hair, skin,
and nails.
Having too much of one major mineral can result in a deficiency of another. These sorts of imbalances are usually caused
by overloads from supplements, not food sources. Here are two examples:
  Salt overload. Calcium binds with excess sodium in the body and is excreted when the body senses that sodium
levels must be lowered. That means that if you ingest too much sodium through table salt or processed foods, you
could end up losing needed calcium as your body rids itself of the surplus sodium.
 Excess phosphorus. Likewise, too much phosphorus can hamper your ability to absorb magnesium.
A thimble could easily contain the distillation of all the trace minerals normally found in your body. Yet their
contributions are just as essential as those of major minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which each account for
more than a pound of your body weight.
Trace minerals: Chromium, Copper, Fluoride, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Zinc. Trace minerals
carry out a diverse set of tasks. Here are a few examples:
 Iron is best known for ferrying oxygen throughout the body.
 Fluoride strengthens bones and wards off tooth decay.
 Zinc helps blood clot, is essential for taste and smell, and bolsters the immune response.
 Copper helps form several enzymes, one of which assists with iron metabolism and the creation of hemoglobin,
which carries oxygen in the blood.
The other trace minerals perform equally vital jobs, such as helping to block damage to body cells and forming parts of
key enzymes or enhancing their activity. Trace minerals interact with one another, sometimes in ways that can trigger
imbalances. Too much of one can cause or contribute to a deficiency of another. Here are some examples:
 A minor overload of manganese can exacerbate iron deficiency. Having too little can also cause problems.
 When the body has too little iodine, thyroid hormone production slows, causing sluggishness and weight gain as
well as other health concerns. The problem worsens if the body also has too little selenium.
The difference between “just enough” and “too much” of the trace minerals is often tiny. Generally, food is a safe source
of trace minerals, but if you take supplements, it’s important to make sure you’re not exceeding safe levels.
Antioxidant is a catchall term for any compound that can counteract unstable molecules such as free radicals that damage
DNA, cell membranes, and other parts of cells. Your body cells naturally produce plenty of antioxidants to put on patrol.
The foods you eat—and, perhaps, some of the supplements you take—are another source of antioxidant compounds.
Carotenoids (such as lycopene in tomatoes and lutein in kale) and flavonoids (such as anthocyanins in blueberries,
quercetin in apples and onions, and catechins in green tea) are antioxidants. The vitamins C and E and the mineral
selenium also have antioxidant properties.
Free radicals are a natural byproduct of energy metabolism and are also generated by ultraviolet rays, tobacco smoke,
and air pollution. They lack a full complement of electrons, which makes them unstable, so they steal electrons from other
molecules, damaging those molecules in the process. Free radicals have a well-deserved reputation for causing cellular
damage. But they can be helpful, too. When immune system cells muster to fight intruders, the oxygen they use spins off
an army of free radicals that destroys viruses, bacteria, and damaged body cells in an oxidative burst. Vitamin C can then
disarm the free radicals.
How antioxidants may help Antioxidants are able to neutralize marauders such as free radicals by giving up some of
their own electrons. When a vitamin C or E molecule makes this sacrifice, it may allow a crucial protein, gene, or cell
membrane to escape damage. This helps break a chain reaction that can affect many other cells. It is important to
recognize that the term “antioxidant” reflects a chemical property rather than a specific nutritional property. Each of the
nutrients that has antioxidant properties also has numerous other aspects and should be considered individually. The
context is also important—in some settings, for example, vitamin C is an antioxidant, and in others it can be a pro-
oxidant.
Articles and advertisements have touted antioxidants as a way to help slow aging, fend off heart disease, improve flagging
vision, and curb cancer. And laboratory studies and many large-scale observational trials (the type that query people about
their eating habits and supplement use and then track their disease patterns) have noted benefits from diets rich in certain
antioxidants and, in some cases, from antioxidant supplements. But results from randomized controlled trials (in which
people are assigned to take specific nutrients or a placebo) have failed to back up many of these claims. One study that
pooled results from 68 randomized trials with over 230,000 participants found that people who were given vitamin E, beta
carotene, and vitamin A had a higher risk of death than those who took a placebo. There appeared to be no effect from
vitamin C pills and a small reduction in mortality from selenium, but further research on these nutrients is needed. These
findings suggest little overall benefit of the antioxidants in pill form. On the other hand, many studies show that people
who consume higher levels of these antioxidants in food have a lower risk of many diseases.
6 Essential Nutrients and Why Your Body Needs Them: Protein, Carbs, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Water, Takeaway
Essential nutrients nutrients are compounds that the body can’t make or can’t make in sufficient quantity. According to
the World Health OrganizationTrusted Source, these nutrients must come from food, and they’re vital for disease
prevention, growth, and good health. While there are many essential nutrients, they can be broken into two categories:
macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are eaten in large amounts and include the primary building blocks of
your diet — protein, carbohydrates, and fat — which provide your body with energy. Vitamins and minerals are
micronutrients, and small doses go a long way. There are six main groups of essential micronutrients and macronutrients.
1. Protein is having its moment, and not just in the workout community. But all of the hype is for a good reason. Protein
is essential for good health. provides the building blocks of the body, and not just for muscle. Every cell, from bone to
skin to hair, contains protein. A startling 16 percent of the average person’s body weight is from protein. Protein is used
primarily for growth, health, and body maintenance. All of your hormones, antibodies, and other important substances are
composed of protein. Protein is not used to fuel the body unless necessary.Proteins are made of up different amino acids.
While the body can create some amino acids on its own, there are many essential amino acids that can only come from
food. You need a variety of amino acids for your body to function properly. The good news is that you don’t need to eat
all of the amino acids at once. Your body can create complete proteins from the foods you eat throughout the day.
Healthy sources While meat, fish, and eggs are good sources of essential amino acids, you can also get protein from plant
sources like beans, soy, nuts, and some grains. Exactly how much protein you need daily depends on a variety of factors
including how active you are, and your age. Despite the growing popularity of high-protein diets, there haven’t been
enough studies to prove that they’re healthier or can influence weight loss, according to the Mayo Clinic.
2. Carbohydrates are necessary for a healthy body. Carbs fuel your body, especially your central nervous system and
brain, and protect against disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. Carbohydrates should make up 45 to 65 percent of your
total daily calories, according to the Dietary Guidelines for AmericansTrusted Source.
Healthy sources Before you reach for the white bread or pasta, keep in mind that the type of carb you eat matters. Some
carbs are healthier than others. Opt for whole grains, beans, and fiber-rich vegetables and fruits instead of refined grains
and products with added sugar.
3. Fats often get a bad rap, but recent research has shown that healthy fats are an important part of a healthy diet.
According to Harvard Medical School, fat supports many of your body’s functions such as vitamin and mineral
absorption, blood clotting, building cells, and muscle movement. Yes, fat is high in calories, but those calories are an
important energy source for your body. The Dietary Guidelines for AmericansTrusted Source recommends that 20 to 35
percent of your daily calories come from fat, but the World Health OrganizationTrusted Source suggests keeping it under
30 percent of your calories. Including healthy fats in your diet can help you to balance your blood sugar, decrease your
risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes, and improve your brain function. They’re also powerful anti-inflammatories, and
they may lower your risk of arthritis, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease.
Healthy sources The most famous unsaturated fats are omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Unsaturated fats are important
for your body as they provide essential fatty acids your body can’t make. You can find these healthy fats in nuts, seeds,
fish, and vegetable oils (like olive, avocado, and flaxseed). Coconut oil provides plant-based fats in the form of medium-
chain triglycerides which impart health benefits like faster utilization by organs as fuel and appetite control. Avoid trans
fats and limit your intake of saturated animal-based fats like butter, cheese, red meat, and ice cream.
4. Vitamins are vital for warding off disease and staying healthy. The body needs these micronutrients to support its
functions. There are 13 essential vitamins that the body needs to function properly, including vitamins A, C, B6, and D.
Each vitamin plays an important role in the body, and not getting enough of them can cause health problems and disease.
Many Americans do not get enough of many essential vitamins. Vitamins are essential for healthy vision, skin, and bones.
Vitamins may lower the risk of lung and prostate cancer, and they’re powerful antioxidants. Vitamins like vitamin C boost
the immune system and help the body heal.
Healthy sources If you eat a varied, well-balanced diet full of vegetables and fruits, and have a normal and healthy
functioning digestive tract, you likely don’t need to take vitamin supplements.
5. Minerals Much like vitamins, minerals help support the body. They’re essential for many body functions, including
building strong bones and teeth, regulating your metabolism, and staying properly hydrated. Some of the most common
minerals are calcium, iron, and zinc. In addition to strengthening bones, calcium helps with nerve signal transmission,
maintaining healthy blood pressure, and muscle contraction and relaxation. Iron supports your red blood cells and
hormone creation, while zinc boosts your immune system and wound healing.
6. Water You can go for weeks without food, but you can’t last more than a few days without water. Water is absolutely
crucial for every system in your body. It’s also the main thing you are made of. About 62 percent of your body weight is
water. Water improves your brain function and mood. It acts a shock absorber and a lubricant in the body. It also helps
flush out toxins, carry nutrients to cells, hydrate the body, and prevent constipation. Even mild dehydration can make you
feel tired and impair your concentration and physical performanceTrusted Source.
Healthy sources You don’t have to chug water to stay hydrated. Fruits and vegetables can also be a great source. Munch
on some spinach or watermelon to stay hydrated. The best way to know if you’re properly hydrated is the color and
volume of your urine. If your urine isn’t frequent and pale yellow or nearly clear, you need more water.
Takeaway Eating a varied diet full of fruits, vegetables, healthy proteins and fats, and whole grains is the best way to get
enough of these six essential nutrients plus the important category of phytonutrients — the beneficial chemicals in
colorful plants that prevent disease. These micronutrients and macronutrients are vital for your body to function normally
and stay healthy.
Some foods can deplete your energy, impair your digestive system, and raise your risk of health problems. Other foods
fuel your body’s natural disease-fighting abilities. Click through the slideshow to learn about high-vitamin foods that can
help you get the nutrition you need.
Foods high in vitamin A Vitamin A is a fat-soluble nutrient. It helps your body form healthy teeth, bones, soft tissues,
and skin. It can also help you ward off bacterial and viral infections, prevent night blindness, and keep your hair and nails
healthy. Foods that are particularly high in vitamin A include: carrots, sweet potatoes, winter squash, cantaloupe, apricots,
spinach, kale, and collard greens. Some spices are also high in vitamin A, including paprika, red pepper, cayenne, and
chili powder.
Foods high in vitamin B Vitamins B-6, B-12, and B-9 are essential for proper nerve function, the synthesis of DNA, and
the formation of red blood cells in your body. They also help maintain your brain function, prevent anemia, and support
metabolism. Foods that are particularly high in vitamins B-6 and B-12 include: meat, poultry, and fish, seafood, including
mussels and oysters, eggs, milk. Foods that are particularly high in B-9, or folic acid, include leafy green vegetables and
poultry. Some breakfast cereals, fruit juices, and other products are fortified with folic acid.
Foods high in vitamin C Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid. It’s a powerful antioxidant that helps protect the
health of your cells. It improves your body’s iron absorption. It’s also important for promoting healthy teeth and gums,
healing wounds, and helping you resist infection. Foods that are particularly high in vitamin C include: papaya, citrus
fruits, strawberries, bell peppers, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, dark leafy greens, such as kale, mustard greens, and chard
Foods high in vitamin D Vitamin D is a unique vitamin. On top of absorbing it from foods you eat, your body can also
synthesize it from sunlight. It’s critical for the health of your bones and immune system, as well as calcium absorption.
According to the National Cancer InstituteTrusted Source, it may also help lower your risk of developing colorectal
cancer. Though sunshine is by far the richest source of vitamin D, foods that also provide vitamin D include: some
seafood, such as salmon, herring, catfish, trout, and oysters, milk, eggs, shiitake mushrooms.
Foods high in vitamin E Like vitamin C, vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant. It helps protects your cells from damage. It
also helps your body use vitamin K and repair muscle cells. Foods that are particularly high in vitamin E include:
sunflower seeds and almonds, spinach, Swiss chard, and turnip greens, bell peppers, asparagus
Foods high in vitamin K Vitamin K is critical for your body’s formation of blood clots. Without it, you could bleed to
death from a simple cut. It may also help maintain bone strength in older adults. Foods that are particularly high in
vitamin K include: kale, spinach, collard greens, Swiss chard, turnip greens, and mustard greens, romaine lettuce, parsley,
Brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus.
Stock up on vitamin-rich foods It may be tempting to turn to supplements to get your fill of vitamins. But according to
the Office of Dietary Supplements, popping a pill is no substitute for a well-balanced diet. To get the nutrients you need,
stock up on high-vitamin foods that are known to pack a nutritious punch. If you suspect you may be missing crucial
nutrients in your diet, talk to your doctor or dietitian. They may recommend changes to your eating habits. They may also
encourage you to add a supplement to your daily routine.
Put your healthy eating plan into action Eating a well-balanced diet can help you get the nutrients your body needs to
function properly. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seafood are rich sources of many vitamins. Incorporate a variety of them
into your daily diet for optimum health and wellness.
Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients that our body needs to work properly. Most of us get all the vitamins and
minerals we need by eating a healthy balanced diet. Sometimes people need to supplement their diet with added vitamins
and minerals. For example, women who are pregnant or planning to get pregnant should take folic acid. Women who are
pregnant or breastfeeding may also want to consider taking a vitamin D supplement. Pregnant women are entitled to free
healthy start vitamins in Scotland, containing Folic acid, Vitamin D and Vitamin C.
Vitamins are divided into two groups: fat-soluble and water-soluble.
Fat-soluble vitamins are found in animal products and foods that contain fat, like milk, butter, vegetable oils, eggs, liver
and oily fish. We don’t need to eat food containing fat-soluble vitamins every day because our body can store them. It can
also be harmful to have a lot more of these types of vitamins than we need. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble
vitamins.
Water-soluble vitamins come from food like fruit, vegetables, milk, dairy and grains. They can be destroyed by heat or
exposure to air. They can also get lost in water when cooking, especially when boiling food. Steaming or grilling, as well
as using cooking water to add flavour to soups and stews are good ways to preserve water-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble
vitamins aren’t stored in the body so we need to eat them often. If we take in more than we need then we get rid of any
extra through our urine. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins: thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin
(vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), vitamin B6, folic acid (vitamin B9), vitamin B12.
Minerals We need minerals to help us do three main things:
 build strong teeth and bones
 control body fluids inside and outside cells
 turn the food we eat into energy.
Minerals are found in foods like cereals, bread, meat, fish, milk, dairy, nuts, fruit (especially dried fruit) and vegetables.
We need more of some minerals than others. For example, we need more calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium,
potassium and chloride than we do iron, zinc, iodine, selenium and copper.
Vitamin A is also known as retinol. Good sources of vitamin A include cheese eggs oily fish (such as mackerel) milk
fortified margarine and yoghurt.
Vitamin D is made by our skin from sunlight and is also found in small amounts in some foods.
Thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is found in most types of food. Good sources include pork, vegetables, milk, cheese,
peas, fresh and dried fruit, eggs, wholegrain breads and some fortified breakfast cereals.
Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is found in small amounts in many foods. Good sources include milk, eggs,
fortified breakfast cereals, rice and mushrooms.
Niacin is also known as vitamin B3. Good sources of niacin include beef, pork, chicken, wheat flour, maize flour, eggs
and milk.
Vitamin B6 also known as pyridoxine, is found in a wide variety of foods.
Folic acid is a B vitamin which we all need to produce red blood cells. It is one of the important vitamins in pregnancy.
Vitamin B12 is found in virtually all meat products and certain algae such as seaweed. Good sources include meat,
salmon, cod, milk, cheese, eggs, yeast extract, and some fortified breakfast cereals.
Vitamin C, also know as ascorbic acid, is found in a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Good sources include peppers,
broccoli, Brussels sprouts, sweet potatoes, oranges and kiwi fruit.
CALCIUM Good sources of the mineral calcium include milk, cheese and other dairy foods, green leafy vegetables (such
as broccoli, cabbage and okra, but not spinach), soya beans, tofu, soya drinks with added calcium, nuts, bread and
anything made with fortified flour, and fish where you eat the bones, such as sardines and pilchards.
COPPER is a trace element. Good sources include nuts, shellfish and offal.
IODINE is a trace element found in seawater, rocks and in some types of soil. Good food sources include sea fish and
shellfish.
IRON is an essential mineral. Good sources of iron include liver, meat, beans, nuts, dried fruit (such as dried apricots),
whole grains (such as brown rice), fortified breakfast cereals, soybean flour and most dark green leafy vegetables (such as
watercress and curly kale).
MAGNESIUM is a mineral found in a wide variety of foods. The richest sources are green leafy vegetables (such as
spinach) and nuts. Good sources include bread, fish, meat and dairy foods.
MANGANESE is a trace element found in a variety of foods. These include bread, nuts, cereals and green vegetables
(such as peas and runner beans). It's also found in tea, which is probably the biggest source of manganese for many
people.
MOLYBDENUM is a trace element found in a wide variety of foods. Foods that grow above ground - such as peas, leafy
vegetables (including broccoli and spinach) and cauliflower - tend to be higher in molybdenum than meat and foods that
grow below the ground, such as potatoes.
NICKEL is a trace element found widely in the environment. Good food sources include lentils, oats, and nuts.
PANTOTHENIC ACID is found in virtually all meat and vegetable foods. Good sources include chicken, beef, potatoes,
porridge, tomatoes, kidney, eggs, broccoli and whole grains such as brown rice and wholemeal bread.
PHOSPHORUS is a mineral found in red meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice and oats.
POTASSIUM is a mineral found in most types of food. Good sources of potassium include fruit (such as bananas),
vegetables, pulses, nuts and seeds, milk, fish, shellfish, beef, chicken, turkey and bread.
SELENIUM is a trace element found widely in the environment. Good food sources include brazil nuts, bread, fish, meat
and eggs.
SODIUM CHLORIDE is commonly known as salt. Salt is found naturally at low levels in all foods, but high levels are
added to many processed foods such as ready meals, meat products such as bacon, some breakfast cereals, cheese, some
tinned vegetables, some bread and savoury snacks.
ZINC is a trace element found widely in the environment. Good food sources of zinc include meat, shellfish, milk and
dairy foods such as cheese, bread, and cereal products such as wheatgerm.
Vitamins & minerals Vitamin means ‘vital for life’. Vitamins and minerals are compounds necessary for the healthy
functioning of our bodies. We need vitamins and minerals to help us grow, to see correctly, to form bones, muscles, skin
and organs, as well as to help us battle infections. Deficiencies in certain vitamins and minerals can lead to severe
problems. The best way to ensure your child receives enough vitamins and minerals for healthy growth and development
is to provide a wide variety of fresh foods from the five food groups including whole grain bread and
cereals, vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts and legumes, and dairy products such as milk, cheese and
yoghurt.
Water soluble vitamins

VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where do we get it from

B1 (thiamin) • Helps release energy from • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)

carbohydrates
• Is needed for proper working
of the heart, digestive and
nervous systems
• Important for growth
• Wheatgerm and wheat bran
• Nuts and seeds
• Fortified bread and breakfast cereals
• Lean pork
• Wholemeal flour and cereals

B2 (riboflavin) • Important for growth and
repair of tissues, especially the
skin and eyes
• Helps release energy from
food
• Dairy products (milk, cheese, yoghurt)
• Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)
• Egg whites
• Almonds
• Mushrooms
• Wholemeal flour and cereals
• Green vegetables

B3 (niacin) • Helps to release energy from • Lean meat

food • Yeast
• Important for growth • Bran
• Helps control cholesterol • Peanuts
levels • Tuna and salmon
• Important for nervous system • Legumes
and digestive health • Fortified breakfast cereals
• Eggs
• Vegetables
• Milk

B6 • Helps process protein and • Lean meat and poultry

(pyridoxine) carbohydrate • Fish
• Assists in making red blood • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)
cells • Soybeans
• Important for brain function • Nuts
and immune system health • Wholegrains
• Green leafy vegetables

Pantothenic • Helps process carbohydrate, • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)

acid fat and protein for energy • Fish
• Lean meat
• Legumes
 VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where do we get it from

• Involved in the formation of • Nuts

fatty acids and cholesterol • Eggs
• Green leafy vegetables
• Bread and cereals

B12 (cyano- • Works with folate to produce • Found only in animal products (lean meat,
cobalamin) new blood and nerve cells and chicken, fish, seafood, eggs and milk)
DNA • Fortified soy products
• Helps process carbohydrate
and fat

Biotin • Helps process fat and protein • Egg yolk

• Important for growth and • Oats
nerve cell function • Wholegrains
• Legumes
• Mushrooms
• Nuts

Folate (folic • Produces red blood cells and • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)
acid) DNA • Green leafy vegetables
• Keeps the nervous system • Wholegrains
healthy • Peas
• Important in early pregnancy • Nuts
to prevent neural tube defects • Avocado

C (absorbic • Needed for healthy skin, • Fruit and vegetables (citrus fruit and juices,
acid) gums, teeth, bones and cartilage berries, pineapple, mango, pawpaw, capsicum,
• Assists with absorption of parsley, broccoli, spinach, cabbage)
some types of iron
• Assists with wound healing
and resistance to infection

Fat soluble Vitamins

VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where we get it from

A (occurs as both retinol and • Essential for eyesight, Retinol

beta-carotene, which is then
converted by the body into
retinol)
especially night vision
• Essential for normal growth
in children
• Keeps the skin in the mouth,
respiratory tract and urinary
tract moist (protects against
harmful bacteria)
• Builds immunity (ability to
fight infections)
• Oily fish (salmon, sardines,
herring)
• Full cream dairy products
• Butter and table margarine
• Egg yolk
Beta-carotene
• Orange, yellow and green
fruits and vegetables (carrots,
 VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where we get it from

spinach, apricots, mango,

pumpkin, broccoli)

D (cholecalciferol) • Works with calcium and • Sunlight (about 10 minutes

phosphorus to make strong, every day)
healthy bones and teeth • Cod liver oil and oily fish
• A deficiency in Vitamin D (herring, salmon, tuna and
can cause rickets, which sardines)
increases the chance of a child • Fortified margarine
having fractures • Eggs

E (tocopherol) • This antioxidant may play a • Wheatgerm

role in preventing cancer and • Vegetable oils and margarine
heart disease • Nuts and seeds
• Eggs
• Wholegrains
• Fish
• Fruit and vegetables

K (phylloquinone) • Essential for blood clotting • Green leafy vegetables

• Broccoli and cauliflower
• Eggs
• Cheese
• Wholemeal flour and bread

Minerals

MINERAL What it does for our bodies Where we get it from

Calcium • Essential for building strong healthy • Dairy products (milk, cheese and
bones and teeth yoghurt)
• Helps muscle contraction and nerve • Canned sardines and salmon with
function bones
• Helps blood clotting • Wholegrains
• Tofu and soy fortified drinks
• Broccoli
• Almonds

Chromium • Helps with normal growth • Yeast extract (vegemite, Marmite)

• Plays a role in controlling blood sugar • Egg yolk
levels • Liver and kidney
• Lean meat
• Wholegrains
• Cheese
MINERAL What it does for our bodies Where we get it from

Copper • Joins with iron in formation of red blood • Oysters, crab, lobster, mussels
cells • Nuts
• Helps with the functioning of the • Yeast extract (e.g. Vegemite)
nervous system • Wholegrains

Fluorine / • Helps with the structure of healthy bones • Fluoridated drinking water
Fluoride and teeth • Fish
• Decreases the chance of dental caries • Tea
• Helps in the prevention of osteoporosis

Iodine • Promotes normal thyroid function • Seafood

• Helps brain function and normal growth • Seaweed
• Iodised salt
• Bread (through iodised salt)

Iron • Helps red blood cells carry oxygen • Lean red meat, poultry, seafood
around the body • Dark leafy vegetables
• Prevents anaemia • Fortified breakfast cereals
• Wholegrains
• Legumes
• Eggs

Magnesium • Provides structure for healthy bones • Milk

• Involved in the release of energy from • Wholegrains
food • Green leafy vegetables
• Essential for muscle and nerve function • Legumes
• Lean meats and fish
• Nuts and seeds
• Bananas

Manganese • Helps in the formation of healthy bones • Nuts

• Helps in the processing of carbohydrates, • Wholegrains
cholesterol and protein • Cereals
• Vegetables
• Oils

Phosphorus • Works with calcium in the formation of Widely available in many foods
strong healthy bones and teeth however the richest sources are:
• Helps the body to store and use energy • Meat
• Milk and cheese
• Eggs
• Yeast extract (e.g. Vegemite)
• Bran and wheat germ
• Nuts and seeds
 MINERAL What it does for our bodies Where we get it from

Potassium • Controls nerve impulses and muscle • Nuts

contractions • Yeast extract, e.g. Vegemite
• Helps maintain fluid balance • Dried fruit
• Bananas
• Bran and wheat germ
• Raw fruit and vegetables
• Lean meat and fish

Sodium/Salt • Controls nerve impulse transmission
• Helps maintain water balance
Foods high in sodium are processed
or commercial products:
• Table, sea and vegetable salt
• Sauces and stocks
• Yeast extract, e.g. Vegemite
• Processed meats (ham, devon,
salami)
• Cheese
• Bread

Zinc • Aids in wound healing and immune • Lean meat, fish and chicken
function • Milk
• Essential for normal taste, smell and • Wholegrains
sight • Legumes and nuts
• Helps in the formation of strong bones

Carbohydrates, often get a bad rap, especially when it comes to weight gain. But carbohydrates aren't all bad. Because of
their numerous health benefits, carbohydrates have a rightful place in your diet. In fact, your body needs carbohydrates to
function well.
Understanding carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient found in many foods and beverages. Most carbohydrates
occur naturally in plant-based foods, such as grains. Food manufacturers also add carbohydrates to processed foods in the
form of starch or added sugar. Common sources of naturally occurring carbohydrates include: Fruits, Vegetables, Milk,
Nuts, Grains, Seeds, Legumes
Types of carbohydrates There are three main types of carbohydrates:
 Sugar. Sugar is the simplest form of carbohydrate and occurs naturally in some foods, including fruits,
vegetables, milk and milk products. Types of sugar include fruit sugar (fructose), table sugar (sucrose) and milk
sugar (lactose).
 Starch. Starch is a complex carbohydrate, meaning it is made of many sugar units bonded together. Starch occurs
naturally in vegetables, grains, and cooked dry beans and peas.
 Fiber. Fiber also is a complex carbohydrate. It occurs naturally in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and cooked dry
beans and peas.
More carbohydrate terms: Net carbs and glycemic index Terms such as "low carb" or "net carbs" often appear on
product labels. But the Food and Drug Administration doesn't regulate these terms, so there's no standard meaning.
Typically "net carbs" is used to mean the amount of carbohydrates in a product excluding fiber, or excluding both fiber
and sugar alcohols. You probably have also heard talk about the glycemic index. The glycemic index classifies
carbohydrate-containing foods according to their potential to raise your blood sugar level. Weight-loss diets based on the
glycemic index typically recommend limiting foods that are higher on the glycemic index. Foods with a relatively high
glycemic index ranking include potatoes and white bread, and less healthy options such as snack foods and desserts that
contain refined flours. Many healthy foods, such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits and low-fat dairy products,
are naturally lower on the glycemic index.
How many carbohydrates do you need? The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates make
up 45 to 65 percent of your total daily calories. So, if you get 2,000 calories a day, between 900 and 1,300 calories should
be from carbohydrates. That translates to between 225 and 325 grams of carbohydrates a day. You can find the
carbohydrate content of packaged foods on the Nutrition Facts label. The label shows total carbohydrates — which
includes starches, fiber, sugar alcohols, and naturally occurring and added sugars. The label might also list separately total
fiber, soluble fiber and sugar.
Carbohydrates and your health Despite their bad rap, carbohydrates are vital to your health for a number of reasons.
Providing energy Carbohydrates are your body's main fuel source. During digestion, sugars and starches are broken
down into simple sugars. They're then absorbed into your bloodstream, where they're known as blood sugar (blood
glucose). From there, glucose enters your body's cells with the help of insulin. Glucose is used by your body for energy,
and fuels all of your activities — whether it's going for a jog or simply breathing. Extra glucose is stored in your liver,
muscles and other cells for later use, or is converted to fat.
Protecting against disease Some evidence suggests that whole grains and dietary fiber from whole foods help reduce
your risk of cardiovascular diseases. Fiber may also protect against obesity and type 2 diabetes. Fiber is also essential for
optimal digestive health.
Controlling weight Evidence shows that eating plenty of fruit, vegetables and whole grains can help you control your
weight. Their bulk and fiber content aids weight control by helping you feel full on fewer calories. Contrary to what low-
carb diets claim, very few studies show that a diet rich in healthy carbohydrates leads to weight gain or obesity.
Choose your carbohydrates wisely Carbohydrates are an essential part of a healthy diet, and provide many important
nutrients. Still, not all carbs are created equal. Here's how to make healthy carbohydrates work in a balanced diet:
 Emphasize fiber-rich fruits and vegetables. Aim for whole fresh, frozen and canned fruits and vegetables
without added sugar. Other options are fruit juices and dried fruits, which are concentrated sources of natural
sugar and therefore have more calories. Whole fruits and vegetables also add fiber, water and bulk, which help
you feel fuller on fewer calories.
 Choose whole grains. Whole grains are better sources than refined grains of fiber and other important nutrients,
such as B vitamins. Refined grains go through a process that strips out parts of the grain — along with some of
the nutrients and fiber.
 Stick to low-fat dairy products. Milk, cheese, yogurt and other dairy products are good sources of calcium and
protein, plus many other vitamins and minerals. Consider the low-fat versions, to help limit calories and saturated
fat. And beware of dairy products that have added sugar.
 Eat more legumes. Legumes — which include beans, peas and lentils — are among the most versatile and
nutritious foods available. They are typically low in fat and high in folate, potassium, iron and magnesium, and
they contain beneficial fats and fiber. Legumes are a good source of protein and can be a healthy substitute for
meat, which has more saturated fat and cholesterol.
 Limit added sugars. Added sugar probably isn't harmful in small amounts. But there's no health advantage to
consuming any amount of added sugar. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that less than 10
percent of calories you consume every day come from added sugar.
So choose your carbohydrates wisely. Limit foods with added sugars and refined grains, such as sugary drinks, desserts
and candy, which are packed with calories but low in nutrition. Instead, go for fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
Carbohydrates are all about energy and are found in foods like fruits, vegetables, breads, pasta, and dairy products. Your
body uses these foods to make glucose, which is your body's main energy source. Glucose is a type of sugar that can be
used right away for energy or stored away to be used later.
"Carbohydrates provide the body with the energy it needs and are a good source of many vitamins and minerals. However,
not all carbohydrates are created equal," says Donna Logan, RD, a registered dietitian at the University of Texas Medical
School in Houston.
According to the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, the best carbohydrates
are those that contain a lot of fiber, like vegetables, fruits, and whole grains. These types of carbohydrates take longer to
break down into glucose and give you the most nutrients along with your calories. Refined carbohydrates are sometimes
referred to as "bad” carbohydrates. These are carbohydrates that have been processed to remove parts of the grain and
have had sugar added. Common examples of refined or processed carbohydrates are white bread, cakes, and cookies.
Low-Carb Diets and Weight Loss "One of the best weight-loss guidelines is to eliminate sources of simple sugars such
as soda, sweets, candies, cakes, cookies, and similar snack foods," says Logan. "Choose foods with few or no grams of
sugar. Foods high in fiber are best because they provide optimal nutrition while giving a sense of fullness.”
If you choose a low-carbohydrate diet for weight loss and take in fewer calories, you will lose weight. Generally these
diets involve eating less bread and pasta and more vegetables, fruits, and meat. Although low-carbohydrate diets work
well early on, after six months they do not work any better than any other diets for weight loss.
“If you stop eating carbohydrates, you rapidly lose water weight as your body breaks down the stored carbohydrates,"
explains Darwin Deen, MD, senior attending physician at Montefiore Medical Center's Department of Family and Social
Medicine in the Bronx, New York. "The problem is that a low-carbohydrate diet is not a normal balance of physiologic
nutrition. As soon as you start eating carbohydrates again, your body replenishes your carbohydrate stores and your
weight comes back," says Dr. Deen.
Eat the Right Carbohydrates for Weight Loss "Eat plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables, which can add variety, color,
and flavor to meals. Whole grains such as whole wheat, corn tortillas, and brown rice are great sources of healthy
carbohydrates. Check the nutritional label for carbohydrate information, including total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and
sugars,” says Logan. Here are ideas for getting the right carbs in your diet: Start your day with a breakfast of whole-grain
cereal and fruit. Add an extra serving of vegetables to lunch and dinner. For easy between-meal snacks right at your
fingertips, keep raw, cut-up vegetables in the refrigerator. Substitute beans as a main course in place of meat once every
week. Eat a whole fruit as your dessert.
U.S. guidelines suggest that between 45 and 65 percent of your calories come from carbohydrates. At the USDA Web site,
you can enter your age, sex, height, weight, and activity level to find out exactly how many calories in your diet should be
from carbohydrates. You will also find the “Easy Fiber Estimator,” which will tell you how many grams of fiber ought to
be in every 1,000 calories you eat. For example, if you are on a diet of 2,000 calories, you will want to get 28 grams of
dietary fiber.
Concentrate on Calories and Nutrition The USDA’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 recommends a balanced
eating pattern. If you need to lose weight, you should decrease your calories gradually and increase your physical activity.
Choose fiber-rich carbohydrate foods and avoid added sugars. Making healthy carbohydrate choices while reducing
calories and increasing physical activity is the healthiest path to weight loss.
"Carbs" are a hotly-debated topic, especially in the weight loss world, due in part to diets such as the Atkins, Dukan,
South Beach and Ketogenic Diet. The idea that "carbs are bad" has left many people confused about carbohydrates and
their importance for our health, including maintaining a healthy weight. Dietitian Sian Porter says: "Carbohydrates are
such a broad category and people need to know that not all carbs are the same. It's the type, quality and quantity of
carbohydrate in our diet that is important. "While we should reduce the amount of free sugar in our diet, we should base
our meals on starchy carbs, particularly the higher fibre varieties. "There is strong evidence that fibre, found in wholegrain
versions of starchy carbs for example, is good for our health." On this page you can find out all you need to know about
carbohydrates, their health benefits, healthier sources of carbohydrates, and how they can help you maintain a healthy
weight.
What are carbs? Carbohydrates are one of 3 macronutrients (nutrients that form a large part of our diet) found in food –
the others being fat and protein. Hardly any foods contain only 1 nutrient, and most are a combination of carbohydrates,
fats and proteins in varying amounts. There are 3 different types of carbohydrates found in food: sugar, starch and fibre.
Sugar The type of sugars most adults and children in the UK eat too much of are called free sugars. These are the sugars
added to food or drinks, including sugars in biscuits, chocolate, flavoured yoghurts, breakfast cereals and fizzy drinks.
These sugars may be added at home, or by a chef or another food manufacturer. Sugars in honey, syrups (such as maple,
agave and golden), nectars (such as blossom), and unsweetened fruit juices, vegetable juices and smoothies occur
naturally, but still count as free sugars. Sugar found naturally in milk, fruit and vegetables does not count.
Starch is found in foods that come from plants. Starchy foods, such as bread, rice, potatoes and pasta, provide a slow and
steady release of energy throughout the day.
Fibre is the name given to the diverse range of compounds found in the cell walls of foods that come from plants. Good
sources of fibre include vegetables with skins on, wholegrain bread, wholewheat pasta, and pulses (beans and lentils).
Why do we need carbs? Carbohydrates are important to your health for a number of reasons.
Energy Carbohydrates should be the body's main source of energy in a healthy, balanced diet, providing about 4kcal
(17kJ) per gram. They're broken down into glucose (sugar) before being absorbed into the bloodstream. From there, the
glucose enters the body's cells with the help of insulin. Glucose is used by your body for energy, fuelling all of your
activities, whether going for a run or simply breathing. Unused glucose can be converted to glycogen found in the liver
and muscles. If more glucose is consumed than can be stored as glycogen, it's converted to fat for long-term storage of
energy. Higher fibre starchy carbohydrates release sugar into the blood more slowly than sugary foods and drinks.
Disease risk Fruit and vegetables, pulses, wholegrain and wholewheat varieties of starchy foods, and potatoes eaten with
their skins on, are good sources of fibre. Fibre is an important part of a healthy, balanced diet. It can promote good bowel
health, reduce the risk of constipation, and some forms of fibre have been shown to reduce cholesterol levels. Research
shows diets high in fibre are associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and bowel cancer.
Many people don't get enough fibre. On average, most adults in the UK get about 19g of fibre a day. We're advised to eat
an average of 30g a day.
Calorie intake Carbohydrate contains fewer calories gram for gram than fat, and starchy foods can be a good source of
fibre, which means they can be a useful part of maintaining a healthy weight. By replacing fatty, sugary foods and drinks
with higher fibre starchy foods, it's more likely you'll reduce the number of calories in your diet. Also, high-fibre foods
add bulk to your meal, helping you feel full. "You still need to watch your portion sizes to avoid overeating," says Sian.
"Also watch the amount of fat you add when cooking and serving them: this increases the calorie content."
Should I cut out carbohydrates? While we can most certainly survive without sugar, it would be quite difficult to
eliminate carbohydrates entirely from your diet. Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. In their absence,
your body will use protein and fat for energy. It may also be hard to get enough fibre, which is important for long-term
health. Healthy sources of carbohydrates, such as higher fibre starchy foods, vegetables, fruits and legumes, are also an
important source of nutrients, such as calcium, iron and B vitamins. Significantly reducing carbohydrates from your diet
in the long term could put you at increased risk of insufficient intakes of certain nutrients, potentially leading to health
problems. Cutting out carbohydrates from your diet could put you at increased risk of a deficiency in certain nutrients,
leading to health problems, unless you're able to make up for the nutritional shortfall with healthy substitutes.
Replacing carbohydrates with fats and higher fat sources of protein could increase your intake of saturated fat, which can
raise the amount of cholesterol in your blood – a risk factor for heart disease. When you're low on glucose, the body
breaks down stored fat to convert it into energy. This process causes a build-up of ketones in the blood, resulting in
ketosis. Ketosis as a result of a low-carbohydrate diet can be linked, at least in the short term, to headaches, weakness,
nausea, dehydration, dizziness and irritability. Try to limit the amount of sugary foods you eat and instead include
healthier sources of carbohydrate in your diet, such as wholegrains, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, legumes and lower fat
dairy products.
Don't protein and fat provide energy? While carbohydrates, fat and protein are all sources of energy in the diet, the
amount of energy each one provides varies:
 carbohydrate provides: about 4kcal (17kJ) per gram
 protein provides: 4kcal (17kJ) per gram
  fat provides: 9kcal (37kJ) per gram
In the absence of carbohydrates in the diet, your body will convert protein (or other non-carbohydrate substances) into
glucose, so it's not just carbohydrates that can raise your blood sugar and insulin levels. If you consume more calories than
you burn from whatever source, you'll gain weight. So cutting out carbohydrates or fat doesn't necessarily mean cutting
out calories if you're replacing them with other foods containing the same number of calories.
Are carbohydrates more filling than protein? Carbohydrates and protein contain roughly the same number of calories
per gram. But other factors influence the sensation of feeling full, such as the type, variety and amount of food eaten, as
well as eating behaviour and environmental factors, like serving sizes and the availability of food choices. The sensation
of feeling full can also vary from person to person. Among other things, protein-rich foods can help you feel full, and we
should have some beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat and other protein foods as part of a healthy, balanced diet. But we
shouldn't eat too much of these foods. Remember that starchy foods should make up about a third of the food we eat, and
we all need to eat more fruit and vegetables.
How much carbohydrate should I eat? The government's healthy eating advice, illustrated by the Eatwell Guide,
recommends that just over a third of your diet should be made up of starchy foods, such as potatoes, bread, rice and pasta,
and over another third should be fruit and vegetables. This means that over half of your daily calorie intake should come
from starchy foods, fruit and vegetables.
What carbohydrates should I be eating? Data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey, which looks at food
consumption in the UK, shows that most of us should also be eating more fibre and starchy foods and fewer sweets,
chocolates, biscuits, pastries, cakes and soft drinks with added sugar.These are usually high in sugar and calories, which
can increase the risk of tooth decay and contribute to weight gain if you eat them too often, while providing few other
nutrients. Fruit, vegetables, pulses and starchy foods (especially higher fibre varieties) provide a wider range of nutrients
(such as vitamins and minerals), which are beneficial to health. The fibre in these foods can help keep your bowels
healthy and adds bulk to your meal, helping you feel full.
How can I increase my fibre intake? To increase the amount of fibre in your diet, aim for at least 5 portions of a variety
of fruit and veg a day. Go for higher fibre varieties of starchy foods and eat potatoes with skins on. Try to aim for an
average intake of 30g of fibre a day. Here are some examples of the typical fibre content in some common foods:
 2 breakfast wheat biscuits (approx. 37.5g) – 3.6g of fibre
 1 slice of wholemeal bread – 2.5g (1 slice of white bread – 0.9g)
 80g of cooked wholewheat pasta – 4.2g
 1 medium (180g) baked potato (with skin) – 4.7g
 80g (4 heaped tablespoons) of cooked runner beans – 1.6g
 80g (3 heaped tablespoons) of cooked carrots – 2.2g
 1 small cob (3 heaped tablespoons) of sweetcorn – 2.2g
 200g of baked beans – 9.8g
 1 medium orange – 1.9g
 1 medium banana – 1.4g
Can eating low glycaemic index (GI) foods help me lose weight? The glycaemic index (GI) is a rating system for foods
containing carbohydrates. It shows how quickly each food affects glucose (sugar) levels in your blood when that food is
eaten on its own. Some low-GI foods, such as wholegrain foods, fruit, vegetables, beans and lentils, are foods we should
eat as part of a healthy, balanced diet. But using GI to decide whether foods, or a combination of foods, are healthy or can
help with weight reduction can be misleading. Although low-GI foods cause blood sugar levels to rise and fall
slowly, which may help you to feel fuller for longer, not all low-GI foods are healthy. For example, watermelon and
parsnips are high-GI foods, while chocolate cake has a lower GI value. And the way a food is cooked and what you eat it
with as part of a meal will change the GI rating. This means GI alone isn't a reliable way of deciding whether foods, or
combinations of foods, are healthy or will help you lose weight.
Do carbohydrates make you fat? Any food can cause weight gain if you overeat. Whether your diet is high in fat or high
in carbohydrates, if you frequently consume more energy than your body uses you're likely to put on weight. In fact, gram
for gram, carbohydrate contains fewer than half the calories of fat. Wholegrain varieties of starchy foods are good sources
of fibre. Foods high in fibre add bulk to your meal and help you feel full. But foods high in sugar are often high in
calories, and eating these foods too often can contribute to you becoming overweight. There's some evidence that diets
high in sugar are associated with an increased energy content of the diet overall, which over time can lead to weight gain.
Can cutting out wheat help me lose weight? Some people point to bread and other wheat-based foods as the main
culprit for their weight gain. Wheat is found in a wide range of foods, from bread, pasta and pizza to cereals and many
other foods. But there's not enough evidence that foods that contain wheat are any more likely to cause weight gain than
any other food. Unless you have a diagnosed health condition, such as wheat allergy, wheat sensitivity or coeliac disease,
there's little evidence that cutting out wheat and other grains from your diet would benefit your health. Grains, especially
wholegrains, are an important part of a healthy, balanced diet. Wholegrain, wholemeal and brown breads give us energy
and contain B vitamins, vitamin E, fibre and a wide range of minerals. White bread also contains a range of vitamins and
minerals, but it has less fibre than wholegrain, wholemeal or brown breads. If you prefer white bread, look for higher fibre
options. Grains are also naturally low in fat.
Should people with diabetes avoid carbs? People with diabetes should try to eat a healthy, balanced diet, as shown in
the Eatwell Guide. They should also include higher fibre starchy foods at every meal. Steer clear of cutting out entire food
groups. It's recommended that everyone with diabetes sees a registered dietitian for specific advice on their food choices.
Your GP can refer you to a registered dietitian. There's some evidence that suggests low-carbohydrate diets can lead to
weight loss and improvements in blood glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes in the short term. But it's not clear
whether the diet is a safe and effective way to manage type 2 diabetes in the long term. Weight loss from a low-
carbohydrate diet may be because of a reduced intake of calories overall and not specifically as a result of eating less
carbohydrate. There also isn't enough evidence to support the use of low-carbohydrate diets in people with type 1
diabetes. Douglas Twenefour, Diabetes UK clinical adviser, says: "When considering a low-carbohydrate diet as an
option, people with diabetes should be made aware of possible side effects, such as the risk of hypoglycaemia (low blood
sugar). "We also advise that people with diabetes discuss the amount of carbohydrate to be restricted with their healthcare
team. "The best way to manage diabetes is by taking prescribed medications and by maintaining a healthy lifestyle that
includes plenty of physical activity, and a balanced diet that is low in saturated fat, salt and sugar and rich in fruit and
vegetables, without completely cutting out any particular food groups."
What's the role of carbohydrates in exercise? Carbohydrates, fat and protein all provide energy, but exercising muscles
rely on carbohydrates as their main source of fuel. But muscles have limited carbohydrate stores (glycogen) and need to
be topped up regularly to keep your energy up. A diet low in carbohydrates can lead to a lack of energy during exercise,
early fatigue and delayed recovery.
When is the best time to eat carbohydrates? There's little scientific evidence that one time is better than any other. It's
recommended that you base all your meals around starchy carbohydrate foods and you try to choose higher fibre
wholegrain varieties when you can.
Carbohydrates: quality matters What’s most important is the type of carbohydrate you choose to eat because some
sources are healthier than others. The amount of carbohydrate in the diet – high or low – is less important than the type of
carbohydrate in the diet. For example, healthy, whole grains such as whole wheat bread, rye, barley and quinoa are better
choices than highly refined white bread or French fries.
What are carbohydrates? Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods—bread, beans,
milk, popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie. They also come in a variety of forms. The
most common and abundant forms are sugars, fibers, and starches. Foods high in carbohydrates are an important part of a
healthy diet. Carbohydrates provide the body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support bodily functions
and physical activity. But carbohydrate quality is important; some types of carbohydrate-rich foods are better than others:
  The healthiest sources of carbohydrates—unprocessed or minimally processed whole grains, vegetables, fruits
and beans—promote good health by delivering vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a host of important phytonutrients.
 Unhealthier sources of carbohydrates include white bread, pastries, sodas, and other highly processed or refined
foods. These items contain easily digested carbohydrates that may contribute to weight gain, interfere with
weight loss, and promote diabetes and heart disease.
The Healthy Eating Plate recommends filling most of your plate with healthy carbohydrates – with vegetables (except
potatoes) and fruits taking up about half of your plate, and whole grains filling up about one fourth of your plate.
Try these tips for adding healthy carbohydrates to your diet:
1. Start the day with whole grains.
Try a hot cereal, like steel cut or old fashioned oats (not instant oatmeal), or a cold cereal that lists a whole grain first on
the ingredient list and is low in sugar. A good rule of thumb: Choose a cereal that has at least 4 grams of fiber and less
than 8 grams of sugar per serving.
2. Use whole grain breads for lunch or snacks.
Confused about how to find a whole-grain bread? Look for bread that lists as the first ingredient whole wheat, whole rye,
or some other whole grain —and even better, one that is made with only whole grains, such as 100 percent whole wheat
bread.
3. Also look beyond the bread aisle.
Whole wheat bread is often made with finely ground flour, and bread products are often high in sodium. Instead of bread,
try a whole grain in salad form such as brown rice or quinoa.
4. Choose whole fruit instead of juice.
An orange has two times as much fiber and half as much sugar as a 12-ounce glass of orange juice.
5. Pass on potatoes, and instead bring on the beans.
Rather than fill up on potatoes – which have been found to promote weight gain – choose beans for an excellent source of
slowly digested carbohydrates. Beans and other legumes such as chickpeas also provide a healthy dose of protein.
Balancing carbs, protein, and fat Three nutrients — carbohydrate, protein, and fat — contain calories that your body
uses for energy. Here's how to balance these nutrients in a healthy diet.
Carbohydrate has 4 calories per gram. About 50 to 60 percent of your total daily calories should come from carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate contains the most glucose and gives the quickest form of energy. Your body changes 100 percent of
carbohydrate into glucose.
Besides giving your body energy that it uses right away, your body can store carbohydrate in your liver. Your liver stores
extra carbohydrate as glycogen and releases it later, when your body needs it. However, there's a limit to the amount of
glycogen your liver can store. Once your liver has reached that limit, your body turns the extra carbohydrate into fat.
There are two types of carbohydrate: healthy and not-so-healthy.
Healthy carbs: Also called complex or slower-acting carbs. Includes multigrain bread, brown rice, lentils, and beans.
This type of carbohydrate raises blood sugar slowly and lasts longer. This helps keep you from feeling hungry for a longer
time and helps to keep blood sugar levels closer to normal.
Not-so-healthy carbs: Also known as simple or fast-acting carbs. Includes candy, cookies, cake, soda, juice, and
sweetened beverages. This type of carbohydrate raises blood sugar levels very quickly, but doesn't last very long. That's
why these carbs work well to correct low-blood sugar but don't satisfy hunger as well as healthy carbs.
Proteins also has 4 calories per gram. In a healthy diet, about 12 to 20 percent of your total daily calories should come
from protein. Your body needs protein for growth, maintenance, and energy. Protein can also be stored and is used mostly
by your muscles. Your body changes about 60 percent of protein into glucose. Protein takes 3 to 4 hours to affect blood
sugar levels. When it does have an effect, foods that are mostly protein won't cause much of a rise in blood sugar.
Fats has the most calories of all the nutrients: 9 calories per gram. In a healthy diet, about 30 percent of total daily calories
should come from fat. This means eating about 50 to 80 grams of fat each day. Fat gives the body energy, too, but the
body changes only about 10 percent of fat into glucose. By itself, fat doesn't have much impact on blood sugar. But when
you eat fat along with a carbohydrate, it can slow the rise in blood sugar. Since fat also slows down digestion, once your
blood sugar does rise, it can keep your blood sugar levels higher for a longer period of time. There are various types of fat,
and some types are better for you than others. Choose mono-unsaturated or poly-unsaturated fat. These fats are liquid at
room temperature. Mono-unsaturated fats are especially healthy because they lower the bad cholesterol (LDL) in your
blood. These fats include olive, canola, avocado, and nut oils. Limit saturated and trans-fats. Saturated fats are found in
foods that come from animals, such as meat and dairy products. These kinds of fats are solid at room temperature.
Hardened fats, such as coconut or palm kernel oils as well as oils that have been hydrogenated, also contain saturated fat.
These can damage your heart and arteries. Trans-fats are found in most processed foods and many fried fast foods, such as
French fries. They help food stay fresher longer, but they're just as bad for you as saturated fat.
Important Nutrients to Know: Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats
Proteins are often called the body’s building blocks. They are used to build and repair tissues. They help you fight
infection. Your body uses extra protein for energy. The protein foods group includes seafood, lean meat and poultry, eggs,
beans and peas, soy products, and unsalted nuts and seeds. Protein is also found in the dairy group. Protein from plant
sources tends to be lower in saturated fat, contains no cholesterol, and provides fiber and other health-promoting nutrients.
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy. The fruit, vegetables, dairy, and grain food groups all contain
carbohydrates. Sweeteners like sugar, honey, and syrup and foods with added sugars like candy, soft drinks, and cookies
also contain carbohydrates. Try to get most of your carbohydrates from fruits, vegetables, fat-free and low-fat dairy, and
whole grains rather than added sugars or refined grains. Many foods with carbohydrates also supply fiber. Fiber is a type
of carbohydrate that your body cannot digest. It is found in many foods that come from plants, including fruits,
vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains. Eating food with fiber can help prevent stomach or intestinal problems,
such as constipation. It might also help lower cholesterol and blood sugar. It’s better to get fiber from food than dietary
supplements. Start adding fiber slowly. This will help avoid gas. To add fiber:
 Eat cooked dry beans, peas, and lentils.
 Leave skins on your fruit and vegetables but wash them before eating.
 Choose whole fruit over fruit juice.
 Eat whole grain breads and cereals that contain fiber.
Fats give you energy, and they help the body absorb certain vitamins. Essential fatty acids help the body function, but
they aren’t made by your body—you have to consume them. Many foods naturally contain fats, including dairy products;
meats, poultry, seafood, and eggs; and seeds, nuts, avocados, and coconuts. Certain kinds of fat can be bad for your
health—saturated fats and trans fats:
 Saturated fats are found in the greatest amounts in butter, beef fat, and coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils.
Higher-fat meats and dairy and cakes, cookies, and some snack foods are higher in saturated fats. Dishes with
many ingredients are common sources of saturated fat, including pizza, casseroles, burgers, tacos, and
sandwiches.
 Trans fats, which is short for trans fatty acids, occur naturally in some foods but are also artificially produced.
Because trans fats are not healthy, food manufacturers are phasing them out. But trans fats can still be found in
some processed foods, such as some desserts, microwave popcorn, frozen pizza, margarine, and coffee creamer.
Fats that contain mostly trans fats and saturated fats are solid at room temperature. Limit your intake of saturated fats to
less than 10 percent of your calories each day, and keep trans fat intake as low as possible. Replace saturated
and trans fats with these two types of healthier fats while keeping total fat intake within the recommended range:
 Monounsaturated fats. These are found in the greatest amounts in canola, olive, peanut, sunflower, and
safflower oils and in avocados, peanut butter, and most nuts.
  Polyunsaturated fats. These are found in the greatest amounts in sunflower, corn, soybean, and cottonseed oils
and in fatty fish, walnuts, and some seeds.
Oils contain mostly monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and are liquid at room temperature. These types of fat seem
to lower your chance of heart disease when they replace saturated fats. But that doesn’t mean you can eat more than
the Dietary Guidelines suggests. To lower the saturated fat in your diet:
 Choose cuts of meat with less fat and remove the skin from chicken
 Use low-fat or fat-free dairy products
 Choose oils, such as olive or canola, for cooking
 Replace ingredients higher in saturated fats with vegetables, whole grains, low-fat and fat-free dairy products, or
lean cuts of meats and poultry
 Read the Nutrition Facts label and choose products lower in saturated fats
A study published in The Lancet Public Health journal last year provides inside into the carb debate, suggesting that
neither a low-carb diet nor a high-carb diet are ideal long-term if you're going to live a long and healthy life.
Rather, moderate carb consumption - accounting for 50 to 55 per cent of energy intake - will give you the lowest risk of
mortality. The Harvard researchers also examined the source of proteins and fats consumed in low-carb diets. They
found that replacing carbohydrates with protein and fat from animal sources was associated with a higher risk of mortality
than moderate carbohydrate intake. In contrast, replacing carbohydrates with plant-based foods was linked to a lower risk
of mortality. "These findings bring together several strands that have been controversial," says Dr Walter Willett, a
professor of epidemiology and nutrition at Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health and a co-author of the study.
"Too much and too little carbohydrate can be harmful but what counts most is the type of fat, protein, and carbohydrate."
Carbs are our body's primary source of energy, especially for the brain, which relies almost completely on glucose to
function optimally.
Dietitian Rachel Hawkins Another review published in the journal BMJ similarly concludes it's the quality of
carbohydrate-rich foods rather than quantity that has the strongest effect on major health outcomes. Accredited practising
dietitian Rachel Hawkins, who blogs at thenakedtruthaustralia.com, agrees that carbohydrates are essential for a balanced
mind and body and that quality matters over quantity. "Carbs are our body's primary source of energy, especially for the
brain, which relies almost completely on glucose to function optimally," Hawkins says.
"Therefore, restricting your brain glucose from carbs can leave you feeling tired, fatigued, and foggy headed." While the
body will draw on fats and proteins as sources of energy, limiting carbohydrate consumption in the long-term can have
detrimental health outcomes, she says. This is because whole plant foods - including vegetables, fruits, legumes, and
whole grains - contain unique essential nutrients, such as dietary fibre, phytonutrients and antioxidants as well as plant
protein and healthy fats.
"The research emphasising the importance of dietary fibre on the microbiome is evolving but there's definitely a link
between fibre that comes from eating a colourful variety of whole plant foods and healthy gut bacteria, but also on
immunity, digestive, heart and brain health," Hawkins says.
Victorian naturopath Erin Keane adds that restricting carbs for too long can mess with female hormones. "It can
compromise proper thyroid and adrenal gland function and even lead to amenorrhea [absence of menstruation]." Hawkins
also highlights how eating a lot of meat on low-carb diets as the main source of protein, equals an increase in saturated
fats which have been proven to have negative consequences on cardiac health.
Why do carbs get a bad rap? To understand the dietary grey area around carbohydrates, it's important to know the
difference between two types of carbs - as not all carbs are created equal. "Simple carbs are your sugary foods like
biscuits, sweets and syrups, which the body essentially breaks down very quickly, causing blood-sugar spikes," Hawkins
says. "But whole foods such as nuts, grains, vegetables and fruits, including starches, have complex carbs, which takes the
body longer to break down and absorb, and in effect provide us with longer-lasting energy throughout the day."
In other words, when we hear about carbs being bad for our health, it's mainly related to simple carbs. Health research
suggests that excessive consumption of simple carbs, predominantly found as added sugars in highly processed foods,
tends to drive metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and stroke. They are also principal
factors behind high obesity levels and even hypertension. "For people who are diabetic or pre-diabetic consuming low-
glycemic foods, closely related to complex carbs, can help regulate their blood-sugar levels," Hawkins says.
But before you dismiss simple carbs completely, Hawkins points out that simple carbs can be useful in terms of providing
us with quick bouts of energy as a pre-workout snack or enjoyment. "A few pieces of chocolate a couple of nights a week
will not be detrimental to your health," she says. "In the same way, excluding simple carbs all together will not necessarily
make your diet healthier."
How about weight loss? Many studies suggest that low-carb diets help weight loss, including one BMJ study that put 234
overweight adults on a 10-week weight-loss diet. It found that people on low-carb diets burned more than 200 extra
calories per day compared to those on high-carb diets.
"As with any weight loss plan the most important to focus on is diet quality, so the health impact of any diet for weight
loss and its success depends on its nutrient density," says accredited practising dietitian Kate Save, founder of meal-
delivery service Be Fit Food. "Reducing your intake of calorie-dense simple carbs automatically forces your body to burn
fat stored around your midsection for energy, suggesting that with the right carbs we lose weight not pile it on," she says.
"Therefore, if your carb intake consists mostly of non-starchy vegetables, leafy greens, and whole grains, together with the
right quality fats and protein, you can achieve your weight-loss goals easier." To maintain a healthy weight, quantity
control is also required, Keane adds. "If you're not eating more calories than you need, then you aren't going to put on
weight - even if the majority of your calories come from carbs," she says.
Carbohydrate health benefits
Grains: Whole grains, such as quinoa, brown rice, buckwheat and millet have been scientifically proven to reduce the risk
of cancer while stabilising blood sugar, cholesterol and triglyceride levels, plus optimising digestive function. Wholegrain
varieties found in oats and rye specifically lower the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Legumes: Beans and legumes in the form of kidney beans, lentils, fava, black-eyed peas and chickpeas are naturally low
in fat, and practically free of saturated fat, and cholesterol. As a result, they lower the risk of developing type 2 diabetes,
and help improve both unhealthy cholesterol and triglyceride levels while regulating blood pressure. Fibre, protein, and
slowly digested carbohydrate content aid in satiety, helping with weight loss and weight control.
Potatoes: Resistant starch from potatoes is mostly converted into the short-chain fatty acid butyrate - the preferred food
source for gut bacteria. Studies have shown that butyrate can reduce inflammation in the colon, strengthen the colon's
defenses and reduce the risk of colorectal cancer.
Whole fruits: While the effects of fructose on metabolism can be harmful, this is only true when consumed in
concentrated form such as fruit juice. When eaten as a whole fruit with the skin on, fruit adds the positive benefits of fibre,
water and "chewing resistance", which means it takes a while to eat and digest, so fructose hits the liver slower and
doesn't cause harm.
So what's the answer? "Don't vilify carbs but increase awareness of the various roles different types play in your diet,"
Hawkins says. "And as long as you're making smart choices - a moderate carb consumption which prioritises quality over
quantity - there's no reason to limit or exclude carbs from a healthy diet plan."
Carbohydrates, protein, fat, and alcohol are all sources of calories in the diet. These macronutrients can all be part of a
healthy diet. Balancing the calories that we take in with those that we burn every day can help us maintain, gain, or lose
weight. Learn some tips for fitting carbs in your diet. Food contains three types of carbohydrates: sugar, starches and
fiber. Carbohydrates are either called simple or complex, depending on the food’s chemical structure and how quickly the
sugar is digested and absorbed. The type of carbohydrates that you eat makes a difference – Foods that contain high
amounts of simple sugars, especially fructose raise triglyceride levels. Triglycerides (or blood fats) are an important
barometer of metabolic health; high levels may be associated with coronary heart disease, diabetes and fatty liver.
  Simple carbohydrates are digested quickly and send immediate bursts of glucose (energy) into the blood stream.
That's why you may feel a rush of energy when you eat a dessert, only to be followed by a crash of fatigue when
that sudden burst of energy is depleted. Simple sugars are found in refined sugars, like the white sugar you'd find
in a sugar bowl. Added sugars (including refined sugars) provide calories, but lack vitamins, minerals and fiber
and can lead to weight gain.
But not all simple sugars are alike. There are also simple sugars in more nutritious foods, like fruit and milk. These
are "naturally occurring"sugars and, unlike refined sugars, these sugars often come with vitamins, minerals, and fiber
that our bodies need.

 Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and supply a lower more steady release of glucose into the
blood stream. As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are better choices than others.

Refined grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been processed, which removes many nutrients and fiber.
Many foods containing refined grains like white flour, sugar and white rice lack B vitamins and other important
nutrients unless they’re marked “enriched.” By contrast, unrefined whole grains retain many of these vital
nutrients and are rich in fiber, which helps your digestive system work well. Fiber helps you feel full, so you are
less likely to overeat these foods. That explains why you will feel full longer after eating a bowl of oatmeal
compared to the same amount of calories of sugary candy.
Why do I need carbohydrates? When you eat carbs, your body breaks them down into simple sugars, which are absorbed
into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is
needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where the sugar can be used as a source of energy. When this process
goes fast — as with simple sugars like sugar-sweetened beverages and high-calorie desserts — you're more likely to feel
hungry again soon. When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll feel satisfied longer because it takes
longer for your body to break down the complex carbohydrates in whole-grains into simple sugars. These types of
complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time. The carbs in some foods (mostly those that contain a
lot of simple sugars) cause the blood sugar level to rise more quickly than others. How fast or slow carbohydrates are
turned into blood glucose are measured on the glycemic index. If you’re healthy, carbohydrates turn into glucose (blood
sugar), which your body uses for energy. But if your blood glucose levels become too high or too low, it could be a sign
that your body can have trouble producing the insulin that it needs to stay healthy which can eventually result in diabetes.
Simple carbohydrates found in processed, refined or added sugars that do not contain any nutritional value include:
Candy, Regular (non-diet) carbonated beverages, such as soda, Syrups, Table sugar, Added sugar
Complex carbohydrates, often referred to as “starchy” foods, include: Legumes, Starchy vegetables, Whole-grain and
fiber. Try and get carbohydrates, vitamins and other nutrients in as natural a form as possible. For example, enjoy fruit
instead of a soft drink and aim for whole grains instead of processed flours
So when it comes to carbohydrates follow these recommendations: 1. Limit foods that are high in processed, refined
simple sugars provide calories but they have very little nutrition. 2. Get more complex carbohydrates and healthy
nutrients by eating more fruits and vegetables. 3. Focus on whole-grain rice, breads and cereals, and don’t forget the
legumes — beans, lentils and dried peas.
Good Carbs, Bad Carbs — How to Make the Right Choices Carbs are highly controversial these days. The dietary
guidelines suggest that we get about half of our calories from carbohydrates. On the other hand, some claim that carbs
cause obesity and type 2 diabetes, and that most people should be avoiding them. There are good arguments on both sides,
and it appears that carbohydrate requirements depend largely on the individual. Some people do better with a lower carb
intake, while others do just fine eating plenty of carbs. Carbs, or carbohydrates, are molecules that have carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen atoms. In nutrition, "carbs" refers to one of the three macronutrients. The other two are protein and fat.
Dietary carbohydrates can be split into three main categories:
 Sugars: Sweet, short-chain carbohydrates found in foods. Examples are glucose, fructose, galactose and sucrose.
 Starches: Long chains of glucose molecules, which eventually get broken down into glucose in the digestive
system.
  Fiber: Humans cannot digest fiber, although the bacteria in the digestive system can make use of some of them.
The main purpose of carbohydrates in the diet is to provide energy. Most carbs get broken down or transformed into
glucose, which can be used as energy. Carbs can also be turned into fat (stored energy) for later use. Fiber is an exception.
It does not provide energy directly, but it does feed the friendly bacteria in the digestive system. These bacteria can use
the fiber to produce fatty acids that some of our cells can use as energy. Sugar alcohols are also classified as
carbohydrates. They taste sweet, but usually don't provide many calories.
Not all carbs are created equal. There are many different types of carbohydrate-containing foods, and they vary greatly
in their health effects. Although carbs are often referred to as "simple" vs "complex," I personally find "whole" vs
"refined" to make more sense. Whole carbs are unprocessed and contain the fiber found naturally in the food, while
refined carbs have been processed and had the natural fiber stripped out.Examples of whole carbs include vegetables,
whole fruit, legumes, potatoes and whole grains. These foods are generally healthy.
On the other hand, refined carbs include sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices, pastries, white bread, white pasta, white
rice and others. Numerous studies show that refined carbohydrate consumption is associated with health problems like
obesity and type 2 diabetes. They tend to cause major spikes in blood sugar levels, which leads to a subsequent crash that
can trigger hunger and cravings for more high-carb foods. This is the "blood sugar roller coaster" that many people are
familiar with. Refined carbohydrate foods are usually also lacking in essential nutrients. In other words, they are "empty"
calories.
The added sugars are another story altogether, they are the absolute worst carbohydrates and linked to all sorts of chronic
diseases. However, it makes no sense to demonize all carbohydrate-containing foods because of the health effects of their
processed counterparts. Whole food sources of carbohydrates are loaded with nutrients and fiber, and don't cause the same
spikes and dips in blood sugar levels. Hundreds of studies on high-fiber carbohydrates, including
vegetables, fruits, legumes and whole grains show that eating them is linked to improved metabolic health and a lower
risk of disease
Low-Carb Diets Are Great For Some People No discussion about carbs is complete without mentioning low-carb diets.
These types of diets restrict carbohydrates, while allowing plenty of protein and fat. Over 23 studies have now shown that
low-carb diets are much more effective than the standard "low-fat" diet that has been recommended for the past few
decades. These studies show that low-carb diets cause more weight loss and lead to greater improvement in various health
markers, including HDL (the "good") cholesterol, blood triglycerides, blood sugar, blood pressure and others For people
who are obese, or have metabolic syndrome and/or type 2 diabetes, low-carb diets can have life-saving benefits. This
should not be taken lightly, because these are currently the biggest health problems in the world, responsible for millions
of deaths per year. However, just because low-carb diets are useful for weight loss and people with certain metabolic
problems, they are definitely not the answer for everyone.
"Carbs" Are Not The Cause of Obesity Restricting carbs can often (at least partly) reverse obesity. However, this does
not mean that the carbs were what caused the obesity in the first place. This is actually a myth, and there is a ton of
evidence against it. While it is true that added sugars and refined carbs are linked to increased obesity, the same is not true
of fiber-rich, whole-food sources of carbohydrates. Humans have been eating carbs for thousands of years, in some form
or another. The obesity epidemic started around 1980, and the type 2 diabetes epidemic followed soon after. Blaming new
health problems on something that we've been eating for a very long time simply doesn't make sense. Keep in mind that
many populations have remained in excellent health while eating a high-carb diet, such as the Okinawans, Kitavans and
Asian rice eaters. What they all had in common was that they ate real, unprocessed foods. However, populations that eat a
lot of refined carbohydrates and processed foods tend to be sick and unhealthy.
Carbs Are Not "Essential," But Many Carb-Containing Foods Are Incredibly Healthy Many low-carbers claim that
carbs are not an essential nutrient. This is technically true. The body can function without a single gram of carbohydrate in
the diet. It is a myth that the brain needs 130 grams of carbohydrate per day. When we don't eat carbs, part of the brain
can use ketones for energy. These are made out of fats. Additionally, the body can produce the little glucose the brain
needs via a process called gluconeogenesis. However, just because carbs are not "essential" - that doesn't mean they can't
be beneficial. Many carb-containing foods are healthy and nutritious, such as vegetables and fruits. These foods have all
sorts of beneficial compounds and provide a variety of health benefits. Although it is possible to survive even on a zero-
carb diet, it is probably not an optimal choice because you're missing out on plant foods that science has shown to be
beneficial.
How to Make the Right Choices As a general rule, carbohydrates that are in their natural, fiber-rich form are healthy,
while those that have been stripped of their fiber are not. If it's a whole, single ingredient food, then it's probably a healthy
food for most people, no matter what the carbohydrate content is. With this in mind, it is possible to categorize most carbs
as either "good" or "bad" - but keep in mind that these are just general guidelines. Things are rarely ever black and white
in nutrition.
Good Carbs:
 Vegetables: All of them. It is best to eat a variety of vegetables every day.
 Whole fruits: Apples, bananas, strawberries, etc.
 Legumes: Lentils, kidney beans, peas, etc.
 Nuts: Almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, peanuts, etc.
 Seeds: Chia seeds, pumpkin seeds.
 Whole grains: Choose grains that are truly whole, as in pure oats, quinoa, brown rice, etc.
 Tubers: Potatoes, sweet potatoes, etc.
People who are trying to restrict carbohydrates need to be careful with the whole grains, legumes, tubers and high-sugar
fruit.
Bad Carbs:
 Sugary drinks: Coca cola, Pepsi, Vitamin water, etc. Sugary drinks are some of the unhealthiest things you can
put into your body.
 Fruit juices: Unfortunately, fruit juices may have similar metabolic effects as sugar-sweetened beverages.
 White bread: These are refined carbohydrates that are low in essential nutrients and bad for metabolic health.
This applies to most commercially available breads.
 Pastries, cookies and cakes: These tend to be very high in sugar and refined wheat.
 Ice cream: Most types of ice cream are very high in sugar, although there are exceptions.
 Candies and chocolates: If you’re going to eat chocolate, choose quality dark chocolate.
 French fries and potato chips: Whole potatoes are healthy, but french fries and potato chips are not.
These foods may be fine in moderation for some people, but many will do best by avoiding them as much as possible.
Low-Carb Is Great For Some, But Others Function Best With Plenty of Carbs There is no one-size-fits-all solution
in nutrition. The "optimal" carbohydrate intake depends on numerous factors, such as age, gender, metabolic health,
physical activity, food culture and personal preference. If you have a lot of weight to lose, or have health problems like
metabolic syndrome and/or type 2 diabetes, then you are probably carbohydrate sensitive. In this case, reducing
carbohydrate intake can have clear, life-saving benefits. On the other hand, if you're just a healthy person trying to stay
healthy, then there is probably no reason for you to avoid "carbs" - just stick to whole, single ingredient foods as much as
possible. If you are naturally lean and/or highly physically active, then you may even function much better with plenty of
carbs in your diet. Different strokes for different folks.
Protein in diet Proteins are the building blocks of life. Every cell in the human body contains protein. The basic structure
of protein is a chain of amino acids. You need protein in your diet to help your body repair cells and make new ones.
Protein is also important for growth and development in children, teens, and pregnant women.
Food Sources Protein foods are broken down into parts called amino acids during digestion. The human body needs a
number of amino acids in large enough amounts to maintain good health. Amino acids are found in animal sources such as
meats, milk, fish, and eggs. They are also found in plant sources such as soy, beans, legumes, nut butters, and some grains
(such as wheat germ and quinoa). You do not need to eat animal products to get all the protein you need in your diet.
Amino acids are classified into three groups: Essential, Nonessential, Conditional.
Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body, and must be supplied by food. They do not need to be eaten at one
meal. The balance over the whole day is more important.
Nonessential amino acids are made by the body from essential amino acids or in the normal breakdown of proteins.
Conditional amino acids are needed in times of illness and stress.
The Importance of Protein in a Balanced Diet Protein is an essential component of your diet. It helps our bodies repair
damaged cells as well as make new ones. However, despite the vital function of this powerful nutrient, many still
debate its benefits. We're clearing up the confusion to help you understand how protein affects you and determine how
much protein you need, plus where to find it.
What Is Protein, and Why Do I Need It? Proteins are critical components of all tissues in the human body and have
crucial roles in metabolism, immunity, fluid balance, and energy. The building blocks of protein are called amino acids,
which are divided into two groups: essential and non-essential. Essential amino acids are ones the body cannot produce.
Therefore, it is essential we consume them from food. Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body, so we
do not need to consume them from food. The amount of essential amino acids in a protein will determine whether is it a
complete (high-quality) protein or incomplete (low-quality) protein. Complete protein sources are typically derived from
animal products such as eggs, meat, poultry, fish, and dairy. Soybeans are the most complete source of plant-based
protein. Other plant-based sources of (incomplete) protein include legumes, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. Eating a well-
balanced diet (even for vegetarians and vegans) can help ensure we are getting adequate amounts of protein and all
essential amino acids.
How Much Protein Do I Need? The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of protein is 0.8g per kilogram of body
weight per day. The recommended percentage of calories that should come from protein is between 10 to 35%. One gram
of protein has 4 calories. So if an individual is consuming 2,000 calories daily, they should be consuming between 50 to
175g of protein. The average American consumes well above the RDA of protein.
Do Athletes Need More Protein? Yes. Athletes do benefit from more protein than inactive individuals for multiple
reasons. Regular exercise can both stimulate muscle growth and cause tissue damage, which is repaired by protein.
Exercise also increases the transport of oxygen to tissues, which is carried out by a protein called hemoglobin. We also
use protein for a small amount of energy. Protein can be converted to glucose, the body’s preferred energy source, so it
helps prevent hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics recommends 1.2 to 2.0 grams of
protein per kilogram of body weight per day for athletes. Endurance athletes should consume 1.2 to 1.4 grams per
kilogram, while strength athletes should aim for 1.6-2 grams per kilogram.
Is too much harmful? The body cannot store excess protein. Protein consumed in excess will be either be used for
energy (typically only during times of low carbohydrate intake or starvation) or converted to fat. Therefore, it is possible
to gain weight on a high-protein diet if the individual is consuming more calories than necessary. High-protein diets are
not advised for people with chronic kidney disease or declined kidney function (or only one kidney). Medical evidence
does not suggest that eating more protein increases the risk of kidney disease in healthy individuals. High-protein diets
have been tied to high cholesterol only when the predominant source of protein comes from animal foods high in saturated
fat. It is important to note that individuals (especially athletes) on a high-protein diet also require more water to help flush
excess urea (a waste product from the breakdown of protein) from the kidneys.
A High-Protein Diet Plan to Lose Weight and Improve Health Protein is incredibly important for good health. It's a
nutrient that must be consumed every day to meet your body's needs. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for protein is
0.36 grams per pound of body weight, or 0.8 grams per kilogram. However, a lot of evidence supports a higher protein
intake for weight loss and other health benefits. This article takes a detailed look at protein's beneficial effects and
provides guidance for achieving the best results on a high-protein diet.
What Is Protein and Why Is It Important? Protein is one of the three macronutrients, along with carbs and fat. In your
body, it performs the following roles:
 Repair and maintenance: Protein is the main component of your muscles, bones, skin and hair. These tissues are
continuously repaired and replaced with new protein.
 Hormones: Chemical messenger proteins allow cells and organs in your body to communicate with each other.
 Enzymes: Most enzymes are proteins, and the thousands of chemical reactions that take place throughout your
body are driven by them.
 Transportation and storage: Some proteins help deliver important molecules where they're needed. For
example, the protein hemoglobin carries oxygen to your body's cells.
Protein is made up of smaller units known as amino acids. Of the 22 amino acids, 9 are considered "essential," meaning
they must be consumed in food because your body can't make them. Importantly, some foods provide better protein than
others based on their amino acid profile. Generally speaking, animal products are considered "complete protein" because
they contain all the essential amino acids in the optimal amounts that your body needs. These include eggs, dairy, meat,
fish and poultry. Vegetable proteins don't provide adequate amounts of every essential amino acid but can be combined
with other plant sources to make complete protein. Beans, legumes, grains, soy, nuts and seeds are examples of high-
protein plant foods. Although protein quality is important, the amount of protein you consume is key. Many researchers
believe that the current protein recommendations may be too low to stay truly healthy in the long term.
SUMMARY: Protein serves a number of important functions in your body. It is made up of individual amino acids,
including many that your body cannot create on its own.
Protein's Effects on Weight Loss Research suggests that increasing your protein intake may have impressive effects on
your appetite, metabolic rate, weight and body composition.
Appetite and Fullness Eating more protein may help suppress your hunger and appetite for hours after eating. Protein
increases production of hormones like PYY and GLP-1, both of which help you feel full and satisfied. In addition, it helps
reduce levels of ghrelin, also known as the "hunger hormone" . In a controlled study of 12 healthy women, the group that
consumed a high-protein diet experienced higher GLP-1 levels, greater feelings of fullness and less hunger than the group
that ate a lower-protein diet. Due to these effects on appetite and fullness, a higher protein intake typically leads to a
natural reduction in food intake. In another study, when 19 healthy young adults were allowed to eat as much as they
wanted on a diet consisting of 30% protein, they consumed an average of 441 fewer calories per day than when they
followed a diet consisting of 10% protein.
Interestingly, another reason protein is so satisfying seems to be related to the significant increase in metabolic rate that
occurs during its digestion.
Metabolic Rate A higher protein intake may increase the number of calories you burn. Protein digestion appears to boost
metabolic rate by an impressive 20–35%, compared to a 5–15% increase for digesting carbs or fat. In fact, several studies
have found that when people eat diets high in protein, they end up burning more calories for several hours after eating. In
a study of 10 healthy young women, consuming a high-protein diet for one day was shown to increase metabolic rate after
meals nearly twice as much as eating a high-carb diet for one day.
Weight Loss and Body Composition Not surprisingly, protein's ability to suppress appetite, promote fullness and
increase metabolism can help you lose weight. Several high-quality studies have found that increasing protein intake
promotes weight and fat loss. In a six-month diet study including 65 overweight and obese women, the high-protein group
lost an average of 43% more fat than the high-carb group. What's more, 35% of women in the high-protein group lost at
least 22 pounds (10 kg). Typically, when you reduce your calorie intake, your metabolism slows down. This is partly due
to muscle loss. However, research suggests that a higher protein intake can help protect against muscle loss and keep your
metabolic rate up. In one large review of 24 studies that included over 1,000 people, high-protein diets were found to be
more effective than standard-protein diets for losing weight, preserving muscle mass and preventing metabolic slowdown
during weight loss. Importantly, standard or high-protein diets can be effective for everyone. But interestingly, one
European study concluded that based on different gene types, high-protein diets would be especially effective for weight
loss and maintenance in 67% of the population.
SUMMARY: The ability of high-protein diets to decrease hunger, increase feelings of fullness, boost metabolic rate and
protect muscle makes them effective for losing weight and improving body composition.
Other Beneficial Effects of Protein In addition to its favorable effects on weight, protein may help improve health in
several other ways:
 Increase muscle mass: Studies have shown a higher protein intake can increase muscle size and strength when
combined with resistance training.
 Reduce muscle loss during aging: Many people lose muscle as they age. One study found that adding a daily
protein shake helped protect muscle health in healthy older men and those with age-related muscle loss.
 Strengthen bones: Higher protein intake may promote bone health. In one study, older women with the highest
intake of animal protein experienced a whopping 69% reduced risk of hip fracture.
 Improve wound healing: Studies have shown that high-protein diets can enhance the healing of wounds related
to surgery or injury, including bedsores.
SUMMARY: Research suggests a high protein intake can help build muscle, protect against bone and muscle loss during
aging and improve wound healing.
Is too much protein harmful? Volume 90%, The optimal amount of protein to consume per day is somewhat
controversial. Based on the DRI of 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight, or 0.8 grams per kilogram, a 150-
pound (68-kg) person would need about 54 grams per day. While this may be enough to prevent outright protein
deficiency, many experts believe this is too low for optimal health, including maintaining muscle mass. In fact, studies
have shown that older adults, in particular, require more protein than the DRI, concluding that 0.6 grams of protein per
pound, or 1.3 grams per kilogram, may help prevent age-related muscle loss. Furthermore, diets providing up to double
the DRI at 0.75 grams of protein per pound, or 1.6 grams per kilogram, have been found to boost weight and fat loss,
improve body composition and protect muscle during weight loss. However, increasing your protein intake beyond this
amount doesn't seem to provide additional benefits. One study showed men who consumed 0.75 grams of protein per
pound, or 1.6 grams per kilogram, lost slightly more fat and had similar gains in muscle, compared to the group that
consumed 1.1 grams per pound, or 2.4 grams per kilogram.
A high-protein diet for weight loss and overall health should provide about 0.6–0.75 grams of protein per pound of body
weight, or 1.2–1.6 grams per kilogram, and 20–30% of your calories per day. For the 150-pound (68-kg) person, this
provides a broad range of about 82–110 grams of protein daily, depending on calorie intake. Moreover, it's important to
spread your protein intake evenly throughout the day, rather than consuming most of it at one meal. This allows your body
to use protein most efficiently.
SUMMARY: Daily intake of 0.6–0.75 grams of protein per pound of body weight, or 1.2–1.6 grams per kilogram, may
promote fat loss and protect against the loss of muscle mass during weight loss and aging.
How to Follow a High-Protein Diet A high-protein diet is easy to follow and can be customized according to your own
food preferences and health-related goals. For instance, you may want to follow a low-carb, high-protein diet to keep your
blood sugar under control. If you avoid milk products, you can follow a dairy-free diet that is rich in protein. Even a
vegetarian diet can be high in protein if it includes eggs or dairy and plenty of legumes and other plant proteins. Here are a
few basic guidelines for following a high-protein diet:
 Keep a food diary: Start a food diary using an app or website that provides protein values for thousands of foods
and allows you to set your own calorie and macronutrient goals.
 Calculate protein needs: To calculate your protein needs, multiply your weight in pounds by 0.6–0.75 grams, or
your weight in kilograms by 1.2–1.6 grams.
  Eat at least 25–30 grams of protein at meals: Research has shown that consuming a minimum of 25 grams of
protein at meals may promote weight loss, muscle maintenance and better overall health.
 Include both animal and plant proteins in your diet: Eating a combination of both types helps make your diet
more nutritious overall.
 Choose high-quality protein sources: Focus on fresh meats, eggs, dairy and other proteins, rather than processed
meats like bacon and lunch meats.
 Consume well-balanced meals: Balance high-protein foods with vegetables, fruits and other plant foods at every
meal.
SUMMARY: Calculating your protein needs, tracking your intake in a food diary and planning well-balanced meals will
help you get the best results on a high-protein diet.
Sample High-Protein Meal Plan The sample below provides about 100 grams of protein per day. However, you can
adjust the portions to meet your needs.
Monday
 Breakfast: 3 eggs, 1 slice whole grain toast with 1 tablespoon almond butter and a pear.
 Lunch: Fresh Avocado and Cottage Cheese Salad and an orange.
 Dinner: 6 ounces (170 g) steak, sweet potato and grilled zucchini.
Tuesday
 Breakfast: Smoothie made with 1 scoop protein powder, 1 cup coconut milk and strawberries.
 Lunch: 4 ounces (114 g) canned salmon, mixed greens, olive oil and vinegar and an apple.
 Dinner: 4 ounces (114 g) grilled chicken with quinoa and Brussels sprouts.
Wednesday
 Breakfast: Oatmeal and one cup plain Greek yogurt with 1/4 cup chopped pecans.
 Lunch: 4 ounces (114 g) chicken mixed with avocado and red bell pepper and a peach.
 Dinner: All Meat Veggie Chili and brown rice.
Thursday
 Breakfast: Spanish omelet made with 3 eggs, 1 ounce cheese, chili peppers, black olives and salsa and an orange.
 Lunch: Leftover All Meat Veggie Chili and brown rice.
 Dinner: 4 ounces (114 g) halibut, lentils and broccoli.
Friday
 Breakfast: One cup cottage cheese with 1/4 cup chopped walnuts, diced apples and cinnamon.
 Lunch: 4 ounces (114 g) canned salmon mixed with healthy mayo on sprouted grain bread and carrot sticks.
 Dinner: Chicken Meatballs with Marinara Sauce, spaghetti squash and raspberries.
Saturday
 Breakfast: Frittata made with 3 eggs, 1 ounce cheese and 1/2 cup diced potatoes.
 Lunch: Leftover Chicken Meatballs with Marinara Sauce and spaghetti squash with an apple.
  Dinner: 3 ounces (85 g) shrimp fajitas with grilled onions and bell peppers, guacamole, 1 cup black beans on a
corn tortilla.
Sunday
 Breakfast: Protein Pumpkin Pancakes topped with 1/4 cup chopped pecans.
 Lunch: One cup plain Greek yogurt mixed with 1/4 cup chopped mixed nuts and pineapple.
 Dinner: 6 ounces (170 g) grilled salmon, potatoes and sautéed spinach.
SUMMARY: Meals on a high-protein diet should include a moderate to large serving of protein balanced with healthy
carb and fat sources.
Potential Adverse Effects of High-Protein Diets High-protein diets are safe and healthy for most people.
Contrary to popular belief, higher protein intake doesn't cause kidney problems in people with normal kidney function.
What's more, a study found that when overweight people with diabetes and early-stage kidney disease consumed a weight
loss diet consisting of 30% protein for 12 months, their kidney function didn't worsen. On the other hand, people who
already have moderate to advanced kidney disease typically need to reduce their protein intake in order to preserve
remaining kidney function. High-protein diets may also promote kidney stones in susceptible people. One study found this
was mainly true for high amounts of animal protein, rather than vegetable protein. In addition, people with liver disease or
other serious health conditions should check with their doctor before beginning a high-protein diet.
SUMMARY: High-protein diets are safe and healthy for most people, but they may cause problems in individuals with
certain diseases or health conditions.
The Bottom Line Protein is an important nutrient. A higher protein intake is linked to beneficial effects on appetite,
weight, body composition, aging and overall health. To reap maximum benefits from a high-protein diet, spread your
protein intake throughout the day, choose high-quality sources and balance your intake with healthy fats and carbs.
Looking to cut back on sugar? We’ll give you some sweet tips Our Nutrition newsletter’s 10 day sugar challenge
guides you in bringing more awareness to the sugars in the foods you eat and gives you the tools you need to make
healthier choices. Let’s get started!
What is protein? Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other body part
or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your
blood. At least 10,000 different proteins make you what you are and keep you that way. Protein is made from twenty-plus
basic building blocks called amino acids. Because we don’t store amino acids, our bodies make them in two different
ways: either from scratch, or by modifying others. Nine amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from food.
How much protein do I need? The National Academy of Medicine recommends that adults get a minimum of 0.8 grams
of protein for every kilogram of body weight per day, or just over 7 grams for every 20 pounds of body weight. [1]
 For a 140-pound person, that means about 50 grams of protein each day.
 For a 200-pound person, that means about 70 grams of protein each day.
The National Academy of Medicine also sets a wide range for acceptable protein intake—anywhere from 10% to 35% of
calories each day. Beyond that, there’s relatively little solid information on the ideal amount of protein in the diet or the
healthiest target for calories contributed by protein. In an analysis conducted at Harvard among more than 130,000 men
and women who were followed for up to 32 years, the percentage of calories from total protein intake was not related to
overall mortality or to specific causes of death. However, the source of protein was important.
What are “complete” proteins, and how much do I need? It’s important to note that millions of people worldwide,
especially young children, don’t get enough protein due to food insecurity. The effects of protein deficiency and
malnutrition range in severity from growth failure and loss of muscle mass to decreased immunity, weakening of the heart
and respiratory system, and death. However, it’s uncommon for healthy adults in the U.S. and most other developed
countries to have a deficiency, because there’s an abundance of plant and animal-based foods full of protein. In fact, many
in the U.S. are consuming more than enough protein, especially from animal-based foods.
It’s all about the protein “package” When we eat foods for protein, we also eat everything that comes alongside it: the
different fats, fiber, sodium, and more. It’s this protein “package” that’s likely to make a difference for health. The table
below shows a sample of food “packages” sorted by protein content, alongside a range of components that come with it.
Table: Comparing protein packages To call out a few examples:
 A 4-ounce broiled sirloin steak is a great source of protein—about 33 grams worth. But it also delivers about 5
grams of saturated fat.
 A 4-ounce ham steak with 22 grams of protein has only 1.6 grams of saturated fat, but it’s loaded with 1,500
milligrams worth of sodium.
 4 ounces of grilled sockeye salmon has about 30 grams of protein, naturally low in sodium, and contains just over
1 gram of saturated fat. Salmon and other fatty fish are also excellent sources of omega-3 fats, a type of fat that’s
especially good for the heart.
 A cup of cooked lentils provides about 18 grams of protein and 15 grams of fiber, and it has virtually no saturated
fat or sodium.
Research on protein and human health Available evidence indicates that it’s the source of protein (or, the protein
“package”), rather than the amount of protein, that likely makes a difference for our health. You can explore the research
related to each disease in the tabs below, but here’s the evidence-based takeaway: eating healthy protein sources like
beans, nuts, fish, or poultry in place of red meat and processed meat can lower the risk of several diseases and premature
death.
Heart disease, Diabetes, Cancer, Premature death, Bone health, Weight control, Other considerations involving protein,
Protein foods and the planet
Just as different foods can have differing impacts on human health, they also have differing impacts on the environment.
Agriculture is a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, the accumulation of which is driving
climate change at a rate unprecedented in human history. However, not all foods have an equal impact. Production of
animal-based foods tends to have higher GHG emissions than producing plant-based foods—and dairy and especially red
meat (particularly beef, lamb, and goat) stand out for their disproportionate impact.
Protein is a key part of any diet. The average person needs about 7 grams of protein every day for every 20 pounds of
body weight. Because protein is found in an abundance of foods, many people can easily meet this goal. However, not all
protein “packages” are created equal. Because foods contain a lot more than protein, it’s important to pay attention to
what else is coming with it. That’s why the Healthy Eating Plate encourages choosing healthy protein foods.
Choose fish, poultry, beans, and nuts; limit red meat and cheese; avoid bacon, cold cuts, and other processed meats.
Building off this general guidance, here are some additional
details and tips for shaping your diet with the best protein
choices:
 Get your protein from plants when possible. Eating
legumes (beans and peas), nuts, seeds, whole grains, and
other plant-based sources of protein is a win for your health
and the health of the planet. If most of your protein comes
from plants, make sure that you mix up your sources so no
“essential” components of protein are missing. The good
news is that the plant kingdom offers plenty of options to
mix and match. Here are some examples for each category:
o Legumes: lentils, beans (adzuki, black,
fava, chickpeas/garbanzo, kidney, lima, mung, pinto etc.),
 peas (green, snow, snap, split, etc.), edamame/soybeans (and products made from soy: tofu, tempeh, etc.),
peanuts.
o Nuts and Seeds: almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, hemp seeds, squash and
pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, flax seeds, sesame seeds, chia seeds.
o Whole Grains: kamut, teff, wheat, quinoa, rice, wild rice, millet, oats, buckwheat,
o Other: while many vegetables and fruits contain some level of protein, it’s generally in smaller amounts
than the other plant-based foods. Some examples with higher protein quantities include corn, broccoli,
asparagus, brussels sprouts, and artichokes.
Simple strategies for creating filling, delicious, and even budget-friendly plant-based dishes.
 Upgrade your sources of animal protein. Considering the protein package is particularly important when it
comes to animal-based foods:
o Generally, poultry (chicken, turkey, duck) and a variety of seafood (fish, crustaceans, mollusks) are your
best bet. Eggs can be a good choice, too.
o If you enjoy dairy foods, it’s best to do so in moderation (think closer to 1-2 servings a day; and
incorporating yogurt is probably a better choice than getting all your servings from milk or cheese).
o Red meat—which includes unprocessed beef, pork, lamb, veal, mutton, and goat meat—should be
consumed on a more limited basis. If you enjoy red meat, consider eating it in small amounts or only on
special occasions.
o Processed meats, such as bacon, hot dogs, sausages, and cold cuts should be avoided. Although these
products are often made from red meats, processed meats also include items like turkey bacon, chicken
sausage, and deli-sliced chicken and ham. (Processed meat refers to any meat that has been “transformed
through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve
preservation.”
 Protein is essential for growth and repair of the body and maintenance of good health.
 Protein also provides energy; 1 gram provides 17 kJ (4 kcal).
 The Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) is set at 0.75g of protein per kilogram bodyweight per day for adults.
 The amount of protein we need changes during a lifetime.
 Different foods contain different amounts and different combinations of amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins). Protein from animal sources (e.g. meat, fish, eggs and dairy products) contains the full range of
essential amino acids needed by the body. However, vegans and vegetarians can get all the amino acids they need
by combining different plant sources of protein, e.g. pulses and cereals.
Importance of protein Proteins are fundamental structural and functional elements within every cell of the body and are
involved in a wide range of metabolic interactions. All cells and tissues contain protein, therefore protein is essential for
growth and repair and the maintenance of good health. Protein provides the body with approximately 10 to 15% of its
dietary energy and it is the second most abundant compound in the body, following water. A large proportion of this will
be muscle (43% on average) with significant proportions being present in skin (15%) and blood (16%).
Amino acids Proteins are large molecules made up of long chains of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins. The biochemical activity of proteins is characterised by their individual structure, size and shape. These factors
are determined by the sequence and characteristics of the constituent amino acids. There are about 20 different amino
acids commonly found in plant and animal proteins. For adults, 8 of these, have to be provided in the diet and are
therefore defined as ‘essential’ or ‘indispensable’ amino acids. These are: Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine, Threonine,
Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Lysine.
In children, arginine, histidine, cysteine, glycine, tyrosine, glutamine and proline are also considered to be essential
(indispensable) amino acids, because children are unable to make enough to meet their needs. These are referred to as
‘conditionally’ essential. There may also be certain disease states during adult life when a particular amino acid becomes
conditionally essential. The other amino acids do not have to be provided by the diet. This is because the amino group of
these amino acids can be transferred to another amino acid with a different amino group by a process called
transamination. In this way the body is able to make some amino acids itself. These are known as ‘non-essential’ or
‘dispensable’ amino acids.
How much protein should we eat? The Dietary Reference Values for protein are based on estimates of need. For adults,
an average requirement of 0.6g of protein per kilogram bodyweight per day is estimated. The Reference Nutrient Intake
(RNI) is set at 0.75g of protein per kilogram bodyweight per day in adults. This equates to approximately 56g/day and
45g/day for men and women aged 19-50 years respectively. There is an extra requirement for growth in infants and
children and for pregnant and breast feeding women. Any excess protein can be used to provide energy. 1g of protein
provides 17kJ (4 kcal) but carbohydrate, and to a lesser extent fat, should be the main sources of dietary energy. At
present, protein provides around 16% of energy on average in the British diet.
Current protein intakes The average daily intake of protein in the UK is 88g for men and 64g for women, which is more
than sufficient: it exceeds the Dietary Reference Values for protein. Foods vary in the amount of protein they provide but
the main sources include meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, cereals and cereal products (e.g. bread), nuts and pulses (beans
and lentils).
The nature of protein in the diet Most foods contain either animal or plant cells and will therefore naturally contain
protein. But the processing of foods may change the amounts and relative proportions of some amino acids; for example
the Maillard reaction and the associated browning that occurs when foods are baked reduces the available lysine. The
quality of the protein is also important and depends on the amino acids that are present. Proteins from animal sources have
a higher biological value than proteins from plant sources. This is because the pattern of amino acids in animal cells is
comparable to the pattern in human cells. Plant foods may have very different patterns of amino acids compared to animal
proteins, and, in the past, this difference has lead to a concept of first-class and second-class proteins, for animal and plant
foods respectively. However, diets are typically varied in the UK and rarely made up of single foods. A combination of
plant proteins tends to have a complementary effect boosting their overall biological value.
Complementary action of proteins (plant protein) In most diets, different proteins tend to complement each other
in their amino acid pattern, so when two foods providing vegetable protein are eaten at a meal, such as a cereal (e.g.
bread) and pulses (e.g. baked beans), the amino acids of one protein may compensate for the limitations of the other,
resulting in a combination of higher biological value. This is known as the complementary action of proteins. Thus if
vegetarians and vegans eat a variety of vegetable proteins in combination, there is no reason why the quality of protein
cannot be as good as in a diet comprising meat, milk, fish, eggs or other foods that contain animal protein. Good sources
of plant protein include nuts, seeds, pulses, mycoprotein and soya products. There are also small amounts in grains. In the
UK, most people's diets contain plenty of protein and provide more than enough of the indispensable amino acids.
However, in some countries where protein intakes are low, the complementary action of proteins plays an important role
in helping individuals meet their nutritional requirements. For example, the tradition of combining lentils with rice in
cuisines from the Indian sub continent.
Animal protein Protein from animal sources contains the full range of essential amino acids required from an adult’s diet.
Sources include meat, fish, eggs, milk and cheese. For most of us, low fat options of these foods are preferable as some
can be high in saturated fat.
Good sources of protein: Table 1: Protein content of some common foods found in the diet
Food type Protein content (g) per 100g
Meat protein
Meat Chicken breast (grilled without skin)32.0
Beef steak (lean grilled) 31.0
 Lamb chop (lean grilled) 29.2
Pork chop (lean grilled) 31.6
Fish Tuna (canned in brine) 23.5
Mackerel (grilled) 20.8
Salmon (grilled) 24.2
Cod (grilled) 20.8
SeafoodPrawns 22.6
Mussels 16.7
Crabsticks 10.0
Eggs Chicken eggs 12.5
Dairy Whole milk 3.3
Semi-skimmed milk 3.4
Skimmed milk 3.4
Cheddar cheese 25.4
Half-fat cheddar 32.7
Cottage cheese 12.6
Whole milk yogurt 5.7
Low fat yogurt (plain) 4.8
Plant protein
Pulses Red lentils 7.6
Chickpeas 8.4
Beans Kidney beans 6.9
Baked beans 5.2
Tofu (soya bean steamed) 8.1
Grains Wheat flour (brown) 12.6
Bread (brown) 7.9
Bread (white) 7.9
Rice (easy cook boiled) 2.6
Oatmeal 11.2
Pasta (fresh cooked) 6.6
Nuts Almonds 21.1
Walnuts 14.7
Hazelnuts 14.1
Adults and children should consume two to three servings of protein every day. If plant sources dominate, it is important
to make sure that different types are consumed. One typical portion size equates to:
• 100g of lean boneless meat (red and poultry)
• 140g of fish
• 2 medium eggs
• 3 tablespoons of seeds or nuts.
It is important to choose lower fat protein-rich foods, such as lean meats or reduced fat dairy products as some high
protein foods can also be high in saturated fat. This will help minimise the risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
Protein and weight management Protein-rich foods tend to make people feel fuller than foods rich in carbohydrates or
fat. So including a lean source of protein with a meal can help to minimise feelings of hunger and decrease overall energy
intake. Some studies have shown protein-rich diets with a low carbohydrate content to be associated with slightly greater
initial weight loss compared with widely recommended low fat eating programmes. However, no differences have
generally been reported when comparisons have been made over a longer duration (e.g. after 12 months). Long-term
studies are needed to compare the effects of protein-rich, low carbohydrate diets versus low fat diets on nutritional status
and body composition and to assess their effects on disease risk and nutritional status.
Some popular high protein, low carbohydrate diets claim to be effective at producing weight loss despite a high fat intake
from fatty meats and full fat dairy products. Such a diet remains contradictory to current healthy eating messages.
Regardless of the composition of the diet, weight loss will only occur if a deficit in energy intake compared to output
through activity is created to achieve a negative energy balance. There are also safety concerns about very-high-protein
diets that involved cutting out other food groups and caution should therefore be exercised in promoting them.
When reducing energy intake in order to lose weight, it will be necessary to reduce intake of some foods but it is a good
idea to maintain intake of low-fat, protein rich foods. In the context of a lower energy intake, this will result in a relatively
high proportion of energy coming from protein in the diet, but will not represent an increase in the absolute amount of
protein consumed or require the other food groups to be cut out of the diet.
There are 3 general classifications for food: protein, fat, and carbohydrate. This article is about protein. We'll talk about
what it is, why you need it, how to get it, and how much you need in order to be healthy.
Why We Need Protein Before we get into the details of what protein is, let's get motivated by appreciating what protein
does. Our bodies use protein to build just about everything. Skin, hair, muscles, organs, even the hemoglobin in your
blood is made of protein. And the list goes on: The enzymes that break down food and spark chemical reactions in the
body are proteins. Our immune systems depend on protein to make antibodies. Protein molecules aid the transfer of
messages between the neurotransmitters in our brains. And many hormones, including insulin and other metabolism-
regulating hormones, are proteins as well.
Protein molecules are made of smaller molecules called amino acids. There are twenty naturally occurring amino acids.
Some names you might be familiar with are lysine, glutamine, and tryptophan. When you eat foods that contain protein,
your body breaks those proteins down and reassembles the amino acids to create the protein structures it wants to make.
The human body can synthesize eleven of the amino acids it needs. However, nine amino acids are called essential amino
acids because they must be taken in from food. When a single food provides all nine (yes, it used to be eight) essential
amino acids it is called a complete protein. Many foods contain high levels of some amino acids and not others. In that
case, foods have to be combined in order to provide all nine amino acids. When foods go together to create a complete
protein profile they are called complementary proteins.
Sources of Protein Most people think of meat when they think of protein. And that's correct. Meat from land animals,
fish, and fowl are all high protein foods. However, nuts, seeds, beans, and dairy products are high protein foods as well.
And whole grains such as brown rice, whole wheat, quinoa, barley and amaranth; and some vegetables, like avocados and
sprouts, can be significant sources of protein too. Meat, dairy, and eggs are complete proteins. To get a complete protein,
most grains, nuts, seeds, and vegetables have to be combined. Rice and beans or corn and beans are famous examples of
complementary proteins. It is worth noting that you don't have to get all essential amino acids in one meal. Amino acids
are not stored by the body but they do stay available long enough to be used and combined throughout a day. With so
many sources of protein, eating a healthy, varied diet generally provides enough amino acids for the average person—
even if they exercise.
How Much Protein You Need People do have different protein requirements depending on their age, their size, their
levels of activity and health. However, those requirements are not as high and don't vary as much, as some of the popular
hype around protein might lead one to believe. The U.S.D.A recommends 5.5 ounces of protein for women 19-30 years
old. For all other women's age groups, they recommend 5 ounces. For men, 6.5 ounces for 19-30 years old, 6 ounces for
31-50 years old, and 5.5 ounces for over 51. 5 ounces is about 142 grams. 6 ounces equals about 170 grams. Some
nutritionists and the World Health Organization (W.H.O) believe the U.S.D.A standards are too high. The W.H.O
recommends 8 grams of protein for every 20 lbs. for adults. By those standards, an adult woman weighing 130 lbs. would
only need 52 grams of protein - less than half of what the U.S.D.A. suggests. An adult male of 180 lbs. would need 72
grams. Again, less than half. The discrepancies between the U.S.D.A and the W.H.O may reflect special interest pressures
on those groups. At any rate, one might surmise that the U.S.D.A numbers are at the top end of any reasonable scale.
As a reference, the U.S.D.A offers the following guidelines as to what serving sizes equal an ounce of protein: "In general,
1 ounce of meat, poultry or fish, ¼ cup cooked beans, 1 egg, 1 tablespoon of peanut butter, or ½ ounce of nuts or seeds
can be considered as 1 ounce equivalent from the Protein Foods Group."
Protein and Exercise With protein being the stuff of muscles, one might assume that those who exercise need a lot more
protein, but this is not the case. First, it is important to know that protein is not the body's preferred fuel for a workout—
carbohydrate is. Protein is important after a workout to repair and build muscle. But it doesn't take much more protein to
do that—an ounce or two for most people who exercise at moderate intensity. For those engaged in intensive strength
training or for endurance athletes, the recommendation is at most twice the amount of protein the average person needs.
Protein Supplements Another way to get protein in your diet is through supplements. Amino Acids can be found in pill
form, individually and in complete protein combinations. More popular, however, are powdered proteins sourced from
any variety of foods. Powdered whey (from milk) protein is very popular, as is soy protein. There are also protein powders
made from rice, sprouts, even hemp. Many people find supplemental protein easy to digest and enjoy protein powders
blended in health shakes as a way to get nutrition without bulk in the belly.
Protein can help you shed those unwanted pounds -- and keep your belly full. But it's important to eat the right amount
and the right kind of protein to get its health benefits.
Seafood is an excellent source of protein because it's usually low in fat. Fish such as salmon is a little higher in fat, but it
is the heart-healthy kind: it has omega-3 fatty acids.
White-Meat Poultry Stick to the white meat of poultry for excellent, lean protein. Dark meat is a little higher in fat.
The skin is loaded with saturated fat, so remove skin before cooking.
Milk, Cheese, and Yogurt Not only are dairy foods like milk, cheese, and yogurt excellent sources of protein, but they
also contain valuable calcium, and many are fortified with vitamin D. Choose skim or low-fat dairy to keep bones
and teeth strong and help prevent osteoporosis.
Eggs are one of the least expensive forms of protein. The American Heart Association says normal healthy adults can
safely enjoy an egg a day.
Beans One-half cup of beans contains as much protein as an ounce of broiled steak. Plus, these nutritious nuggets are
loaded with fiber to keep you feeling full for hours.
Pork Tenderloin This versatile white meat is 31% leaner than it was 20 years ago.
Soy Fifty grams of soy protein daily can help lower cholesterol by about 3%. Eating soy protein instead of sources of
higher-fat protein -- and maintaining a healthy diet -- can be good for your heart.
Lean Beef Lean beef has about two grams more saturated fat than a skinless chicken breast. Lean beef is also an excellent
source of zinc, iron, and vitamin B12.
Protein on the Go If you don't have time to sit down for a meal, grab a meal replacement drink, cereal bar, or energy bar.
Check the label to be sure the product contains at least six grams of protein and is low in sugar and fat.
Protein at Breakfast Research shows that including a source of protein like an egg or Greek yogurt at breakfast along
with a high-fiber grain like whole wheat toast can help you feel full longer and eat less throughout the day.
The Benefits of Protein High-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are the hottest thing since sliced flank steak, and every
food marketer in the known universe appears to want a piece of the protein pie. Body builders are snatching, grabbing,
and gulping down protein shakes. Dieters are gobbling down protein bars (and shunning pasta) in hopes of quick weight
loss.
The Power of Protein It's easy to understand the excitement. Protein is an important component of every cell in the
body. Hair and nails are mostly made of protein. Your body uses protein to build and repair tissues. You also use protein
to make enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles,
cartilage, skin, and blood. Along with fat and carbohydrates, protein is a "macronutrient," meaning that the body needs
relatively large amounts of it. Vitamins and minerals, which are needed in only small quantities, are called
"micronutrients." But unlike fat and carbohydrates, the body does not store protein, and therefore has no reservoir to draw
on when it needs a new supply.
How Much Protein Is Enough? We've all heard the myth that extra protein builds more muscle. In fact, the only way to
build muscle is through exercise. Bodies need a modest amount of protein to function well. Extra protein doesn't give you
extra strength. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:
 Teenage boys and active men can get all the protein they need from three daily servingsfor a total of seven
ounces.
 For children age 2 to 6, most women, and some older people, the government recommends two daily servings for
a total of five ounces.
 For older children, teen girls, active women, and most men, the guidelines give the nod to two daily servings for
a total of six ounces.
Everyone who eats an eight-ounce steak typically served in restaurants is getting more protein that their bodies need. Plus
they're getting a hefty amount of artery-clogging saturated fat as well.
People looking to lose weight often decide to adopt a high-protein diet. Eating protein helps a person feel full, which can
lead to them eating fewer calories overall. High-protein diets typically include large quantities of protein and only a small
amount of carbohydrate. Most people can follow a high-protein diet by eating meat, fish, dairy products, beans and
legumes, eggs, and vegetables that are relatively rich in protein, such as asparagus and spinach. People on this diet will
often choose to reduce their carbohydrate intake, which may involve limiting their consumption of highly processed
foods, bread and other baked goods, candy, and white pasta and rice. There are some well-known high-protein diet plans,
such as the Atkins diet. However, a person can increase their protein intake on their own with or without adjusting their
intake of other food groups.
Benefits Combining beans and legumes with other sources of protein can ensure a person gets all essential amino acids. In
addition to aiding weight loss, protein provides the body with some essential benefits. The benefits of protein include:
 providing enzymes that help power thousands of chemical reactions throughout the body
 helping the body maintain and repair hair, skin, muscles, and bones
 certain proteins are necessary to produce hormones that help the body's organs and cells communicate
Protein also provides amino acids. There are 22 amino acids, nine of which are essential to obtain from the diet because
the body does not produce them. Protein from animals tends to contain all of the amino acids, so people refer to it as a
complete protein. In contrast, many plant proteins only provide some of the amino acids, meaning that people need to
combine them with other protein sources to get all of the essential amino acids.
What does the science say? There has been a lot of research on the role of protein in short-term weight loss and muscle
gain. However, the long-term effects of a high-protein diet require further study. Some studies suggest that health
problems may potentially result from eating a high-protein diet for extended periods. The authors of a review paper
focusing on the high-protein diet warned that it could lead to higher acid loads for the kidneys and that people may be at
risk of the health conditions that come with eating high amounts of animal fat. In addition, diets that limit carbs may harm
a person's health. Children and teenagers are at particular risk of malnutrition from eating insufficient carbohydrate. Still,
most research indicates that high-protein diets are beneficial for weight loss, at least in the short term.
How to eat a high-protein diet Keeping a food journal can help when following a diet plan. There are many possible
ways to include more protein in the diet, even for those with other dietary restrictions. For example, people who follow a
vegetarian or vegan diet or those who avoid dairy can still eat a high-protein diet. People can either adjust their current
diet to include more protein or follow a specific high-protein diet plan. Taking the steps below may help a person when
they start a high-protein diet:
 figuring out their individual protein needs, which will depend on their body weight
 making meal plans for the week
  finding and using high-quality proteins
 including at least 25–30 grams (g) of protein in each meal
 keeping a food journal to track the amount and types of food that they eat
 eating well-balanced meals
 including both plant and lean animal sources of protein in the diet
Below are some excellent protein choices that could be suitable for a variety of dietary plans: eggs, leaner cuts of beef,
chicken breasts, turkey breasts, beans, such as garbanzo beans or black beans, shrimp, nuts and seeds, such
as pumpkin seeds, peanuts, and almonds, fish, including salmon, flounder, and haddock, sprouted grain bread, such as
Ezekiel bread, whey or plant protein shakes, lentils, quinoa, chickpeas, oats, dairy products, such as Greek yogurt, cow's
milk, or cheese, vegetables, including Brussels sprouts and broccoli.
People with necessary dietary restrictions should also continue to exclude unsuitable foods. For example, a person who
has lactose intolerance should not use milk products to increase their protein intake. A person should generally also avoid
the following foods as part of the high-protein diet:
 products that contain refined sugar, such as candy, baked goods, and sodas
 highly processed foods
 foods that manufacturers market as "diet" products, as they often contain excessive amounts of artificial sweetener
Risks A person should speak to their doctor when considering a high-protein diet. Most people can safely follow a high-
protein diet, at least for a short period. While some studies indicate that high levels of protein may negatively affect the
kidneys, other research shows that people with healthy kidneys will not experience any adverse effects. However, clinical
evidence does suggest that people with kidney disease should not eat a high-protein diet. Similarly, it seems that people
who are susceptible to kidney stones should avoid high-protein diets, particularly those that include lots of animal
proteins. People with other medical conditions should speak to a healthcare professional before adopting a high-protein
diet. Although short-term studies show that high-protein diets can encourage weight loss, it is important to remember that
there is no research looking at the long-term effects of high-protein diets on overall health.
Takeaway People looking to adopt a high-protein diet can follow an existing diet plan or adjust their intake of protein
themselves to suit their needs. However, those who want to increase their protein intake should aim for each of their meals
to include 25–30 g of protein. People should focus on eating a combination of lean animal proteins and plant-based
proteins for optimal results. Anyone with kidney disease should not follow a high-protein diet. A healthcare professional
or registered dietitian can provide more advice on how to start a high-protein diet and how to increase protein intake
healthfully.
Discover the best protein sources Many foods have protein in them, but some are more protein-rich than others. The best
sources of protein are meat, poultry and seafood as well as eggs, legumes, nuts and seeds. Protein is an often-discussed
food topic. Stories about high-protein diets litter magazines, news sites and social media. So let's cut through the hype and
take a look at some facts. Protein is an important part of a healthy eating pattern. It's made up of amino acids and plays a
vital role in repairing and building bones and muscles in our bodies.
Which are the best sources? When choosing protein foods, variety is the key. Eating a diverse range of healthy proteins
gives your body other important nutrients, including iron, zinc and other important minerals and vitamins (particularly B-
group vitamins).
How much should you eat? Most people should aim for 1–3 serves of either lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, nuts or seeds,
or legumes each day. The recommended number of serves can vary depending on your age and gender. For more
information on what’s right for you, visit the Australian Dietary Guidelines website or talk to an Accredited Practising
Dietitian
Healthy meat, poultry and seafood Australians eat a lot of meat and poultry, but we're not always making the best
choices. How you prepare meat, poultry and seafood for cooking makes a big difference to whether they're healthy. Your
heart health also benefits if you switch some meat dishes for fish and other seafood during the week. Learn what
makes meats, poultry and seafood healthy and how much to eat.
Vegetarian and vegan-friendly proteins If you don't eat meat or animal products of any kind, it can seem hard to get
enough protein into your diet each day. And even if you are a meat eater, you should include plenty of other protein
options as a part of your eating pattern.
Legumes, nuts and seeds Legumes (also known as pulses) include foods like chickpeas, lentils and beans and are a great
plant-based protein. Along with nuts and seeds, they can add non-animal proteins to your diet. Find out more about
eating legumes, nuts and seeds.
Eggs Some people think eggs aren't healthy, which isn't actually true. They're a good source of protein.
Dairy foods and alternatives Dairy foods like low-fat milk, cheese and yoghurt contain protein, but they're beneficial in
their own right.
Tips for including protein foods
 Choose lean meat and skinless poultry trimmed of visible fat, and include fish or seafood 2–3 times a week.
 Avoid processed meats like sausages and deli meats like salami.
 Eggs make great lunchbox fillers for adults and children and are very portable when hard boiled.
 Add legumes to soups, casseroles, salads and meat sauces to extend the meal and add extra texture and flavour.
This means you can use less meat, which makes the dish lower in fat and cheaper.
 Include a handful (30 g) of nuts every day. Include as a snack or add to your favourite stir fry or breakfast cereal.
Fats and oil, Dietary fat contains more than double the amount of kilojoules (energy) per gram than carbohydrate. Animal
products and some processed foods, especially fried fast food, are generally high in saturated fats, which have been linked
to increased blood cholesterol levels. Replacing foods high in saturated fats with alternatives higher in monounsaturated
and polyunsaturated fats tends to improve blood cholesterol levels. It is important to select lower saturated fat varieties of
core foods such as dairy products and meats.
Dietary fat (fat in foods and drinks) is important for many body processes. For example, it helps move some vitamins
around the body and also helps with making hormones. There are different groups of dietary fat and each of the groups
can have a different effect on your blood cholesterol level. For this reason, it is recommended that you replace foods and
drinks high in saturated and trans fat with alternatives that contain more polyunsaturated or monounsaturated fats.
Each gram of fat contains twice the kj (energy) of carbohydrate or protein. Because of this, if you have foods and drinks
with too much dietary fat, it can be difficult to maintain a healthy weight. Meals with a small amount of fat can enhance
the taste and also help to keep you satisfied for longer. Throughout the day you should consume a wide range of everyday,
healthy foods. By doing this, you will get a small total amount of dietary fat, particularly polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats to meet your daily requirements.
Groups of fats Dietary fat can be classified into four groups. These are: saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated,
trans. Each type of fat behaves differently inside the body.
Saturated fats contribute to the risk of cardiovascular diseases (such as heart disease and stroke), because they raise LDL
blood cholesterol levels. These fats are commonly found in many discretionary foods and drinks (those to only have
sometimes), such as takeaway (‘fast’) foods, and in commercial products such as biscuits and pastries. Saturated fats are
also found in some everyday, healthy foods such as dairy products and meats. Unlike discretionary foods, these products
have other important nutrients such as protein, vitamins and minerals, and can be important foods to include in your diet.
It is recommended to select lower saturated fat options. For example, choose:
 reduced-fat milk, yogurt and cheese
 leaner cuts of meat or trim the fat off meat prior to cooking.
Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats both tend to lower LDL blood
cholesterol when they replace saturated fats in the diet. Polyunsaturated fats have a slightly greater impact than
monounsaturated fats. Where possible, replace foods and drinks high in saturated fat with either monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated alternatives. For example:
 replace butter with olive oil or margarine
 replace potato chips or chocolate with plain nuts as a healthier snack alternative
 replace fried fast food with a sandwich or wrap made with lean meat and salad.
Trans fats tend to behave like saturated fats in the body, as they raise LDL blood cholesterol levels and increase the risk
of cardiovascular diseases (such as heart disease and stroke). Unlike saturated fats, they tend to also lower HDL
cholesterol, so are likely to be even more damaging. Trans fats are rare in nature – they are only created in the stomach of
cows and sheep. Because of this, trans fats are naturally found in small amounts in milk, cheese, beef and lamb. Trans fats
are also created during the manufacture of some baked products such as pies, pastries, cakes, biscuits and buns. It is the
trans fats that are produced during food manufacturing that you should be most concerned about, not the small amounts of
trans fats naturally found in healthy foods like low-fat dairy products and lean meats.
Dietary fats and blood cholesterol The two types of blood cholesterol are low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and
high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. LDL is considered the ‘bad’ cholesterol because it contributes to the
narrowing of the arteries, which can lead to cardiovascular diseases (such as heart disease and stroke). HDL cholesterol is
considered to be the ‘good’ cholesterol because it actually carries cholesterol from the blood back to the liver, where it is
broken down, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Fat-containing foods Foods generally contain one main group of fat. For example:
 Saturated fats – sources include fatty cuts of meat, full-fat milk, cheese, butter, cream, most commercially baked
products such as biscuits and pastries, most deep-fried fast foods, coconut and palm oil.
 Monounsaturated fats – sources include avocado, and nuts such as peanuts, hazelnuts, cashews and almonds
(including peanut and other nut butters), margarine spreads such as canola or olive oil based choices, oils such as
olive, canola and peanut.
 Polyunsaturated fats – sources include fish, seafood, polyunsaturated margarines, vegetable oils such as
safflower, sunflower, corn or soy oils, nuts such as walnuts and Brazil nuts, and seeds.
Sources of omega-6 and omega-3 fats Polyunsaturated fats can be divided into two categories, which are:
 Omega-3 fats are found in both plant and marine foods, although it is the omega-3 fats from marine sources that
have the strongest evidence for health benefits (including reducing the risk of heart disease). Plant food sources
include canola and soy oils, and canola-based margarines. Marine sources include fish, especially oily fish such as
Atlantic salmon, mackerel, Southern blue fin tuna, trevally and sardines.
 Omega-6 fats are found primarily in nuts, seeds and plant oils, such as corn, soy and safflower.
Benefits of omega-3 fats Research is ongoing, but the benefits of omega-3 fats in the diet seem to include that they:
 lower triglyceride levels and reduce blood pressure, which are important risk factors in cardiovascular disease
 improve blood vessel elasticity
 keep the heart rhythm beating normally
 ‘thin’ the blood, which makes it less sticky and less likely to clot
 reduce inflammation and support the immune system
 may play a role in preventing and treating depression
 contribute to the normal development of the foetal brain.
Plant sterols are present in all plants. Intakes of 2–3 g of plant sterols per day have been shown to reduce blood
cholesterol levels by an average of 10 per cent. This is because they block the body’s ability to absorb cholesterol, which
leads to a reduced level of cholesterol in the blood. However, it is hard to eat this amount of plant sterols from natural
sources, so there are now plant sterol-enriched margarines and dairy products on the market. Eating 1–1.5 tablespoons (4-
6 teaspoons) of sterol-enriched margarine each day can help to lower blood cholesterol levels.
Energy density of dietary fat Dietary fat has more than double the number of kilojoules per gram (37 kJ/g) than
carbohydrate or protein (17 kJ/g), making it very ‘energy dense’. Foods high in fat are usually high in kilojoules. Carrying
too much body fat is a risk factor in many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and many cancers.
The Mediterranean diet Researchers are investigating the possibility that a diet rich in monounsaturated fats, such as
olive oil, may be protective against the development of coronary heart disease. People who have a high consumption of
monounsaturated fats from olive oil (for example, in Greece and Italy) tend to have low rates of coronary heart disease,
regardless of their body weight. tudies have shown that olive oil consumption may have a protective role on breast, colon,
lung, ovarian and skin cancer development. Compounds specific to olive oil, known as phenolics, seem to possess free
radical-scavenging properties and so may be able to reduce oxidative damage to DNA. A number of studies have also
shown that olive oil may have additional beneficial effects on blood pressure, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis and immune
function. However, the Mediterranean diet contains much more than olive oil. It’s possible that the low rate of coronary
heart disease in these countries relates to a high intake of vegetables, legumes, fruits and cereals, which are rich in
antioxidants.
Current recommendations on fats in your diet The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that:
 you limit intake of foods high in saturated fat such as many biscuits, cakes, pastries, pies, processed meats,
commercial burgers, pizza, fried food, potato chips, crisps and other savoury snacks
 you replace high-fat foods that contain predominately saturated fats such as butter, cream, cooking margarine,
coconut and palm oil, with foods that contain predominately polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats such as
oils, spreads, nut butters and pastes, and avocado.
 low-fat diets are not suitable for children under the age of two years.
Things to remember
 Dietary fat contains more than double the amount of kilojoules (energy) per gram than carbohydrate.
 Animal products and some processed foods, especially fried fast food, are generally high in saturated fats, which
have been linked to increased blood cholesterol levels.
 Replacing foods high in saturated fats with alternatives higher in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats tends
to improve blood cholesterol levels.
 It is important to select lower saturated fat varieties of core foods such as dairy products and meats.
10 High-Fat Foods That Are Actually Super Healthy Ever since fat was demonized, people started eating more sugar,
refined carbs and processed foods instead. As a result, the entire world has become fatter and sicker. However, times are
changing. Studies now show that fat, including saturated fat, isn't the devil it was made out to be.All sorts of healthy foods
that happen to contain fat have now returned to the "superfood" scene. Here are 10 high-fat foods that are actually
incredibly healthy and nutritious.
1. Avocados The avocado is different from most other fruits. Whereas most fruits primarily contain carbs, avocados are
loaded with fats. In fact, avocados are about 77% fat, by calories, making them even higher in fat than most animal foods.
The main fatty acid is a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. This is also the predominant fatty acid in olive oil,
associated with various health benefits. Avocados are among the best sources of potassium in the diet, even containing
40% more potassium than bananas, a typical high potassium food. They're also a great source of fiber, and studies have
shown that they can lower LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, while raising HDL (the "good") cholesterol. Even though
they are high in fat and calories, one study shows that people who eat avocados tend to weigh less and have less belly fat
than those who don't.
Avocados are a fruit, with fat at 77% of calories. They are an excellent source of potassium and fiber, and have been
shown to have major benefits for cardiovascular health.
2. Cheese is incredibly nutritious. This makes sense, given that an entire cup of milk is used to produce a single thick slice
of cheese. It is a great source of calcium, vitamin B12, phosphorus and selenium, and contains all sorts of other nutrients.
It is also very rich in protein, with a single thick slice of cheese containing 6.7 grams of protein, same as a glass of milk.
Cheese, like other high-fat dairy products, also contains powerful fatty acids that have been linked to all sorts of benefits,
including reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.
Cheese is incredibly nutritious, and a single slice contains a similar amount of nutrients as a glass of milk. It is a great
source of vitamins, minerals, quality proteins and healthy fats.
3. Dark Chocolate is one of those rare health foods that actually taste incredible. It is very high in fat, with fat at around
65% of calories. Dark chocolate is 11% fiber and contains over 50% of the RDA for iron, magnesium, copper and
manganese. It is also loaded with antioxidants, so much that it is one of the highest scoring foods tested, even outranking
blueberries. Some of the antioxidants in it have potent biological activity, and can lower blood pressure and protect LDL
cholesterol in the blood from becoming oxidized. Studies also show that people who eat dark chocolate 5 or more times
per week are less than half as likely to die from heart disease, compared to people who don't eat dark chocolate. There are
also some studies showing that dark chocolate can improve brain function, and protect your skin from damage when
exposed to the sun. Just make sure to choose quality dark chocolate, with at least 70% cocoa.
Dark chocolate is high in fat, but loaded with nutrients and antioxidants. It is very effective at improving cardiovascular
health.
4. Whole Eggs used to be considered unhealthy because the yolks are high in cholesterol and fat. In fact, a single egg
contains 212 mg of cholesterol, which is 71% of the recommended daily intake. Plus, 62% of the calories in whole eggs
are from fat. However, new studies have shown that cholesterol in eggs doesn't affect the cholesterol in the blood, at least
not in the majority of people. What we're left with is one of the most nutrient dense foods on the planet. Whole eggs are
actually loaded with vitamins and minerals. They contain a little bit of almost every single nutrient we need. They even
contain powerful antioxidants that protect the eyes, and lots of choline, a brain nutrient that 90% of people don't get
enough of. Eggs are also a weight loss friendly food. They are very fulfilling and high in protein, the most important
nutrient for weight loss. Despite being high in fat, people who replace a grain-based breakfast with eggs end up eating
fewer calories and losing weight. The best eggs are omega-3 enriched or pastured. Just don't throw away the yolk, that's
where almost all the nutrients are found.
Whole eggs are among the most nutrient dense foods on the planet. Despite being high in fat and cholesterol, they are
incredibly nutritious and healthy.
5. Fatty Fish One of the few animal products that most people agree is healthy, is fatty fish. This includes fish like
salmon, trout, mackerel, sardines and herring. These fish are loaded with heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids, high quality
proteins and all sorts of important nutrients. Studies show that people who eat fish tend to be much healthier, with a lower
risk of heart disease, depression, dementia and all sorts of common diseases. If you can't (or won't) eat fish, then taking a
fish oil supplement can be useful. Cod fish liver oil is best, it contains all the omega-3s that you need, as well as plenty
of vitamin D. Fatty fish like salmon is loaded with important nutrients, especially omega-3 fatty acids. Eating fatty fish is
linked to improved health, and reduced risk of all sorts of diseases.
6. Nuts are incredibly healthy. They are high in healthy fats and fiber, and are a good plant-based source of protein. nuts
are also high in vitamin E and loaded with magnesium, a mineral that most people don't get enough of. Studies show that
people who eat nuts tend to be healthier, and have a lower risk of various diseases. This includes obesity, heart disease
and type 2 diabetes. Healthy nuts include almonds, walnuts, macadamia nuts and numerous others. Nuts are loaded with
healthy fats, protein, vitamin E and magnesium, and are among the best sources of plant-based protein. Studies show that
nuts have many health benefits.
7. Chia Seeds are generally not perceived as a "fatty" food. However, an ounce (28 grams) of chia seeds actually contains
9 grams of fat. Considering that almost all the carbs in chia seeds are fiber, the majority of calories in them actually comes
from fat. In fact, by calories, chia seeds are around 80% fat. This makes them an excellent high-fat plant food. These
aren't just any fats either, the majority of the fats in chia seeds consists of the heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acid called
ALA. Chia seeds may also have numerous health benefits, such as lowering blood pressure and having anti-inflammatory
effects. They are also incredibly nutritious. In addition to being loaded with fiber and omega-3s, chia seeds are also
packed with minerals. Chia seeds are very high in healthy fats, especially an omega-3 fatty acid called ALA. They are also
loaded with fiber and minerals, and have numerous health benefits.
8. Extra Virgin Olive Oil Another fatty food that almost everyone agrees is healthy, is extra virgin olive oil. This fat is an
essential component of the Mediterranean diet, which has been shown to have numerous health benefits. Extra virgin olive
oil contains vitamins E and K, and is loaded with powerful antioxidants. Some of these antioxidants can fight
inflammation and help protect the LDL particles in the blood from becoming oxidized. It has also been shown to lower
blood pressure, improve cholesterol markers and have all sorts of benefits related to heart disease risk. Out of all the
healthy fats and oils in the diet, extra virgin olive oil is the king.
Extra virgin olive oil has many powerful health benefits, and is incredibly effective at improving cardiovascular health.
9. Coconuts and Coconut Oil Coconuts, and coconut oil, are the richest sources of saturated fat on the planet. In fact,
about 90% of the fatty acids in them are saturated. Even so, populations that consume large amounts of coconut do not
have high levels of heart disease, and are in excellent health. Coconut fats are actually different than most other fats, and
consist largely of medium-chain fatty acids. These fatty acids are metabolized differently, going straight to the liver where
they may be turned into ketone bodies. Studies show that medium-chain fats suppress appetite, helping people eat fewer
calories, and can boost metabolism by up to 120 calories per day.Many studies show that these types of fats can have
benefits for people with Alzheimer's, and they have also been shown to help you lose belly fat. Coconuts are very high in
medium-chain fatty acids, which are metabolized differently than other fats. They can reduce appetite, increase fat
burning and provide numerous health benefits.
10. Full-Fat Yogurt Real, full-fat yogurt is incredibly healthy. It has all the same important nutrients as other high-fat
dairy products. But it's also loaded with healthy, probiotic bacteria, that can have powerful effects on your health. Studies
show that yogurt can lead to major improvements in digestive health, and may even help fight heart disease and obesity.
Just make sure to choose real, full-fat yogurt and read the label. Unfortunately, many of the yogurts found on store shelves
are low in fat, but loaded with added sugar instead. It is best to avoid those like the plague.
We all need some fat in our diets. It’s getting the right balance of the different types of fat that will help keep your heart
healthy. Why we need to eat some fats. We need some fats: for energy, to absorb some vitamins from food, for a
healthy immune system, for our brains to function.
Types of fats There are two main types of fat – saturated fats and unsaturated fats and we need some of both. But too
much saturated fat will raise your blood cholesterol, while unsaturated fats are more heart-healthy. Cutting down on foods
that contain a lot of saturated fat and replacing them with foods that contain more unsaturated fat can improve your
cholesterol levels.
Saturated fats are found in animal foods, such as fatty meat and dairy products. They're also found in coconut products
and palm oil.
Unsaturated fats are found in plant foods, such as olive and vegetable oils, nuts and seeds, as well as oily fish.
How much fat should I eat? Fats are very high in energy. To make sure you’re not taking on too much energy, which
will make you gain weight, you need to keep an eye on how much fat you eat in total. About a third of our energy should
come from fat. That’s about 70g for a woman and 90g for a man per day. Keep the amount of saturated fat you eat down
by swapping foods which are high in saturated fats for foods which are either high in unsaturated fats or low in fat
altogether. But don’t simply eat more unsaturated fats so that you’re not eating too much in total.
Unsaturated fats There are different types of unsaturated fat which do different jobs in the body. They are known as
“mono - unsaturated” and “poly - unsaturated”. For a heart-healthy diet, it’s good to eat a range of foods so that you get
both. Foods which are high in unsaturated fats include:
 oils from vegetables, seeds and nuts, such as sunflower, safflower, rapeseed, olive, walnut and corn oil
  spreads based on these oils
 nuts and seeds
 oily fish such as herring, pilchards, mackerel, salmon and trout
 avocado.
Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature, unlike saturated fats which are usually hard.
Trans fats Like saturated fats, trans fats are bad for our health. They raise LDL cholesterol and also lower HDL (good)
cholesterol. Trans fats are made when unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are heated to high temperatures by the food
industry. Most food companies have now stopped adding trans fats to our food. So, most of us don’t eat a lot of trans fats.
Trans fats are sometimes present in pastries, cakes, biscuits, crackers, fried foods, takeaways and hard margarines. A sign
that they are there is when you see the words 'partially hydrogenated fat' on the label. It’s best to avoid these foods as
much as possible. Some trans fats are present in dairy foods and red meats, but only in small amounts, and these are
thought to be safe to eat.
Simple swaps Use these simple swaps to replace some of the foods that you eat which are high in saturated fat with other
foods that contain more unsaturated fat. Plus get ideas for other ways you can eat less fat and saturated fat.

Eat less Swap for

Butter, ghee, lard, suet, goose fat, hard Oils made from vegetables and seeds such as olive, rapeseed,
margarines. Coconut and palm oil. sunflower and soya oil, and fat spreads made from these.

Fatty meat and processed meat products such as Lean meat, chicken or turkey with skin removed, white fish, oily fish at
sausages, bacon, salami and canned meat. least once a week. Have meat-free days – try dishes based on beans,
pulses, Quorn, tofu, nuts or soya meat alternatives.

Full fat dairy foods (milk, yogurt, cream, cheese). Lower fat milks such as semi-skimmed, 1% fat or skimmed milk and
calcium fortified alternatives to milk. Low fat yogurts. Low fat cheese
such as half fat cheddar and cottage cheese.

Cakes, sweet, filled or coated biscuits. Plain buns such as currant or hot cross buns, scones, semi-sweet
biscuits.

Crisps. Hummus and vegetable sticks.

Coconut – fresh, dried and desiccated. Dried fruit and nuts.

Cream or pastry-based desserts. Fresh, baked or poached fruit, milk puddings and custard made with
low fat milk, low fat yogurts, fruit crumbles made with unsaturated
spread.

Pastry, sausage rolls, savoury pies. Potato topped pies.

Cream-based curries e.g. kormas. Cheese and Tomato and vegetable based curries and pasta dishes. Thin crust pizzas
cream based pasta dishes. Extra cheese or meat with vegetable toppings, sandwich fillings such as hummus, lean
topped pizzas, sandwiches with cheese fillings. chicken, egg salad and falafel. Vegetable and tomato based soups and
Cream-based soups and sauces. sauces.

Roasting or frying with butter, lard, other animal Use small amounts of vegetable oil or try other cooking methods e.g.
fats or coconut oil. casseroles, boiling, grilling, steaming, roasting bags.

Milk chocolate, toffee, fudge, crisps and fried Dark chocolate, chewing gum, nuts, seeds, popcorn. Lower fat crisps
salty snacks. or baked savoury snacks.
Creamy salad dressings such as ranch and Ceasar Salad dressings made with olive oil, rapeseed oil or a seed or nut oil, or
dressing, and mayonnaise. low fat mayonnaise.

Fat are an essential part of our diet and is important for good health. There are different types of fats, with some fats being
healthier than others. To help make sure you stay healthy, it is important to eat unsaturated fats in small amounts as part of
a balanced diet. When eaten in large amounts, all fats, including healthy fats, can contribute to weight gain. Fat is higher
in energy (kilojoules) than any other nutrient and so eating less fat overall is likely to help with weight loss. Eating less
saturated and trans fats may help lower your risk of heart disease. When buying products check the labels and choose the
varieties that are lower in saturated and trans fats and higher in poly and monounsaturated fats. So a diet that is low in
saturated fats and trans fats, but that also includes moderate amounts of unsaturated fats will help you stay healthy.
Saturated fats Eating greater amounts of saturated fat is linked with an increased risk of heart disease and high blood
cholesterol levels. These fats are usually solid at room temperature and are found in:
Animal-based products: Dairy foods – such as butter, cream, full fat milk and cheese
 Meat – such as fatty cuts of beef, pork and lamb and chicken (especially chicken skin), processed meats like
salami, Some plant-derived products: Palm oil, Coconut, Coconut milk and cream, Cooking margarine
Many manufactured and packaged foods: Fatty snack foods (such as potato chips, savoury crackers), Deep fried and
high fat take away foods (such as hot chips, pizza, hamburgers)
 Cakes and high fat muffins
 Pastries and pies (including quiche, tarts, sausage rolls, pasties, croissants)
 Sweet and savoury biscuits
Unsaturated fats are an important part of a healthy diet. These fats help reduce the risk of heart disease and lower
cholesterol levels (among other health benefits) when they replace saturated fats in the diet. There are two main types of
unsaturated fats:
Polyunsaturated fats:
 omega-3 fats which are found in fish, especially oily fish
 omega-6 fats which are found in some oils such as safflower and soybean oil, along with some nuts, including
brazil nuts.
Monounsaturated fats:
 found in olive and canola oil, avocados and some nuts, such as cashews and almonds.
Trans fats are unsaturated fats that have been processed and as a result, behave like saturated fats. Eating trans fats
increases the levels of ‘bad’ cholesterol and decreases the levels of ‘good’ cholesterol in the body which is a major risk
factor for heart disease. It is important to lower the amounts of trans fats you eat to help you stay healthy. Trans fats are
found in many packaged foods and also in butter and some margarines. Use food labels to compare foods and choose
those with fewer trans fats. It is great for health to replace saturated and trans fats with mono and polyunsaturated fats.
Cholesterol is a type of fat found in food, but also in our blood. Cholesterol has many important functions in the body but
having high levels of the wrong type of cholesterol in the blood increases heart disease risk. It was once thought that
eating too many cholesterol-containing foods (such as eggs) was the major dietary cause of high blood cholesterol level.
But we now know that eating too many foods containing higher amounts of saturated and trans fats is a bigger problem
and has a much greater influence on blood cholesterol levels. we need some fat as it provides essential fatty acids that our
bodies cannot make. It is also a carrier of the fat-soluble vitamins and is necessary for their absorption. In general, no
more than about one third of our energy intake should come from fat as too much fat can be associated with high energy
intakes that can lead to weight gain.
You need a small amount of fat in your diet for healthy functioning. Oils and fats supply calories and essential fats and
help your body absorb fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E and K. The type of fat is just as important for health as the
total amount of fat consumed. That's why it's important to choose healthier unsaturated fats. Eating too much and the
wrong kinds of fats, such as saturated and trans fats, may raise unhealthy LDL cholesterol and lower healthy HDL
cholesterol. This imbalance can increase your risk of high blood pressure, hardeing of the arteries (atherosclerosis),
heart attack and stroke.
Monounsaturated fats Monounsaturated fats have been shown to improve blood cholesterol levels. They're found in:
 olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, non-hydrogenated margarine, avocados, some nuts (almonds, pistachios,
cashews, pecans and hazelnuts).
Polyunsaturated fats can lower bad cholesterol levels (LDL cholesterol). One type is omega-3, which can help prevent
clotting of blood, reducing the risk of stroke and also helps lower triglycerides, a type of blood fat linked to heart disease.
The best sources of omega-3 fat are: cold-water fish (mackerel, sardines, herring, rainbow trout and salmon), canola and
soybean oils, omega-3 eggs, flaxseed, walnuts, pecans , pine nuts.
Another type of polyunsaturated fat is omega-6. It helps lower LDL cholesterol, but in large amounts it's thought to also
lower the good HDL cholesterol. Eat it in moderation. Omega-6 is found in safflower, sunflower and corn oils, non-
hydrogenated margarine and nuts such as almonds, pecans, brazil nuts and sunflower seeds. It is also in many prepared
meals.
Saturated fat can raise bad (LDL) cholesterol. LDL cholesterol is a risk factor for heart disease and stroke. Emerging
evidence suggests that saturated fats might affect your health differently depending on the food source of the saturated
fat. Canada’s Food Guide recommends a shift towards more plant-based foods to help reduce the amount of saturated fat
you eat. Foods high in saturated fat include: fatty meats, full-fat dairy products, butter, hard margarines, lard, coconut oil,
ghee (clarified butter). vegetable ghee, palm oil.
But highly and ultra-processed foods are a major source of saturated fats in the Canadian diet. These foods have many
ingredients and go through complex changes in a factory so the food doesn’t look like its original source. Highly
processed foods include: hot dogs. burgers , deli meats, cookies, donuts , cakes, chips , French fries, other snack foods. By
limiting these highly processed foods, the amount of saturated fat you eat will decrease, as well as sugar, sodium and trans
fats.
Trans fat Since September 2018, the addition of trans fat to food products has been banned by the Canadian
government. Artificial trans fat was a type of fat that was added to some food products to improve taste and texture and
extend their shelf life. However, trans fats can increase your risk of heart disease by increasing your unhealthy LDL
cholesterol and decreasing your healthy HDL cholesterol. Heart & Stroke played a key role in eliminating artificial trans
fats from the Canadian food supply.
How much fat should you eat in a day? The type of fat consumed is more important than the amount of fat consumed.
The intention is not to reduce total fat in the diet. Rather, it is to help reduce intakes of saturated fat, while encouraging
foods that contain mostly unsaturated fat.
Focus on a healthy balanced diet of vegetables and fruit, whole grains, and protein from a variety of sources such as
legumes, nuts, lower-fat dairy and alternatives, lean meats, and fish. Limit how many highly processed foods you eat.
Look at the big picture rather than fat alone. By limiting highly processed foods and choosing whole, natural foods,
especially more plant-based foods, you reduce the amount of saturated fat in your diet. The amount of fat a child or
adolescent needs depends on their height, build, gender and activity level. Young children need a slightly higher amount
of fat for growth and development, but the need decreases as they grow older.
What is dietary cholesterol? The liver makes about 80% of the cholesterol in your body. The other 20% comes from the
foods you eat. The foods that raise your blood cholesterol the most are high in saturated fat, like: fatty meat and whole-fat
dairy products, snack foods and some ready-prepared foods. Foods that have high levels of dietary cholesterol include:
egg yolks, shrimp, squid, organ meats and fatty meats.
Dietary cholesterol only has an effect in some people. From a nutrition perspective, the best way to control blood
cholesterol is to eat a healthy diet that is lower in fat, especially saturated and trans fat. Studies show that for healthy
people with no history of heart disease, diabetes or high blood cholesterol, eating an average of one egg per day (or seven
eggs per week) does not increase the long-term risk of heart disease. If you eat a healthy, balanced diet of whole/natural
foods and few or no highly processed foods as well as follow the recommended serving sizes, saturated fat intake should
not be an issue.
Oils and fats are among the more controversial components of the modern diet. You should get your essential fats mostly
from whole foods. Two bonuses of this approach are that food sources are much more stable than the isolated oils, and
you can be sure they have not been hydrogenated. The following list outlines a few simple conclusions about fats and oils:
 For optimum health, and to avoid disease, you want to keep fats and oils in your diet to a minimum. You do,
however, need some high-quality fats and oils, called essential fatty acids, for the health of all the cells of your
body, your organs, and your brain. (So don’t avoid fats and oils like the plague — just familiarize yourself with
the ones that are good for you and avoid the unhealthy ones.)
 Eat as little saturated fat as possible. Saturated fats are abundant in farm-raised meats (except fish), or any
products that contain meat, eggs, or dairy products, such as cheese and milk (unless they are fat-free).
 The very best oil to cook with is extra virgin or virgin olive oil. It doesn’t break down as easily as other oils,
creating toxic ingredients that are hard for your body to digest. It’s also one of the heart-friendly oils high in
monounsaturated fatty acids. It is the only oil you should cook with, except for an occasional meal with cold-
pressed and organic corn, soy, or sesame seed oil for variety.
 Olive oil is great for salad dressings, for which the oil is not heated. Other oils that are healthier when not heated
include sesame seed, almond, flaxseed, soy, corn, or high-quality sunflower oil — actually any oil is better
uncooked or extracted without using heat or chemicals. Use them from time to time for variety.
 Keep all oils sealed from air and in the refrigerator — as long as a month or two is safe. Keeping your oils in the
refrigerator prevents them from being degraded by light. For convenience, keep a small bottle of olive oil on the
counter for cooking and sprinkling on your food. (Olive oil tends to harden in the refrigerator, but this doesn’t
cause any damage to the oil.)
Healthful high-fat foods are not something to shy away from. The body needs a certain amount of fat from the diet to aid
hormone function, memory, and the absorption of specific nutrients. Including healthful fats in a meal also creates a sense
of fullness, slows down the digestion of carbohydrates, and adds flavor to food. The most healthful fats are
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, which include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Understanding healthful vs. unhealthful fats fried food may increase the risk of a number of health conditions.
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are healthful fats that might: benefit the
heart, lower LDL cholesterol, improve insulin levels, improve blood glucose levels
MUFAs and PUFAs also fight inflammation.
The two most well-known PUFAs are omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. These are essential fats that people must get from
the food they eat because the body is unable to make them. Studies have linked omega-3 fats to many health benefits,
especially the prevention of heart disease and stroke. As a general rule of thumb, healthful fats — such as olive oil — are
liquid at room temperature. Saturated fats and trans fats, on the other hand, are considered unhealthful fats. Foods rich in
these substances, such and butter and lard, are often solid at room temperature. Older research reported that saturated fat
had a negative impact on cholesterol levels and heart health, but newer studies suggest it is not as bad as once thought.
However, most health organizations still recommend limiting saturated fat in the diet and replacing them with MUFAs
and PUFAs.
Trans fats Always avoid trans fats. Artificial trans fats, listed on labels as partially hydrogenated oils, are extremely
unhealthful. They trigger inflammation that may increase the risk of: heart disease, stroke, diabetes, many other health
conditions. Even just 2 percent of calories from trans fats daily can increase the risk of heart disease by 23 percent. The
following foods contain trans fats: fried foods, frozen foods, such as pizzas and pies, baked goods, margarine
Takeaway Fat is one of the three essential macronutrients the body needs, along with carbohydrates and protein. A
balanced diet should include healthful monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Some of the best sources of these fatty
acids include avocados, olive oil, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish. People should also be sure to limit the amount of saturated fat
in the diet and avoid even small intakes of trans fats.
Minerals include calcium and iron amongst many others and are found in: meat, cereals, fish, milk and dairy foods, fruit
and vegetables, nuts..Minerals are necessary for 3 main reasons: building strong bones and teeth, controlling body fluids
inside and outside cells, turning the food you eat into energy.
Trace elements are also essential nutrients that your body needs to work properly, but in much smaller amounts than
vitamins and minerals. They include iodine and fluorine. Trace elements are found in small amounts in a variety of foods
such as meat, fish, cereals, milk and dairy foods, vegetables and nuts. Just like vitamins, minerals help your body grow,
develop, and stay healthy. The body uses minerals to perform many different functions — from building strong bones to
transmitting nerve impulses. Some minerals are even used to make hormones or maintain a normal heartbeat.
Macro and Trace The two kinds of minerals are: macrominerals and trace minerals. Macro means "large" in Greek
(and your body needs larger amounts of macrominerals than trace minerals). The macromineral group is made up of
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and sulfur. A trace of something means that there is only a
little of it. So even though your body needs trace minerals, it needs just a tiny bit of each one. Trace minerals includes
iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium. Let's take a closer look at some of the minerals you
get from food.
Calcium is the top macromineral when it comes to your bones. This mineral helps build strong bones, so you can do
everything from standing up straight to scoring that winning goal. It also helps build strong, healthy teeth, for chomping
on tasty food. Which foods are rich in calcium? dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, canned salmon and
sardines with bones, leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli, calcium-fortified foods — from orange juice to cereals and
crackers
Iron The body needs iron to transport oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. Your entire body needs oxygen to
stay healthy and alive. Iron helps because it's important in the formation of hemoglobin, which is the part of your red
blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Which foods are rich in iron? meat, especially red meat, such as beef,
tuna and salmon, eggs, beans, baked potato with skins, dried fruits, like raisins, leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli,
whole and enriched grains, like wheat or oats
Potassium keeps your muscles and nervous system working properly. Which foods are rich in potassium? Bananas,
tomatoes, potatoes and sweet potatoes, with skins, green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli, citrus fruits, like
oranges, low-fat milk and yogurt, legumes, such as beans, split peas, and lentils
Zinc helps your immune system, which is your body's system for fighting off illnesses and infections. It also helps with
cell growth and helps heal wounds, such as cuts. Which foods are rich in zinc? beef, pork, and dark meat chicken, nuts,
such as cashews, almonds, and peanuts, legumes, such as beans, split peas, and lentils, When people don't get enough of
these important minerals, they can have health problems. For instance, too little calcium — especially when you're a kid
— can lead to weaker bones. Some kids may take mineral supplements, but most kids don't need them if they eat a
nutritious diet.
Importance of Vitamins and Minerals: Vitamins and minerals boost the immune system, support normal growth and
development, and help cells and organs do their jobs. For example, you've probably heard that carrots are good for your
eyes. It's true! Carrots are full of substances called carotenoids that your body converts into vitamin A, which helps
prevent eye problems. Another vitamin, vitamin K, helps blood to clot (so cuts and scrapes stop bleeding quickly). You'll
find vitamin K in green leafy vegetables, broccoli, and soybeans. And to have strong bones, you need to eat foods such as
milk, yogurt, and green leafy vegetables, which are rich in the mineral calcium.
Fuel for Growth People go through a lot of physical changes — including growth and puberty — during their teenage
years. Eating right during this time is especially important because the body needs a variety of vitamins and minerals to
grow, develop, and stay healthy. Eating a variety of foods is the best way to get all the vitamins and minerals you need
each day, as well as the right balance of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and calories. Whole or unprocessed foods — like
fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products, lean meats, fish, and poultry — are the best choices for
providing the nutrients your body needs to stay healthy and grow properly. It's OK to eat foods like potato chips and
cookies once in a while, but you don't want to overdo high-calorie foods like these that offer little nutritionally. To choose
healthy foods, check food labels and pick items that are high in vitamins and minerals. For example, if you're choosing
beverages, you'll find that a glass of milk is a good source of vitamin D and the minerals calcium, phosphorous, and
potassium. A glass of soda, on the other hand, doesn't have any vitamins or minerals. You can also satisfy your taste buds
without sacrificing nutrition while eating out: Vegetable pizzas or fajitas, sandwiches with lean cuts of meat, fresh salads,
and baked potatoes are just a few delicious, nutritious choices. If you're a vegetarian, you'll need to plan carefully for a
diet that offers the vitamins and minerals found primarily in meats. The best sources for the minerals zinc and iron are
meats, fish, and poultry. However, you can get zinc and iron in dried beans, seeds, nuts, and leafy green vegetables like
kale. Vitamin B12, which is important for manufacturing red blood cells, is not found in plant foods. If you don't eat meat,
you can find vitamin B12 in eggs, milk and other dairy foods, and fortified breakfast cereals. Vegans (vegetarians who eat
no animal products at all, including dairy products) may need to take vitamin supplements.
Common Concerns Lots of teens wonder if they should take vitamin or mineral supplements. If your diet includes a wide
variety of foods, including whole-grain products, fresh fruits and vegetables, dairy products, nuts, seeds, eggs, and meats,
then you are probably getting the vitamins and minerals your body needs. But if you're skipping meals, dieting, or if
you're concerned that you're not eating enough items from a particular category, such as vegetables or dairy products, then
talk to your doctor or to a dietitian. These professionals can help you create an eating plan that includes the nutrients your
body needs. The body needs many minerals; these are called essential minerals. Essential minerals are sometimes divided
up into major minerals (macrominerals) and trace minerals (microminerals). These two groups of minerals are equally
important, but trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts than major minerals. The amounts needed in the body are not
an indication of their importance. A balanced diet usually provides all of the essential minerals. The two tables below list
minerals, what they do in the body (their functions), and their sources in food.
Macrominerals

Major minerals

Mineral Function Sources

Sodium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve Table salt, soy sauce; large
transmission, and muscle contraction amounts in processed foods; small
amounts in milk, breads,
vegetables, and unprocessed meats

Chloride Needed for proper fluid balance, Table salt, soy sauce; large
stomach acid amounts in processed foods; small
amounts in milk, meats, breads,
and vegetables

Potassium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve Meats, milk, fresh fruits and
transmission, and muscle contraction vegetables, whole grains, legumes

Calcium Important for healthy bones and teeth;
helps muscles relax and contract;
important in nerve functioning, blood
clotting, blood pressure regulation,
immune system health
Milk and milk products; canned
fish with bones (salmon, sardines);
fortified tofu and fortified soy
milk; greens (broccoli, mustard
greens); legumes
 Phosphorus Important for healthy bones and teeth; Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
found in every cell; part of the system processed foods (including soda
that maintains acid-base balance pop)

Magnesium Found in bones; needed for making Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy,
protein, muscle contraction, nerve green vegetables; seafood;
transmission, immune system health chocolate; artichokes; "hard"
drinking water

Sulfur Found in protein molecules Occurs in foods as part of protein:

meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
legumes, nuts

Trace minerals (microminerals) The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to
be a trace mineral, although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other microminerals.

Trace minerals

Mineral Function Sources

Iron Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in
red blood cells that carries oxygen in the
body; needed for energy metabolism
Organ meats; red meats; fish;
poultry; shellfish (especially
clams); egg yolks; legumes;
dried fruits; dark, leafy
greens; iron-enriched breads
and cereals; and fortified
cereals

Zinc Part of many enzymes; needed for Meats, fish, poultry, leavened
making protein and genetic material; has a whole grains, vegetables
function in taste perception, wound
healing, normal fetal development,
production of sperm, normal growth and
sexual maturation, immune system health

Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, which helps Seafood, foods grown in

regulate growth, development, and iodine-rich soil, iodized salt,
metabolism bread, dairy products

Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains

Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for iron Legumes, nuts and seeds,
metabolism whole grains, organ meats,
drinking water

Manganese Part of many enzymes Widespread in foods,

especially plant foods

Fluoride Involved in formation of bones and teeth; Drinking water (either

helps prevent tooth decay fluoridated or naturally
 containing fluoride), fish, and
most teas

Chromium Works closely with insulin to regulate Unrefined foods, especially

blood sugar (glucose) levels liver, brewer's yeast, whole
grains, nuts, cheeses

Molybdenum Part of some enzymes Legumes; breads and grains;

leafy greens; leafy, green
vegetables; milk; liver

Other trace nutrients known to be essential in tiny amounts include nickel, silicon, vanadium, and cobalt.
your body requires some raw materials. These include at least 30 vitamins, minerals, and dietary components that your
body needs but cannot manufacture on its own in sufficient amounts. Vitamins and minerals are considered essential
nutrients—because acting in concert, they perform hundreds of roles in the body. They help shore up bones, heal wounds,
and bolster your immune system. They also convert food into energy, and repair cellular damage.
Micronutrients with a big role in the body Vitamins and minerals are often called micronutrients because your body
needs only tiny amounts of them. Yet failing to get even those small quantities virtually guarantees disease. Here are a
few examples of diseases that can result from vitamin deficiencies:
 Scurvy. Old-time sailors learned that living for months without fresh fruits or vegetables—the main sources of
vitamin C—causes the bleeding gums and listlessness of scurvy.
 Blindness. In some developing countries, people still become blind from vitamin A deficiency.
 Rickets. A deficiency in vitamin D can cause rickets, a condition marked by soft, weak bones that can lead to
skeletal deformities such as bowed legs. Partly to combat rickets, the U.S. has fortified milk with vitamin D since
the 1930s.
Just as a lack of key micronutrients can cause substantial harm to your body, getting sufficient quantities can provide a
substantial benefit. Some examples of these benefits:
 Strong bones. A combination of calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K, magnesium, and phosphorus protects your bones
against fractures.
 Prevents birth defects. Taking folic acid supplements early in pregnancy helps prevent brain and spinal birth
defects in offspring.
 Healthy teeth. The mineral fluoride not only helps bone formation but also keeps dental cavities from starting or
worsening.
The difference between vitamins and minerals Although they are all considered micronutrients, vitamins and minerals
differ in basic ways. Vitamins are organic and can be broken down by heat, air, or acid. Minerals are inorganic and hold
on to their chemical structure. It means the minerals in soil and water easily find their way into your body through the
plants, fish, animals, and fluids you consume. But it’s tougher to shuttle vitamins from food and other sources into your
body because cooking, storage, and simple exposure to air can inactivate these more fragile compounds.
Interacting—in good ways and bad Many micronutrients interact. Vitamin D enables your body to pluck calcium from
food sources passing through your digestive tract rather than harvesting it from your bones. Vitamin C helps you absorb
iron. The interplay of micronutrients isn’t always cooperative, however. For example, vitamin C blocks your body’s
ability to assimilate the essential mineral copper. And even a minor overload of the mineral manganese can worsen iron
deficiency.
A closer look at water-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins are packed into the watery portions of the foods you eat.
They are absorbed directly into the bloodstream as food is broken down during digestion or as a supplement dissolves.
Because much of your body consists of water, many of the water-soluble vitamins circulate easily in your body. Your
kidneys continuously regulate levels of water-soluble vitamins, shunting excesses out of the body in your urine.
Water-soluble vitamins: B vitamins (Biotin (vitamin B7), Folic acid (folate, vitamin B9), Niacin (vitamin B3),
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5, Riboflavin (vitamin B2), Thiamin (vitamin B1), Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12), vitamin C.
Although water-soluble vitamins have many tasks in the body, one of the most important is helping to free the energy
found in the food you eat. Others help keep tissues healthy. Here are some examples of how different vitamins help you
maintain health:
 Release energy. Several B vitamins are key components of certain coenzymes (molecules that aid enzymes) that
help release energy from food.
 Produce energy. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin engage in energy production.
 Build proteins and cells. Vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid metabolize amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins) and help cells multiply.
 Make collagen. One of many roles played by vitamin C is to help make collagen, which knits together wounds,
supports blood vessel walls, and forms a base for teeth and bones.
Contrary to popular belief, some water-soluble vitamins can stay in the body for long periods of time. You probably have
several years’ supply of vitamin B12 in your liver. And even folic acid and vitamin C stores can last more than a couple of
days. Generally, though, water-soluble vitamins should be replenished every few days. Just be aware that there is a small
risk that consuming large amounts of some of these micronutrients through supplements may be quite harmful. For
example, very high doses of B6—many times the recommended amount of 1.3 milligrams (mg) per day for adults—can
damage nerves, causing numbness and muscle weakness.
A closer look at fat-soluble vitamins Rather than slipping easily into the bloodstream like most water-soluble vitamins,
fat-soluble vitamins gain entry to the blood via lymph channels in the intestinal wall. Many fat-soluble vitamins travel
through the body only under escort by proteins that act as carriers.
Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
1. Food containing fat-soluble vitamins is ingested.
2. The food is digested by stomach acid and then travels to the
small intestine, where it is digested further. Bile is needed for the
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. This substance, which is produced
in the liver, flows into the small intestine, where it breaks down fats.
Nutrients are then absorbed through the wall of the small intestine.
3. Upon absorption, the fat-soluble vitamins enter the lymph
vessels before making their way into the bloodstream. In most cases,
fat-soluble vitamins must be coupled with a protein in order to travel
through the body.
4. These vitamins are used throughout the body, but excesses are
stored in the liver and fat tissues.
5. As additional amounts of these vitamins are needed, your body taps into the reserves, releasing them into the
bloodstream from the liver.
Fatty foods and oils are reservoirs for the four fat-soluble vitamins. Within your body, fat tissues and the liver act as the
main holding pens for these vitamins and release them as needed. To some extent, you can think of these vitamins as time-
release micronutrients. It’s possible to consume them every now and again, perhaps in doses weeks or months apart rather
than daily, and still get your fill. Your body squirrels away the excess and doles it out gradually to meet your needs.
Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K. Together this vitamin quartet helps keep your eyes,
skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and nervous system in good repair. Here are some of the other essential roles these
vitamins play:
 Build bones. Bone formation would be impossible without vitamins A, D, and K.
 Protect vision. Vitamin A also helps keep cells healthy and protects your vision.
 Interact favorably. Without vitamin E, your body would have difficulty absorbing and storing vitamin A.
 Protect the body. Vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant (a compound that helps protect the body against damage
from unstable molecules).
Because fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your body for long periods, toxic levels can build up. This is most likely to
happen if you take supplements. It’s very rare to get too much of a vitamin just from food.
A closer look at major minerals The body needs, and stores, fairly large amounts of the major minerals. These minerals
are no more important to your health than the trace minerals; they’re just present in your body in greater amounts. Major
minerals travel through the body in various ways. Potassium, for example, is quickly absorbed into the bloodstream,
where it circulates freely and is excreted by the kidneys, much like a water-soluble vitamin. Calcium is more like a fat-
soluble vitamin because it requires a carrier for absorption and transport.
Major minerals: Calcium, Chloride, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Sulfur. One of the key tasks of major
minerals is to maintain the proper balance of water in the body. Sodium, chloride, and potassium take the lead in doing
this. Three other major minerals—calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium—are important for healthy bones. Sulfur helps
stabilize protein structures, including some of those that make up hair, skin, and nails. Having too much of one major
mineral can result in a deficiency of another. These sorts of imbalances are usually caused by overloads from
supplements, not food sources. Here are two examples:
 Salt overload. Calcium binds with excess sodium in the body and is excreted when the body senses that sodium
levels must be lowered. That means that if you ingest too much sodium through table salt or processed foods, you
could end up losing needed calcium as your body rids itself of the surplus sodium.
 Excess phosphorus. Likewise, too much phosphorus can hamper your ability to absorb magnesium.
A closer look at trace minerals A thimble could easily contain the distillation of all the trace minerals normally found in
your body. Yet their contributions are just as essential as those of major minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which
each account for more than a pound of your body weight.
Trace minerals; Chromium, Copper, Fluoride, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Zinc. Trace minerals
carry out a diverse set of tasks. Here are a few examples:
 Iron is best known for ferrying oxygen throughout the body.
 Fluoride strengthens bones and wards off tooth decay.
 Zinc helps blood clot, is essential for taste and smell, and bolsters the immune response.
 Copper helps form several enzymes, one of which assists with iron metabolism and the creation of hemoglobin,
which carries oxygen in the blood.
The other trace minerals perform equally vital jobs, such as helping to block damage to body cells and forming parts of
key enzymes or enhancing their activity. Trace minerals interact with one another, sometimes in ways that can trigger
imbalances. Too much of one can cause or contribute to a deficiency of another. Here are some examples:
 A minor overload of manganese can exacerbate iron deficiency. Having too little can also cause problems.
 When the body has too little iodine, thyroid hormone production slows, causing sluggishness and weight gain as
well as other health concerns. The problem worsens if the body also has too little selenium.
The difference between “just enough” and “too much” of the trace minerals is often tiny. Generally, food is a safe source
of trace minerals, but if you take supplements, it’s important to make sure you’re not exceeding safe levels.
Antioxidant is a catchall term for any compound that can counteract unstable molecules such as free radicals that damage
DNA, cell membranes, and other parts of cells. Your body cells naturally produce plenty of antioxidants to put on patrol.
The foods you eat—and, perhaps, some of the supplements you take—are another source of antioxidant compounds.
Carotenoids (such as lycopene in tomatoes and lutein in kale) and flavonoids (such as anthocyanins in blueberries,
quercetin in apples and onions, and catechins in green tea) are antioxidants. The vitamins C and E and the mineral
selenium also have antioxidant properties.
Why free radicals may be harmful Free radicals are a natural byproduct of energy metabolism and are also generated by
ultraviolet rays, tobacco smoke, and air pollution. They lack a full complement of electrons, which makes them unstable,
so they steal electrons from other molecules, damaging those molecules in the process. Free radicals have a well-deserved
reputation for causing cellular damage. But they can be helpful, too. When immune system cells muster to fight intruders,
the oxygen they use spins off an army of free radicals that destroys viruses, bacteria, and damaged body cells in an
oxidative burst. Vitamin C can then disarm the free radicals.
How antioxidants may help Antioxidants are able to neutralize marauders such as free radicals by giving up some of
their own electrons. When a vitamin C or E molecule makes this sacrifice, it may allow a crucial protein, gene, or cell
membrane to escape damage. This helps break a chain reaction that can affect many other cells. It is important to
recognize that the term “antioxidant” reflects a chemical property rather than a specific nutritional property. Each of the
nutrients that has antioxidant properties also has numerous other aspects and should be considered individually. The
context is also important—in some settings, for example, vitamin C is an antioxidant, and in others it can be a pro-
oxidant.
Food Sources for Vitamins and Minerals
Calcium found in Milk, fortified nondairy alternatives like soy milk, yogurt, hard cheeses, fortified cereals, kale. need:
Adults ages 19-50: 1,000 milligrams per day, Women age 51 and older: 1,200 milligrams per day, Men age 51 - 70: 1,000
milligrams per day, Men 71 and older: 1,200 milligrams per day : Needed for bone growth and strength, blood clotting,
muscle contraction, and more. 2,500 milligrams per day for adults age 50 and younger, 2,000 mg per day for those 51 and
older.
Choline: found in Milk, liver, eggs, peanuts, fish, muscle meats, need: Men: 550 milligrams per day, Women: 425
milligrams per day, Pregnant women: 450 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 550 milligrams per day, What it
does: Helps make cells. Don't get more than this much: 3,500 milligrams per da
Chromium: in: Broccoli, potatoes, meats, poultry, fish, some cereals, need: Men ages 19-50: 35 micrograms per day,
Women ages 19-50: 25 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 30 micrograms per day,
Breastfeeding women: 45 micrograms per day, Men age 51 and up: 30 micrograms per day, Women age 51 and up: 20
micrograms per day. What it does: Helps control blood sugar levels, Don't get more than this much: No upper limit
known for adults.
Copper found: Seafood, nuts, seeds, wheat bran cereals, whole grains, need: Adults: 900 micrograms per day, unless
pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 1,000 micrograms per day, Breastfeeding women: 1,300 micrograms per day.
Vitamins and Minerals: Health Benefits and Food Sources
Calcium Foods that have it: Milk, fortified nondairy alternatives like soy milk, yogurt, hard cheeses, fortified cereals,
kale. How much you need: Adults ages 19-50: 1,000 milligrams per day, Women age 51 and older: 1,200 milligrams per
day, Men age 51 - 70: 1,000 milligrams per day, Men 71 and older: 1,200 milligrams per day. What it does: Needed for
bone growth and strength, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and more. Don't get more than this a day: 2,500
milligrams per day for adults age 50 and younger, 2,000 mg per day for those 51 and older
Choline Milk, liver, eggs, peanuts, How much you need: Men: 550 milligrams per day, Women: 425 milligrams per day,
Pregnant women: 450 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 550 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps make
cells. Don't get more than this much: 3,500 milligrams per day
Chromium : Broccoli, potatoes, meats, poultry, fish, some cereals, How much you need: Men ages 19-50: 35 ,
micrograms per day, Women ages 19-50: 25 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 30
micrograms per day. Breastfeeding women: 45 micrograms per day. Men age 51 and up: 30 micrograms per day. Women
age 51 and up: 20 micrograms per day. What it does: Helps control blood sugar levels,. Don't get more than this
much: No upper limit known for adults
Copper: Seafood, nuts, seeds, wheat bran cereals, whole grains. How much you need: Adults: 900 micrograms per day,
unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 1,000 micrograms per day, Breastfeeding women: 1,300 micrograms
per day, What it does: Helps your body process iron, Don't get more than this much: 8,000 micrograms per day for
adults
Fiber: Plant foods, including oatmeal, lentils, peas, beans, fruits, and vegetables, How much you need: Men ages 19-50:
38 grams per day, Women ages 19-50: 25 grams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 25 to 30
grams per day, Men age 51 and up: 30 grams per day, Women age 51 and up: 21 grams per day, What it does: Helps with
digestion, lowers LDL ("bad") cholesterol, helps you feel full, and helps maintain blood sugar levels, Don't get more
than this much: No upper limit from foods for adults
Fluoride: Fluoridated water, some sea fish, Men: 4 milligrams per day, Women: 3 milligrams per day. This includes
pregnant or breastfeeding women. What it does: Prevents cavities in teeth, helps with bone growth, Don't get more than
this much: 10 milligrams per day for adults.
Folic acid (folate) Dark, leafy vegetables; enriched and whole grain breads; fortified cereals, How much you need:
Adults: 400 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 600 micrograms per day,
Breastfeeding women: 500 micrograms per day, What it does: Helps prevent birth defects, important for heart health and
for cell development, Don't get more than this much: 1,000 micrograms per day for adults
Iodine: Seaweed, seafood, dairy products, processed foods, iodized salt, How much you need: Adults: 150 micrograms
per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 209 micrograms per day, Breastfeeding women: 290
micrograms per day, What it does: Helps make thyroid hormones, Don't get more than this much: 1,100 micrograms
per day for adults
Iron Fortified cereals, beans, lentils, beef, turkey (dark meat), soy beans, spinach, How much you need: Men age 19 and
up: 8 milligrams per day, Women ages 19-50: 18 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women:
27 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 10 milligrams per day, Women age 51 and up: 8 milligrams per day, What
it does: Needed for red blood cells and many enzymes, Don't get more than this much: 45 milligrams per day for adults
Magnesium: Green leafy vegetables, nuts, dairy, soybeans, potatoes, whole wheat, quinoa, How much you need: Men
ages 19-30: 400 milligrams per day, Men age 31 and up: 420 milligrams per day, Women ages 19-30: 310 milligrams per
day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Women age 31 and up: 320 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding,
Pregnant women: 350-360 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 310-320 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps
with heart rhythm, muscle and nerve function, bone strength, Don't get more than this much: For the magnesium that’s
naturally in food and water, there is no upper limit., For magnesium in supplements or fortified foods: 350 milligrams per
day.
Manganese: Foods that have it: Nuts, beans and other legumes, tea, whole grains, How much you need: Men: 2.3
milligrams per day, Women: 1.8 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 2.0 milligrams
per day, Breastfeeding women: 2.6 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps form bones and make some enzymes, Don't
get more than this much: 11 milligrams per day for adults
Molybdenum: Foods that have it: Legumes, leafy vegetables, grains, nuts, How much you need: Adults: 45
micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant or breastfeeding women: 50 micrograms per day, What it
does: Needed to make some enzymes, Don't get more than this much: 2,000 micrograms per day for adults
Phosphorus: Foods that have it: Milk and other dairy products, peas, meat, eggs, some cereals and breads. How much
you need: Adults: 700 milligrams per day, What it does: Cells need it to work normally. Helps make energy. Needed for
bone growth. Don't get more than this much: Adults up to age 70: 4,000 milligrams per day. The limit is lower if you're
pregnant. Pregnant women: 3,500 milligrams per day. Adults age 70 and older: 3,000 milligrams per day
Potassium Foods that have it: Potatoes, bananas, yogurt, milk, yellowfin tuna, soybeans, and a variety of fruits and
vegetables. How much you need: Adults: 4,700 milligrams per day, unless breastfeeding. Breastfeeding women: 5,100
milligrams per day. What it does: Helps control blood pressure, makes kidney stones less likely. Don't get more than
this much: No upper limit known for adults. However, high doses of potassium can be deadly.
Selenium: Foods that have it: Organ meats, seafood, dairy, some plants (if grown in soil with selenium), Brazil nuts.
How much you need: Adults: 55 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 60 micrograms
per day, Breastfeeding women: 70 micrograms per day, What it does: Protects cells from damage. Helps
manage thyroid hormone. Don't get more than this much: 400 micrograms per day for adults
Sodium: Foods that have it: Foods made with added salt, such as processed and restaurant foods. How much you need:
Adults ages 19-50: up to 1,500 milligrams per day, Adults ages 51-70: up to 1,300 milligrams per day, Adults age 71 and
up: up to 1,200 milligrams per day, What it does: Important for fluid balance, Don't get more than this much: 2,300
milligrams per day for adults, or as instructed by your doctor, depending on whether you have certain conditions, like high
blood pressure
Vitamin A: Foods that have it: Sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach, fortified cereals, How much you need: Men: 900
micrograms per day, Women: 700 micrograms per day, Pregnant women: 770 micrograms per day, Breastfeeding women:
1,300 micrograms per day, What it does: Needed for vision, the immune system, and reproduction, Don't get more than
this much: 3,000 micrograms per day for adults.
Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Foods that have it: Whole-grain, enriched, fortified products like bread and cereals. How much
you need: Men: 1.2 milligrams per day, Women: 1.1 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant or
breastfeeding women: 1.4 milligram per day, What it does: Helps the body process carbs and some protein, Don't get
more than this amount: No upper limit known for adults,
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): Foods that have it: Milk, bread products, fortified cereals. How much you need: Men: 1.3
milligrams per day, Women: 1.1 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 1.4 milligrams
per day, Breastfeeding women: 1.6 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps convert food into energy. Also helps make
red blood cells. Don't get more than this much: No upper limit known for adults
Vitamin B3 (niacin), Foods that have it: Meat, fish, poultry, enriched and whole grain breads, fortified cereals, How
much you need: Men: 16 milligrams per day. Women: 14 mg per day if not pregnant or breastfeeding. Pregnant women:
18 milligrams per day. Breastfeeding women: 17 milligrams per day. What it does: Helps with digestion and with
making cholesterol. Don't get more than this amount: No upper limit from natural sources. If you're an adult and are
taking niacin supplements, or getting niacin from fortified foods, don't get more than 35 milligrams per day.
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): Foods that have it: Chicken, beef, potatoes, oats, cereals, tomatoes, How much you
need: Adults: 5 milligrams per day, except for pregnant or breastfeeding women, Pregnant women: 6 milligrams per day,
Breastfeeding women: 7 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps turn carbs, protein, and fat into energy, Don't get more
than this much: No upper limit known for adults
Vitamin B6: Foods that have it: Fortified cereals, fortified soy products, chickpeas, potatoes, organ meats, How much
you need: Men and women ages 19-50: 1.3 milligrams per day, except for pregnant or breastfeeding women, Pregnant
women: 1.9 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 2 milligrams per day, Men age 51 and up: 1.7 milligrams per day,
Women age 51 and up: 1.5 milligrams per day, What it does: Helps with metabolism, the immune system, and
babies' brain development, Don't get more than this amount: 100 milligrams per day for adults
Vitamin B7 (biotin): Foods that have it: Liver, fruits, meats, How much you need: Adults: 30 micrograms per day,
except for breastfeeding women, Breastfeeding women: 35 micrograms per day, What it does: Helps your body make
fats, protein, and other things your cells need. Don't get more than this amount: No upper limit known
Vitamin B12: Foods that have it: Fish, poultry, meat, dairy products, fortified cereals, How much you need: Adults: 2.4
micrograms per day, except for pregnant or breastfeeding women, Pregnant women: 2.6 micrograms per day, reastfeeding
women: 2.8 micrograms per day, What it does: Helps your body make red blood cells, Don't get more than this
amount: No upper limit known
Vitamin C: Foods that have it: Red and green peppers, kiwis, oranges and other citrus fruits, strawberries, broccoli,
tomatoes, How much you need: Men: 90 milligrams per day, Women: 75 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or
breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 85 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding women: 120 milligrams per day, Smokers: Add 35
milligrams to the numbers above. What it does: Helps protect against cell damage, supports the immune system, and
helps your body make collagen. Don't get more than this much: 2,000 milligrams per day for adults
Vitamin D: Foods that have it: Fish liver oils, fatty fish, fortified milk products, fortified cereals. How much you need:
Adults ages 19-70: 600 international units (IU) per day, Adults age 71 and older: 800 international units per day, What
it does: Needed for bones, muscles, the immune system, and communication between the brain and the rest of your body.
Don't get more than this much: 4,000 international units per day for adults unless directed by your doctor
Vitamin E: Foods that have it: Fortified cereals, sunflower seeds, almonds, peanut butter, vegetable oils. How much
you need: Adults: 15 milligrams per day or 22.5 international units. That includes pregnant women. Breastfeeding
women: 19 milligrams per day, 28.5 IU. What it does: Helps protect cells against damage. Don't get more than this
amount: 1,000 milligrams per day for adults.
Vitamin K: Foods that have it: Green vegetables like spinach, collards, and broccoli; Brussels sprouts; cabbage, How
much you need: Men: 120 micrograms per day, Women: 90 micrograms per day, What it does: Important in blood
clotting and bone health, Don't get more than this amount: Unknown
Zinc: Foods that have it: Red meats, some seafood, fortified cereals, How much you need: Men: 11 milligrams per day,
Women: 8 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding, Pregnant women: 11 milligrams per day, Breastfeeding
women: 12 milligrams per day. What it does: Supports your immune system and nerve function. Also important for
reproduction. Don't get more than this amount: 40 mg per day for adults
Vitamins and minerals are as essential for living as air and water. Not only do they keep your body healthy and functional,
they protect you from a variety of diseases. Vitamins and minerals get thrown together, but they are quite different.
Vitamins are organic substances produced by plants or animals. They often are called "essential" because they are not
synthesized in the body (except for vitamin D) and therefore must come from food. Minerals are inorganic elements that
originate from rocks, soil, or water. However, you can absorb them indirectly from the environment or an animal that has
eaten a particular plant.
Two types of each Vitamins are divided into two categories: water soluble—which means the body expels what it does
not absorb—and fat soluble where leftover amounts are stored in the liver and fat tissues as reserves. The water-soluble
vitamins are the eight B vitamins (B-1, B-2, B-3, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-9, and B-12) and vitamin C. The fat-soluble vitamins
are A, D, E, and K. There are many minerals, but certain ones are necessary for optimal health. Minerals are split into two
groups: major and trace. Major ones are not necessarily more important than trace, but it means there are greater amounts
in your body.
The top food sources Federal guidelines suggest minimum daily amounts for vitamins and key minerals. However,
unless you need to increase your intake for specific ones because of a deficiency or other medical reason, following so
many numbers can be confusing. The best approach to ensure you get a variety of vitamins and minerals, and in the proper
amounts, is to adopt a broad healthy diet. This involves an emphasis on fruits and vegetables, whole grains, beans and
legumes, low-fat protein, and dairy products. The good news is that many common foods contain multiple mineral and
vitamin sources, so it is easy to meet your daily needs from everyday meals.
Vitamin Sources
Water soluble: B-1: ham, soymilk, watermelon, acorn squash, B-2: milk, yogurt, cheese, whole and enriched grains and
cereals., B-3: meat, poultry, fish, fortified and whole grains, mushrooms, potatoes, B-5: chicken, whole grains, broccoli,
avocados, mushrooms, B-6: meat, fish, poultry, legumes, tofu and other soy products, bananas, B-7: Whole grains, eggs,
soybeans, fish, B-9: Fortified grains and cereals, asparagus, spinach, broccoli, legumes (black-eyed peas and chickpeas),
orange juice, B-12: Meat, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, fortified soymilk and cereals, Vitamin C: Citrus fruit, potatoes,
broccoli, bell peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts.
Fat soluble: Vitamin A: beef, liver, eggs, shrimp, fish, fortified milk, sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkins, spinach,
mangoes, Vitamin D: Fortified milk and cereals, fatty fish, Vitamin E: vegetables oils, leafy green vegetables, whole
grains, nuts, Vitamin K: Cabbage, eggs, milk, spinach, broccoli, kale,
Minerals
Major: Calcium: yogurt, cheese, milk, salmon, leafy green vegetables, Chloride: salt, Magnesium: Spinach, broccoli,
legumes, seeds, whole-wheat bread, Potassium: meat, milk, fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, Sodium: salt, soy sauce,
vegetables
Trace: Chromium: meat, poultry, fish, nuts, cheese, Copper: shellfish, nuts, seeds, whole-grain products, beans, prunes,
Fluoride: fish, teas, Iodine: Iodized salt, seafood, Iron: red meat, poultry, eggs, fruits, green vegetables, fortified bread,
Manganese: nuts, legumes, whole grains, tea, Selenium: Organ meat, seafood, walnuts, Zinc: meat, shellfish, legumes,
whole grains
Minerals and trace elements
Key points
 Minerals are inorganic substances required by the body in small amounts for a variety of different functions.
 Minerals are involved in the formation of bones and teeth; they are essential constituents of body fluids and
tissues; they are components of enzyme systems and they are involved in normal nerve function.
 The body requires different amounts of each mineral; people have different requirements, according to their age,
sex, physiological state (e.g. pregnancy) and sometimes their state of health.
 The Department of Health has published Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) for minerals for different groups of
healthy people.
What are minerals? Minerals are inorganic substances required by the body in small amounts for a variety of functions.
These include the formation of bones and teeth; as essential constituents of body fluids and tissues; as components of
enzyme systems and for normal nerve function.
Some minerals are needed in larger amounts than others, e.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and
chloride. Others are required in smaller quantities and are sometimes called trace minerals, e.g. iron, zinc, iodine, fluoride,
selenium and copper. Despite being required in smaller amounts, trace minerals are no less important than other minerals.
Minerals are often absorbed more efficiently by the body if supplied in foods rather than as supplements. Also, a diet that
is short in one mineral may well be low in others, and so the first step in dealing with this is to review and improve the
diet as a whole. Eating a varied diet will help ensure an adequate supply of most minerals for healthy people.
The National Diet and Nutrition Surveys (NDNS) have revealed that some sub-groups of the population have low intakes
of some other minerals, for example potassium, magnesium, zinc in men, and for women, iron, calcium, copper and
iodine. Young British adults, especially young women, have particularly poor diets which are likely to put their future
health at risk unless improvements are made. See our section on nutrient requirements for more information.
Most people do not show signs of deficiency but this does not mean their intakes or nutrient status are adequate. For
example, adolescent girls, women of childbearing age and some vegans/vegetarians are more susceptible to low iron
status as their dietary intake may not match their requirements, and therefore they are at risk of iron deficiency anaemia.
There is also concern about the calcium intake of some adolescents, and young and older women and the implications for
future bone health.
Requirements and recommended dietary intakes
The body requires different amounts of each mineral because each mineral has a different set of functions. Requirements
vary according to age, sex and physiological state (for example pregnancy). They may also be influenced by state of
health. The Department of Health has published recommendations in the form of Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) for
minerals for different groups of healthy people (see Nutrient requirements). The Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) is the
amount of a nutrient that will satisfy the needs of practically all the population (i.e. 97.5%); in other words it is usually not
necessary to exceed the RNI. Lower Reference Nutrient Intakes have also been established. These are levels judged to be
sufficient for only 2.5% of a given population, everyone else will require more. So if, say, 10% of a population group
have intakes of a nutrient below the LRNI for that nutrient, it is highly likely that the majority of these people are having
insufficient for their needs. Tables showing the mean intakes of mineral and trace elements from food sources as a
percentage of Lower Reference Nutrient Intake (LRNI), by age and sex, are available in the attached pdf file below. These
tables give an indicator of where intakes of minerals and trace elements are of concern. But certain groups of people may
have higher requirements for specific minerals, e.g. women with particularly heavy periods may need extra iron, and extra
calcium (and vitamin D) is sometimes recommended by doctors for women at high risk of osteoporosis. In such cases,
supplements may be useful but should not replace a varied and healthy diet.
The bioavailability and absorption of minerals The bioavailability of a mineral (i.e. how readily it can be absorbed and
used by the body) may be influenced by a variety of factors. Bioavailability will depend upon the chemical form of the
mineral, other substances present in the diet and (for nutrients such as iron) the individual person’s needs as determined
by how much of the nutrient is already stored in the body. This is because the body has sensitive mechanisms for
preventing storage of nutrients that can be damaging in excess (as is the case with iron). For example, the bioavailability
of iron from plant sources (non-haem iron) is relatively poor compared with iron from meat (haem iron) but absorption is
increased when vitamin C is consumed during the same meal because the vitamin C converts it to a more bioavailable
chemical form. Some dietary constituents reduce bioavailability. Phytate, for example, found in products made from
wholegrain cereals (especially unleavened breads such as chapattis) can bind and hence reduce the absorption of calcium,
iron and zinc. Iodine absorption may be hindered by nitrates. Similarly, oxalate present in spinach and rhubarb binds any
calcium present, making it unavailable for absorption. Also an excess of one mineral may hinder the absorption of another
by competing for the same transport systems in the gut, e.g. excess iron reduces zinc absorption. This generally only
becomes a problem when zinc intakes are already marginal. Unlike some vitamins, minerals are fairly stable in normal
food processing and storage conditions.
Deficiencies and excess intakes Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, often
affecting women and young children, and is found in the UK population too. Iodine deficiency is also commonplace
worldwide. Nutritional deficiencies of other minerals are rare in the UK (although as indicated above, dietary intakes of a
number of minerals are low in sub groups of the UK population and nutritional status of individuals may therefore be
affected). Policy decisions about the adequacy of current nutrient intakes in maintaining appropriate status are often
hindered by the limitations of existing markers of status and also by the available information on requirements, an
example being selenium. On the other hand, excess intakes of minerals are also sometimes of concern (for example
sodium, one of several risk factors associated with high blood pressure). In general, excess intakes of a range of minerals
have been reported to have varying effects, ranging from no effect (e.g. no adverse effects have been reported for excess
iodine intakes up to 2mg iodine/day) to severe (e.g. excess fluoride can cause skeletal fluorosis). However, more
information is needed about the effects of excess intakes of many of the essential minerals and trace elements. For further
information see the report of the Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals (EVM) (http://www.food.gov.uk/).
Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body and is essential for a number of vital functions. The body
needs adequate dietary calcium (alongside vitamin D and several other nutrients such as vitamin K) to develop and
maintain healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also plays a vital role in many systems including intracellular signalling to
enable the integration and regulation of metabolic processes, the transmission of information via the nervous system, the
control of muscle contraction (including the heart) and blood clotting. Furthermore, it has been suggested that adequate
calcium intake (for example from reduced fat dairy products) may help lower high blood pressure and may help protect
against colon cancer, although more evidence is needed to fully substantiate these functions.
The skeleton contains about 99% of the body’s calcium with approximately 1kg present in adult bones. The major
constituents of bone are calcium and phosphate, forming hydroxyapatite, which is associated within a meshwork of
collagen fibres to form a rigid structure. The body’s requirement for calcium fluctuates with the rate of bone development,
so as well as protecting vital organs, the skeleton acts as a ‘bank’ of minerals from which calcium and phosphorus may be
continually withdrawn or deposited to support physiological requirement. Calcium levels in the blood are carefully
regulated and blood plasma levels are maintained within narrow limits. Calcium absorption is well controlled to match the
needs of the body and so calcium balance can be maintained at a variety of different levels of calcium intake. Even at low
levels of intake, there is evidence from the Gambia, for example, that calcium balance can be achieved. Calcium status is
maintained by balancing calcium absorption from the gut, excretion via the kidneys and mobilisation and deposition in the
bone. These sites are regulated by feedback mechanisms controlled by several hormones including parathyroid hormone
and the activated form of vitamin D. Plasma levels of calcium only become abnormal if there is a breakdown of this
homeostatic mechanism, and not usually as a result of differences in dietary calcium intake. The body invests this effort
because small variations in plasma calcium concentrations may have serious consequences to the functioning of vital
organs and to health in general. Low blood calcium is called hypocalcaemia and high blood calcium is called
hypercalcaemia..
Deficiency For some nutrients, nutritional deficiency is identified by the existence of a low blood level of the nutrient but
for nutrients such as calcium, for the reasons described above, low blood levels rarely occur. Because of the need to
maintain blood levels, the impact of a poor supply of calcium is usually reflected in bone density because bone acts as a
reservoir in times of need. For example, insufficient calcium in bones can result from an inadequate supply of vitamin D
which is essential for absorption of calcium. In children, vitamin D deficiency results in rickets and, in adults,
osteomalacia, in which bones become weak owing to lack of calcium. In terms of dietary supply, a significant proportion
of young women have average calcium intakes below the Lower Reference Nutrient Intakes (8% of women aged 19-24
years and 6% of women aged 25-34 years) indicating these intakes are likely to be inadequate. An adequate calcium
intake is vital for health, particularly in times of growth (in childhood, adolescence, pregnancy) to establish peak bone
mass and also during lactation (breastfeeding). Supplements are sometimes recommended for those at risk of osteoporosis.
See nutrient requirements for information on calcium requirements throughout the life course.
Adverse effects Obtaining calcium as part of a varied diet is unlikely to cause any adverse effects but taking high dose
supplements sometimes causes stomach pain and diarrhoea.
Food sources Milk, cheese and other dairy products provide about half of the calcium in the UK diet. Bread is also an
important source in the UK because most bread flour (though not wholemeal) is fortified with calcium by law. Calcium is
also provided by some green leafy vegetables such as broccoli and cabbage (but not spinach), fortified soya products and
fish eaten with the bones such as sardines, tinned salmon and whitebait. For more information about the dietary sources of
calcium click here.
Calcium absorption Calcium absorption is influenced by a number of promoting and inhibitory factors. Promoting factors
include vitamin D, lactose, dietary protein, non-digestible oligosaccharides and an acidic environment in the small
intestine. Calcium is most readily absorbed from milk and dairy products. Inhibitory factors include phytates (e.g. in
wholegrain cereals, pulses), oxalate (e.g. from spinach, rhubarb, beetroot), use of antacids, unabsorbed dietary fats,
excessive intakes of dietary fibre and large intakes of phosphoric acid (e.g. from carbonated drinks). Calcium is often less
available from plant foods where the calcium may be bound by phytates and oxalates in foods, which makes the calcium
unavailable for absorption from the intestine into the blood. However, absorption from some plant foods is good e.g.
broccoli, although the amount present is usually lower than in milk.
Phosphorus The major function of phosphorus is in the formation, with calcium, of the bone component
hydroxyapatite. 80% of the phosphorous in the body is present as calcium salts in the skeleton and, therefore, is
essential for healthy bone and tooth structure. In the adult, there is a dynamic equilibrium between calcium and phosphate
in the continual remodelling of bones.. The rest of the body’s phosphorus is distributed in all cells. It is essential for the
structure of cell membranes (in phospholipids) and intercellular phosphorus contributes to a number of processes
associated with energy metabolism.
Deficiency Phosphorus is unlikely to be in short supply in UK diets because it is available in many foods.
Adverse effects Phosphorus has very low toxicity.
Food sources Phosphorus is abundant in red meat, dairy products, fish, poultry, bread, rice and oats and is usually found
in foods that also contain calcium.
Magnesium is an essential mineral present in all human tissues, especially in bone. It has both physiological and
biochemical functions and has important interrelationships with calcium, potassium and sodium. It is needed for the
activation of many enzymes (for example enzymes concerned with the replication of DNA and the synthesis of RNA) and
for parathyroid hormone secretion, which in involved in bone metabolism. It is also needed for muscle and nerve function.
Deficiency Nutritional deficiency is rare and characterised by progressive muscle weakness and neuromuscular
dysfunction. Mild hypomagnesaemia (low blood magnesium) is common in severely ill patients, alcoholics and those with
malabsorption disorders. In contrast, intakes of magnesium that are judged to be too low are quite common in the UK.
Despite magnesium being available in a wide range of foods, one in five women aged 19-34 years and more than half of
teenage girls have intakes below the LRNI (51% of 11-14 age group and 53% of 15-18 age group) and more than 20% of
boys aged 11-14 years are also at risk of low intakes.
Adverse effects There is no evidence that large dietary intakes are harmful to humans with normal kidney function.
However, regular intake of high dose supplements can result in diarrhoea and may also result in raised blood levels of
magnesium with associated adverse effects.

Food sources Magnesium is present in both plant and animal cells and is the mineral in chlorophyll, the green pigment in
plants, and so is widely available. Sources include green leafy vegetables, nuts, bread, fish, meat and dairy products.
Sodium is responsible for regulating body water content and electrolyte balance. The control of blood sodium levels
depends on a balance between sodium excretion and absorption at the kidneys, which is regulated by nerves and
hormones. Sodium is also required for the absorption of certain nutrients and water from the gut. Sodium is a component
of common salt, known as sodium chloride (NaCl).
Deficiency As with some other minerals, sodium levels in blood and tissues are under homeostatic control. The kidneys
tightly regulate sodium concentration and can make the urine almost salt-free or excrete sodium in urine when supply is
excessive. Sodium intakes in the UK are considered to be too high and so deficiency of sodium is unlikely but under some
circumstances losses can occur:
 Excess sweating:, e.g. due to exercise in a hot environment, may cause some sodium depletion.
 Diarrhoea can cause fluid loss and dehydration leading to some sodium depletion.
 The kidneys normally act to protect the body’s stores of sodium, but in Addison’s disease failure to produce
aldosterone (hormone that allows the kidneys to retain sodium and water) leads to the kidneys inability to
conserve sodium.
 Renal failure: The kidneys may also lose sodium in some types of renal failure.
 Drugs: Diuretic drugs may remove large amounts of sodium in the urine.
Adverse effects High sodium intakes, along with obesity and high alcohol intake, are considered to be among the risk
factors for high blood pressure (hypertension), which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and stroke. A low salt diet
may be used in the treatment of hypertension.
Food sources Most raw foods contain very small amounts of sodium chloride (salt). But salt is often added during the
processing, preparation, preservation and serving of foods. The Food Standards Agency’s 2008 urinary sodium survey
assessed salt intakes in the general adult population in the UK and showed that some progress had been made towards the
6g/day target for adults.. The survey showed a reduction in the UK’s average daily salt consumption from 9.5g to 8.6g
since the National Nutrition and Diet Survey (NDNS) in 2000/01. Work continues to reduce the amount of salt present in
the food supply. To date much of the emphasis has been on foods sold through supermarkets but food consumed outside
the home is also beginning to be targeted by the FSA’s activities.
In May 2009, the FSA published its revised salt targets for 2010 and 2012, following a review of the existing targets
during 2008. The FSA emphasised the reductions that had already been achieved across the food industry: the average
amount of salt in pre-packed bread is down by a third; there have been reductions of the order of 44% in the salt content
of branded breakfast cereal; in 2007 alone there was a 13% reduction in the salt content of standard crisps, 32% in
extruded snacks and 27% in pelleted snacks (some standard crisps have been reduced by up to 55%); 30% reductions in
popular brands of cooking and pasta sauces and 25% in leading brands of soups; and salt in cheeses has been reduced e.g.
50% less in a range of soft white cheeses and 32% in some standard cheese slices. In addition retailers have achieved salt
reduction across a wide range of own brand products. The public also has a role to play in restricting the addition of salt to
their food in the kitchen and at the table. About 20% of salt consumed is added at home during cooking and at the table.
Potassium is essential for water and electrolyte balance and the normal functioning of cells, including nerves.
Increased dietary intakes of potassium have been associated with a decrease in blood pressure, as it promotes loss of
sodium in the urine. It is suggested that an increase in potassium intakes may offset the impact of some of the sodium in
the diet, therefore helping to protect cardiovascular health.
Deficiency Low blood potassium levels (hypokalaemia) can result from severe diarrhoea. Symptoms include weakness,
mental confusion and, if extreme, heart failure. Low dietary potassium intakes have been observed in the UK: in the
NDNS of adults about 1 in 5 women had intakes below the LRNI and in common with some other minerals, potassium
intakes were lower among younger women. In the NDNS of young people, 10–15% of boys had intakes below the LRNI
but among girls, about 1 in 5 11-14 year olds and about 2 in 5 15–18 year olds had intakes below the LRNI.
Adverse effects High supplementary doses of potassium can be harmful especially if the kidneys are not functioning
properly.
Food sources Potassium is present in almost all foods but fruit (particularly bananas), vegetables, meat, fish, shellfish,
nuts, seeds, pulses and milk are useful sources. Processed foods typically contain less than raw foods.
Iron is essential for the formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells; haemoglobin binds oxygen and transports it
around the body. Iron is also an essential component in many enzyme reactions and has an important role in the
immune system. In addition, it is required for normal energy metabolism and for the metabolism of drugs and foreign
substances that need to be removed from the body.
Deficiency A lack of dietary iron depletes iron stores in the body and this can eventually lead to iron deficiency anaemia.
In particular, women of child bearing age and teenage girls need to ensure they consume adequate dietary iron because
their requirements are higher than those of men of the same age. Also, loss of blood due to injury or large menstrual losses
increases iron requirements in the short term. Data from the NDNS indicate that average daily iron intakes from foods are
below the RNI for women in all age groups, except for older women (over the age of 54 years). A very significant
proportion of younger women (2 out of 5) have intakes below the lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI) i.e. intakes that
are likely to be inadequate. Currently, there are no recommendations for increasing iron intake during pregnancy as the
extra demand should be offset by pre-existing body stores, lack of menstrual blood loss and the increased intestinal
absorptive capacity of the mother during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. More than 2 billion people
worldwide suffer from iron deficiency anaemia, making it the most common nutritional deficiency condition.
Adverse effects As with some other minerals, under normal circumstances absorption of iron is tightly controlled as iron
can have adverse effects owing to its ability to generate oxygen free radicals. However, 1 person in 200 of northern
European descent is genetically predisposed to the iron loading disease haemchromatosis.
Food sources Dietary iron is found in two basic forms. Either as haem iron (from animal sources) or non-haem iron (from
plant sources). Haem iron is the most bioavailable form of iron. However, the predominant form of iron in all diets is non-
haem iron, found in cereals, vegetables, pulses, beans, nuts and fruit. Absorption of non-haem iron is affected by various
factors in food. Phytate (in cereals and pulses), fibre, tannins (in tea) and calcium can all bind non-haem iron in the
intestine, which reduces absorption. However, vitamin C, present in fruit and vegetables, aids the absorption of non-haem
iron when eaten at the same time, as does meat. Liver, red meat, pulses, nuts, eggs, dried fruits, poultry, fish, whole grains
and dark green leafy vegetables are all sources of iron. Since the 1950s in the UK, all wheat flours (other than wholemeal)
have been fortified with iron and many breakfast cereals are also fortified with iron and so contribute to iron intake,
However, the nature of these foods imposes limitations on the type of iron that can be used as a fortificant and so low
bioavailability may be an issue, as suggested in the recent draft report on iron from SACN here. A draft review of iron and
health has recently been published by the Government’s advisory committee, SACN here.
Trace elements
Zinc The major function of zinc in human metabolism is as a cofactor for numerous enzymes. Zinc has a key role as
a catalyst in a wide range of reactions. It is directly or indirectly involved in the major metabolic pathways
concerned with protein, lipid, carbohydrate and energy metabolism and is also essential for cell division and, therefore, for
growth and tissue repair and for normal reproductive development. In addition, zinc is required for the functioning of the
immune system and in the structure and function of the skin, and hence plays a vital role in wound healing.
Deficiency In some countries, delayed puberty and small stature have been linked to zinc deficiency, though it is not
certain that this is due to zinc deficiency alone.
Adverse effects Excess zinc in the body from very high doses can interfere with copper metabolism.
Food sources Zinc is present in many foods and is most readily absorbed from meat, which provides about a third of zinc
in the UK diet.. It is also present in milk, cheese, eggs, shellfish, wholegrain cereals, nuts and pulses. For cereals and
pulses, zinc’s availability is limited by phytates.
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triidothyronine, which are vital regulators of
metabolic rate and of physical and mental development.
Deficiency Iodine deficiency results in lethargy and swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck which forms a goitre.
Iodine deficiency is relatively rare in the UK but is still prevalent in many areas of the world, where it remains a
major nutritional public health issue. Infants born of severely iodine deficient mothers may be mentally retarded
(cretinism). With regard to low dietary intakes in the UK, data from the NDNS indicate that 12% (1 in 8) young women
have intakes below the LRNI. This may be associated with low intakes of milk and milk products.
Adverse effects Excess iodine is not absorbed so toxicity is unlikely in healthy individuals.
Food sources The amount of iodine in plant foods such as vegetables and cereal grains is determined by the amount of
iodine in the growing plant’s environment, and the amount in the soil or water can vary dramatically. The only rich
sources of iodine are seafoods (sea fish, shellfish and seaweed), but milk is also a source. In some countries certain foods,
e.g. salt and bread, are fortified with iodine.
Fluoride The main function of fluoride in the body is in the mineralisation of bones and teeth. Fluoride also protects
the teeth from dental caries (tooth decay) and is now routinely added to most toothpastes. In rare cases, very large
amounts of (non-dietary) fluoride can cause fluorosis. Symptoms may be mild such as mottling and crumbling of the
teeth, or more severe causing skeletal changes such as calcification of ligaments and tendons which leads to muscle, joint
and bone problems. Fluoride is found in fluoridated water, tea and fish. The diet provides only about 25% of total intake.
The addition of fluoride to toothpaste is important in those areas where the water supply is low in fluoride.
Copper is the third most abundant dietary trace metal after iron and zinc. It is a component of many enzymes and is
needed to produce red and white blood cells. The body also needs copper to utilise iron efficiently and it is thought
to be important for infant growth, brain development, the immune system and for strong bones. Dietary induced copper
deficiency is extremely rare due to the plentiful supply in the diet and the high efficiency of absorption. However, a rare
genetic condition, known as Menke’s disease, results in the inability to absorb copper and leads to severely impaired
mental development, failure to keratinise hair and skeletal and vascular problems. As with some other minerals, under
normal circumstances absorption of copper is tightly controlled so overload of copper is very rare. However, Wilson’s
disease, another genetic condition, leads to the inability to excrete excess copper in bile and results in copper
accumulation in the body, especially the liver and brain, with consequent pathological damage. Sources of copper include
shellfish, liver, kidney, nuts and wholegrain cereals (about a third of intake in the UK is from cereals).
Selenium The main function of selenium is as a component of some of the important antioxidant enzymes (e.g.
glutathione peroxidase), and therefore to protect the body against oxidative damage. It is also necessary for the use
of iodine in thyroid hormone production, for immune system function and for reproductive function.
The best characterised selenium deficiency condition is Keshan disease, a heart condition that affects children and women
of child-bearing years in rural China where soils are deficient of selenium, leading to continuing low levels in the food
chain. Selenium intakes in the UK are below the DRVs but the implications of this are uncertain because of the lack of
reliable biomarkers for selenium status and requirements. In excess selenium is exceedingly toxic. Symptoms of selenosis
(selenium excess) include brittle nails and hair, skin lesions and garlic odour on the breath. Selenium is found in a variety
of foods, especially Brazil nuts, bread, fish, meat and eggs. The selenium content of cereals is directly proportional to the
selenium content in the soil. In the UK selenium intakes have fallen with the decline in import of North American
selenium-rich wheat and the increased use of European cereals which are less rich in the mineral. However, some bread
manufacturers still import wheat from North America.
Manganese is required for bone formation and for energy metabolism. It is also a constituent of an antioxidant
enzyme, which helps prevent free radical-mediated damage to cells. Manganese deficiency is rarely seen. manganese
toxicity is not a problem because blood levels are carefully controlled. It is present in plant foods such as vegetables,
cereals and nuts. Tea is also a rich source. In the UK, 50% of manganese intake is derived from cereals and cereal
products.
Chromium (III) is the active form of this nutrient and its main functions appear to be linked with carbohydrate and
lipid metabolism. This form of chromium is thought to promote the action of insulin, the hormone which controls
glucose levels in the blood. Subjects with adequate dietary chromium have improved control over blood glucose and a
better blood lipid profile. One significant characteristic of chromium deficiency is impaired glucose tolerance, which can
be improved by chromium supplementation. However, chromium supplementation does not improve insulin action for
people who were not initially deficient. Chromium is not known to show toxicity. Sources of chromium include meat,
nuts, cereal grains, brewer’s yeast and molasses.
Other trace elements There are other minerals which are needed in tiny amounts and which appear to be essential in the
diet, e.g. molybdenum, boron. Others occur in the diet, but whether they are essential is unclear, e.g. nickel, lithium,
antimony, aluminium and lead. For more information on trace elements see the report from the Expert Group on Vitamins
and Minerals on Safe Uppler Levels for Vitamins and Minerals
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform
functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for
plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body,
and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.
Minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms. Plants get minerals from soil. Most
of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one
of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino
acids. The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the
remaining elements in a human body are called "trace elements". The trace elements that have a specific biochemical
function in the human body are sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine and selenium.
Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved
elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move
up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to
obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources. Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the
weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other
species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed
into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B12) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process
of mineralizing structures, called "biomineralization", used to construct
bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells
Essential chemical elements for humans At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human
biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and
nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body.
Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about
1.5% of body weight. Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body
weight. The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the
weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of
the body. The remaining ~18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about a gram in total for the average
person. Differences exist opinion about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other
mammals), even based on the same data. For example, there is no scientific consensus on whether chromium is an
essential trace element in humans. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient, but
the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does
not agree. Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably
common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean:

Nutritional elements in the periodic table[15]

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br K

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I X

Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Legend:

The four basic organic elements

Quantity elements

Essential trace elements

Deemed essential trace element by U.S., not by European Union

Suggested function from deprivation effects or active metabolic handling, but no clearly-identified biochemical function in human

Limited circumstantial evidence for trace benefits or biological action in mammals

No evidence for biological action in mammals, but essential in some lower organisms.
(In the case of lanthanum, the definition of an essential nutrient as being indispensable and irreplaceable is not completely applica
due to the extreme similarity of the lanthanides. The early lanthanides up to Sm are known to stimulate the growth of various
lanthanide-using organisms.)

Roles in biological processes

 UL
RD High
Dietar (US
A nutrient
y and Term for Term for
(US) Category density
elemen EU) deficiency excess
[mg] dietary
t [17] [mg
sources
]

Sweet potato,
tomato, potato,
A systemic electrolyte and is beans, lentils,
Potassiu NE; N
4700 essential in dairy products, hypokalemia hyperkalemia
m E
coregulating ATP with sodium seafood,
banana, prune,
carrot, orange[21]

Table
Needed for production of
salt (sodium
3600; hydrochloric acid in the hypochlorem
Chlorine 2300 chloride) is the hyperchloremia
NE stomach and in cellular pump ia
main dietary
functions
source.

Table salt
(sodium
A systemic electrolyte and is
chloride, the
2300; essential in hyponatremi
Sodium 1500 main hypernatremia
NE coregulating ATP with a
source), sea
potassium
vegetables, milk
, and spinach.

Dairy products,
eggs, canned
fish with
bones (salmon,
Needed for muscle, heart and
sardines), green
2500; digestive system health, builds hypocalcaem
Calcium 1200 leafy hypercalcaemia
2500 bone, supports synthesis and ia
vegetables, nuts,
function of blood cells
seeds, tofu,
thyme, oregano,
dill,
cinnamon.[22]

Red meat, dairy

foods, fish,
A component of bones poultry, bread,
(see apatite), cells, in energy rice,
Phosphor 4000; hypophospha hyperphosphatemi
700 processing, in DNA and ATP oats.[23][24] In
us 4000 temia a
(as phosphate) and many other biological
functions contexts,
usually seen
as phosphate[25]
 UL
RD High
Dietar (US
A nutrient
y and Term for Term for
(US) Category density
elemen EU) deficiency excess
[mg] dietary
t [17] [mg
sources
]

Spinach, legume
hypomagnes
s, nuts, seeds,
Magnesiu 350; Required for emia,
420 whole grains, hypermagnesemia
m 250 processing ATP and for bones magnesium
peanut butter,
deficiency
avocado[26]

Required for many proteins and Meat, seafood,

enzymes, nuts, beans, iron iron overload
Iron 18 45; NE
notably hemoglobin to dark deficiency disorder
prevent anemia chocolate[27]

Pervasive and required for Oysters*, red

several enzymes such meat, poultry,
zinc
Zinc 11 40; 25 as carboxypeptidase, liver nuts, whole zinc toxicity
deficiency
alcohol dehydrogenase, grains, dairy
and carbonic anhydrase products[28]

Grains,
legumes, seeds,
Mangane manganese
2.3 11; NE A cofactor in enzyme functions nuts, leafy manganism
se deficiency
vegetables, tea,
coffee[29]

Liver, seafood,
Required component of many oysters, nuts,
copper
Copper 0.9 10; 5 redox enzymes, seeds; some: copper toxicity
deficiency
including cytochrome c oxidase whole grains,
legumes[29]

Required for synthesis of

thyroid Seaweed
1.1; hormones, thyroxine and triiodo (kelp or kombu) iodine iodism Hyperthyro
Iodine 0.150
0.6 thyronine and to prevent goiter: *, grains, eggs, deficiency idism[31]
iodized salt[30]
 Iodine in biology

Involved in glucose and lipid

Broccoli, grape
metabolism, although its
juice (especially
Chromiu NE; N mechanisms of action in the Chromium
0.035 red), meat, Chromium toxicity
m E body and the amounts needed deficiency
whole grain
for optimal health are not well-
products[34]
defined[32][33]
 UL
RD High
Dietar (US
A nutrient
y and Term for Term for
(US) Category density
elemen EU) deficiency excess
[mg] dietary
t [17] [mg
sources
]

The oxidases xanthine

Molybde Legumes, whole molybdenum molybdenum
0.045 2; 0.6 oxidase, aldehyde oxidase,
num grains, nuts[29] deficiency toxicity[36]
and sulfite oxidase[35]

Brazil nuts,
seafoods, organ
Essential to activity
0.4; meats, meats, selenium
Selenium 0.055 of antioxidant enzymes selenosis
0.3 grains, dairy deficiency
like glutathione peroxidase
products,
eggs[37]

Required in the
synthesis
of vitamin B12,
but
because bacteria
are required to
synthesize
the vitamin, it is
NE; N
Cobalt none usually Cobalt poisoning
E
considered part
of vitamin
B12 which
comes from
eating animals
and animal-
sourced foods
(eggs...)

RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31-50,
male or female neither pregnant nor lactating
* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[38]
Blood concentrations of minerals Minerals are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar
concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the chemical elements discussed in this article,
from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some are in upper part of the picture, while others are in
the lower part.
Dietary nutrition Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the
chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added
to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be
formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other
chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium
carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).
The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical
reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components. Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements
have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element
requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An
example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.
Elements considered possibly essential but not confirmed Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential,
but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a
biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function. One problem with identifying efficacy is
that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust),
so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce. Ultratrace elements of some minerals such
as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are
suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.

Element Description Excess

Possibly important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a

Bromine bromism
needed catalyst to make collagen IV.[40]

Essential in rat, hamster, goat and chicken models, but no biochemical mechanism
Arsenic arsenic poisoning
known in humans.[41]

Nickel is an essential component of several enzymes,

including urease and hydrogenase.[42] Although not required by humans, some are
thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties
Nickel of Bifidobacterium. In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of Nickel toxicity
certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis, redox rections, and gene expression.
Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished
circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats.

Fluorine (as fluoride) is not considered an essential element because humans do not
require it for growth or to sustain life. Research indicates that the primary dental
Fluorine benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure. Of the minerals in Fluoride poisoning
this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has
established an Adequate Intake.

Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of
cell walls. Boron has been shown to be essential to complete the life cycle in
Boron representatives of all phylogenetic kingdoms, including the model species Danio Nontoxic
rerio (zebrafish) and Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog). In animals, supplemental
boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D.

It is not known whether lithium has a physiological role in any species, but nutritional
Lithium studies in mammals have indicated its importance to health, leading to a suggestion Lithium toxicity
that it be classed as an essential trace element.

Strontium has been found to be involved in the utilization of calcium in the body. It
Rachitogenic
Strontium has promoting action on calcium uptake into bone at moderate dietary strontium
(causing Rickets)
levels, but a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action at higher dietary levels.

Silicon and vanadium have established, albeit specialized, biochemical roles as

Other structural or functional cofactors in other organisms, and are possibly, even probably, Multiple
used by mammals (including humans). By contrast, tungsten, the early lanthanides,
 and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms, but these
elements appear not to be utilized by humans. Other elements considered to be
possibly essential include aluminium, germanium, lead, rubidium, and tin.

Mineral ecology minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act

on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation. Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed
throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide. Bacteria absorb dissolved
organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms. Mineral nutrients cycle through this
marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine
life. In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other
organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.
Fiber. Dietary fiber: Essential for a healthy diet Dietary fiber — found mainly in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and
legumes — is probably best known for its ability to prevent or relieve constipation. But foods containing fiber can provide
other health benefits as well, such as helping to maintain a healthy weight and lowering your risk of diabetes, heart
disease and some types of cancer. Selecting tasty foods that provide fiber isn't difficult. Find out how much dietary fiber
you need, the foods that contain it, and how to add them to meals and snacks.
What is dietary fiber? Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, includes the parts of plant foods your body can't
digest or absorb. Unlike other food components, such as fats, proteins or carbohydrates — which your body breaks down
and absorbs — fiber isn't digested by your body. Instead, it passes relatively intact through your stomach, small intestine
and colon and out of your body. Fiber is commonly classified as soluble, which dissolves in water, or insoluble, which
doesn't dissolve.
 Soluble fiber. This type of fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. It can help lower blood cholesterol
and glucose levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas, beans, apples, citrus fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.
 Insoluble fiber. This type of fiber promotes the movement of material through your digestive system and
increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to those who struggle with constipation or irregular stools. Whole-
wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts, beans and vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good
sources of insoluble fiber.
The amount of soluble and insoluble fiber varies in different plant foods. To receive the greatest health benefit, eat a wide
variety of high-fiber foods.
Benefits of a high-fiber diet: A high-fiber diet:
 Normalizes bowel movements. Dietary fiber increases the weight and size of your stool and softens it. A bulky
stool is easier to pass, decreasing your chance of constipation. If you have loose, watery stools, fiber may help to
solidify the stool because it absorbs water and adds bulk to stool.
 Helps maintain bowel health. A high-fiber diet may lower your risk of developing hemorrhoids and small
pouches in your colon (diverticular disease). Studies have also found that a high-fiber diet likely lowers the risk of
colorectal cancer. Some fiber is fermented in the colon. Researchers are looking at how this may play a role in
preventing diseases of the colon.
 Lowers cholesterol levels. Soluble fiber found in beans, oats, flaxseed and oat bran may help lower total blood
cholesterol levels by lowering low-density lipoprotein, or "bad," cholesterol levels. Studies also have shown that
high-fiber foods may have other heart-health benefits, such as reducing blood pressure and inflammation.
 Helps control blood sugar levels. In people with diabetes, fiber — particularly soluble fiber — can slow the
absorption of sugar and help improve blood sugar levels. A healthy diet that includes insoluble fiber may also
reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
 Aids in achieving healthy weight. High-fiber foods tend to be more filling than low-fiber foods, so you're likely
to eat less and stay satisfied longer. And high-fiber foods tend to take longer to eat and to be less "energy dense,"
which means they have fewer calories for the same volume of food.
  Helps you live longer. Studies suggest that increasing your dietary fiber intake — especially cereal fiber — is
associated with a reduced risk of dying from cardiovascular disease and all cancers.
How much fiber do you need? The Institute of Medicine, which provides science-based advice on matters of medicine
and health, gives the following daily fiber recommendations for adults:
Fiber: Daily recommendations for adults

Age 50 or younger Age 51 or older

Institute of Medicine

Men 38 grams 30 grams

Women 25 grams 21 grams

Your best fiber choices: If you aren't getting enough fiber each day, you may need to boost your intake. Good choices
include: Whole-grain products, Fruits, Vegetables, Beans, peas and other legumes, Nuts and seeds. Refined or processed
foods — such as canned fruits and vegetables, pulp-free juices, white breads and pastas, and non-whole-grain cereals —
are lower in fiber. The grain-refining process removes the outer coat (bran) from the grain, which lowers its fiber content.
Enriched foods have some of the B vitamins and iron added back after processing, but not the fiber.
Fiber supplements and fortified foods: Whole foods rather than fiber supplements are generally better. Fiber
supplements — such as Metamucil, Citrucel and FiberCon — don't provide the variety of fibers, vitamins, minerals and
other beneficial nutrients that foods do. Another way to get more fiber is to eat foods, such as cereal, granola bars, yogurt
and ice cream, with fiber added. The added fiber usually is labeled as "inulin" or "chicory root." Some people complain of
gassiness after eating foods with added fiber. However, some people may still need a fiber supplement if dietary changes
aren't sufficient or if they have certain medical conditions, such as constipation, diarrhea or irritable bowel syndrome.
Check with your doctor before taking fiber supplements.
Tips for fitting in more fiber: Need ideas for adding more fiber to your meals and snacks? Try these suggestions:
 Jump-start your day. For breakfast choose a high-fiber breakfast cereal — 5 or more grams of fiber a serving.
Opt for cereals with "whole grain," "bran" or "fiber" in the name. Or add a few tablespoons of unprocessed wheat
bran to your favorite cereal.
 Switch to whole grains. Consume at least half of all grains as whole grains. Look for breads that list whole
wheat, whole-wheat flour or another whole grain as the first ingredient on the label and have at least 2 grams of
dietary fiber a serving. Experiment with brown rice, wild rice, barley, whole-wheat pasta and bulgur wheat.
 Bulk up baked goods. Substitute whole-grain flour for half or all of the white flour when baking. Try adding
crushed bran cereal, unprocessed wheat bran or uncooked oatmeal to muffins, cakes and cookies.
 Lean on legumes. Beans, peas and lentils are excellent sources of fiber. Add kidney beans to canned soup or a
green salad. Or make nachos with refried black beans, lots of fresh veggies, whole-wheat tortilla chips and salsa.
 Eat more fruit and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are rich in fiber, as well as vitamins and minerals. Try to
eat five or more servings daily.
 Make snacks count. Fresh fruits, raw vegetables, low-fat popcorn and whole-grain crackers are all good choices.
A handful of nuts or dried fruits also is a healthy, high-fiber snack — although be aware that nuts and dried fruits
are high in calories.
High-fiber foods are good for your health. But adding too much fiber too quickly can promote intestinal gas, abdominal
bloating and cramping. Increase fiber in your diet gradually over a few weeks. This allows the natural bacteria in your
digestive system to adjust to the change. Also, drink plenty of water. Fiber works best when it absorbs water, making your
stool soft and bulky.
Eating more fiber delivers a slew of health benefits. Here are 10 health benefits of fiber to encourage you get your fill.
1. You'll Lose Weight: Even if increasing your fiber intake is the only dietary change you make, you'll shed pounds.
Dieters who were told to get at least 30 grams of fiber a day, but given no other dietary parameters, lost a significant
amount of weight, found a recent study in the Annals of Internal Medicine. In fact, they lost nearly as much as a group put
on a much more complex diet that required limiting calories, fat, sugar and salt and upping fruit, veggie and whole-grain
consumption. Fiber-rich foods not only fill you up faster and keep you satisfied longer, they also prevent your body from
absorbing some of the calories in the foods you eat. "Fiber binds with fat and sugar molecules as they travel through your
digestive tract, which reduces the number of calories you actually get," explains Tanya Zuckerbrot, R.D., author of The F-
Factor Diet. Another study found that people who doubled their fiber intake to the recommended amount knocked off
between 90 and 130 calories from their daily intake-that's equal to a 9- to 13-pound weight loss over the course of a year.
2. Maintain a Healthier Weight Over Time: Yep, it can also help you avoid putting pounds back on. People who got
more fiber tended to be leaner overall-while those who were obese got an average of almost 1 gram a day less fiber than
normal-weight participants, according to a study at the Medical University of South Carolina. And recent research at
Georgia State University found that mice put on diets lacking in fiber-specifically soluble fiber-gained weight and had
more body fat compared to those who weren't deficient. What's more, mice given adequate soluble fiber resisted fat gain-
even when put on a high-fat diet.
3. Cut Your Type 2 Diabetes Risk: It's a well-established fact. A recent analysis of 19 studies, for example, found that
people who ate the most fiber-more than 26 grams a day-lowered their odds of the disease by 18 percent, compared to
those who consumed the least (less than 19 grams daily). The researchers believe that it's fiber's one-two punch of keeping
blood sugar levels steady and keeping you at a healthy weight that may help stave off the development of diabetes.
4. Lower Your Odds of Heart Disease: For every 7 grams of fiber eaten daily, your risk of heart disease drops by 9
percent found a review of 22 studies published in the BMJ. That's partly due to fiber's ability to sop up excess cholesterol
in your system and ferry it out before it can clog your arteries.(Get more heart-healthy diet tips.)
5. Have Healthier Gut Bacteria: The good bugs that make up your microbiome feed off fiber-and flourish. As your gut
bacteria gobble up fiber that has fermented in your G.I. tract (delish), they produce short-chain fatty acids that have a host
of benefits-including lowering systemic inflammation, which has been linked to obesity and nearly every major chronic
health problem. A recent Italian study found that eating a high-fiber Mediterranean diet was associated with higher levels
of short-chain fatty acids. "And you can start to see the changes in gut bacteria within just a few days," says Kelly
Swanson, Ph.D., a professor of nutritional sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The catch: You've
got to consistently get enough grams-ideally every day, if not most days of the week-to keep getting the benefits.
Skimping on fiber shifts bacteria populations in a way that increases inflammation in the body. Check out these delicious
whole-grain recipes to get your fiber fill.
6. Reduce Your Risk of Certain Cancers: Every 10 grams of fiber you eat is associated with a 10 percent reduced risk
of colorectal cancer and a 5 percent fall in breast cancer risk, says a study published in the Annals of Oncology. In
addition to the anti-cancer effects of fiber, the foods that contain it-like veggies and fruits-are also rich in antioxidants and
phytochemicals that could further reduce your odds, notes Sheth. Read even more about your diet and cancer risk.
7. Live Longer, Period: Researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health recently found that people who often ate
fiber-rich cereals and whole grains had a 19 and 17 percent, respectively, reduced risk of death-from any cause-compared
to those who noshed on less fiber-heavy fare.
8. Be More, Well, Regular: Snicker all you like, but "constipation is one of the most common G.I. complaints in the
United States," says Zuckerbrot. And you don't need us to tell you it's no fun. Fiber makes your poop softer and bulkier-
both of which speed its passage from your body.
9. Get an All-Natural Detox: Who needs a juice cleanse? Fiber naturally scrubs and promotes the elimination of toxins
from your G.I. tract. Explains Zuckerbrot: "Soluble fiber soaks up potentially harmful compounds, such as excess
estrogen and unhealthy fats, before they can be absorbed by the body." And, she adds, because insoluble fiber makes
things move along more quickly, it limits the amount of time that chemicals like BPA, mercury and pesticides stay in your
system. The faster they go through you, the less chance they have to cause harm. (Don't miss: Why you should skip the
cleanse.)
10. Have Healthier Bones: Some types of soluble fiber-dubbed "prebiotics" and found in asparagus, leeks, soybeans,
wheat and oats-have been shown to increase the bioavailability of minerals like calcium in the foods you eat, which may
help maintain bone density.
What is fibre? Dietary fibre is a term that is used for plant-based carbohydrates that, unlike other carbohydrates (such as
sugars and starch), are not digested in the small intestine and so reaches the large intestine or colon.
Soluble and insoluble fibre You may have heard of the terms ‘soluble fibre’ or ‘insoluble fibre’– these are words that are
sometimes used to describe the types of fibre in our diet. Although scientific organisations argue that these terms are no
longer really appropriate, you may see these terms being used, with soluble fibre including pectins and beta glucans
(found for example in foods like fruit and oats) and insoluble fibre including cellulose (found for example in wholegrains
and nuts). What is important to remember is that fibre-rich foods typically contain both types of fibre.
Fibre rich foods include: Wholegrain breakfast cereals, wholewheat pasta, wholegrain bread and oats, barley and rye,
Fruit such as berries, pears, melon and oranges, Vegetables such as broccoli, carrots and sweetcorn, Peas, beans and
pulses, Nuts and seeds, Potatoes with skin.
How does fibre benefit health? Fibre helps to keep our digestive system healthy and helps to prevent constipation. For
example, fibre bulks up stools, makes stools softer and easier to pass and makes waste move through the digestive tract
more quickly. The European Food Safety Authority suggests that including fibre rich foods in a healthy balanced diet can
improve weight maintenance. Dietary fibre can reduce your risk of:
 Cardiovascular disease (heart disease and stroke) and type 2 diabetes
Foods such as oats and barley contain a type of fibre known as beta glucan, which may help to reduce cholesterol levels if
you consume 3g or more of it daily, as part of a healthy diet.
 Colorectal cancer (bowel cancer)
Did you know that the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) estimate that 45% of bowel cancer could be prevented
through diet, physical activity and weight?
Fibre and bowel cancer We know that dietary fibre may help to protect against bowel cancer. Although the reasons for
this are not fully understood, this may be because fibre increases stool size, dilutes content and moves it faster through the
gut so the amount of time waste products stay in contact with the bowel is reduced. Some types of fibre may also help gut
bacteria produce helpful chemicals that can have beneficial effects on the bowel (see below).
Fibre and good bacteria Research has increasingly shown how important the bacteria in our gut may be to our health,
and it has been suggested that a fibre rich diet can help increase the good bacteria in the gut. Some fibre types provide a
food source for ‘friendly’ gut bacteria helping them to increase and produce substances which are thought to be protective
such as short-chain fatty acids.
How much fibre do we need? In 2015 the government published new guidelines with a recommendation that the
population's fibre intake should increase to 30g a day for adults (aged 17 years and over). On average, we consume much
less than this - about 18g per day. Children also need to increase their intake of fibre. Recommended intakes of fibre are
shown below.
Age (years) Recommended intake of fibre
2-5 15g per day
5-11 20g per day
11-16 25g per day
17 and over 30g per day
To increase your fibre intake you could:
 Choose a high fibre breakfast cereal e.g. wholegrain cereal like wholewheat biscuit cereal, no added sugar muesli,
bran flakes or porridge. Why not add some fresh fruit, dried fruit, seeds and/or nuts.
 Go for wholemeal or seeded wholegrain breads. If your family only typically likes white bread, why not try the
versions that combine white and wholemeal flours as a start.
 Choose wholegrains like wholewheat pasta, bulgur wheat or brown rice.
 Go for potatoes with skins e.g. baked potato, wedges or boiled new potatoes – you can eat these hot or use for a
salad.
 For snacks try fruit, vegetable sticks, rye crackers, oatcakes, unsalted nuts or seeds.
 Include plenty of vegetables with meals – either as a side dish/salad or added to sauces, stews or curries – this is a
good way of getting children to eat more veg.
 Keep a supply of frozen vegetables so you are never without.
 Add pulses like beans, lentils or chickpeas to stews, curries and salads.
 Have some fresh or fruit canned in natural juice for dessert or a snack.
If you need to increase your fibre intake, it is a good idea to so gradually. It is also important to drink plenty of fluids
(around 6-8 glasses per day for adults) and to try to be active for at least 150 minutes per week. A healthy, balanced diet
can provide enough fibre – especially if you eat your 5 A DAY and choose wholegrain foods and potatoes in skins. Below
is an example of foods that together provide more than the recommended amount of fibre over a day
Meal Food Quantity Fibre content
(g)
Breakfast Bran flakes 40g 8
1 banana, sliced 100g 1.5
Snack Apple 100g 2.4
Lunch Baked beans 150g 6.8
wholemeal toast (2 slices) 70g 4.7
Dinner Baked potato with skin, tuna 180g 6.5
mayonnaise
Salad (lettuce, tomato and 138g 1.7
cucumber)
Low fat yogurt 150g 0
with strawberries 100g 1.5
 and chopped almonds 13g 1.3
Total fibre 34.4
intake

Fibre for the under-2s: Due to a lack of information in children under 2 years, no firm recommendations about how
much fibre they need per day have been made. A varied diet from the age of about 6 months with increasing amounts of
pulses, fruits and vegetables is encouraged, as is gradually increasing wholegrains, although NHS choices advises to not
give only wholegrain starchy foods to under 2s as they may fill the child up before they've taken in the calories and
nutrients they need.
Fibre and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): People with IBS are usually well aware that diet can play an important part
in controlling symptoms, and are often advised to modify the amount of fibre in their diet. For example, the BDA
recommend that if symptoms include constipation then gradually increasing fibre intake may help, particularly
wholegrains, oats, fruit, vegetables and linseeds as these may help to soften stools and make them easier to pass. If
symptoms include diarrhoea though it may be helpful to try reducing intake of some high fibre food such as wholegrain
breakfast cereals and breads. However, there is no "one size fits all" diet for people with the condition. Keeping a food
and symptom diary can help monitor your progress. If you need further help, ask your doctor to refer you to a healthcare
professional with expertise in dietary management.
High-Fiber Foods: Fiber keeps you full, improves health, and aids weight loss. By using these tips to add more to your
diet, you can look and feel your best.
What is fiber? Many of us associate fiber with digestive health and bodily functions we’d rather not think about.
However, eating foods high in dietary fiber can do so much more than keep you regular. It can lower your risk for heart
disease, stroke, and diabetes, improve the health of your skin, and help you lose weight. It may even help prevent colon
cancer. Fiber, also known as roughage, is the part of plant-based foods (grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and beans) that the
body can’t break down. It passes through the body undigested, keeping your digestive system clean and healthy, easing
bowel movements, and flushing cholesterol and harmful carcinogens out of the body. Fiber comes in two varieties:
insoluble and soluble.
Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. It is the bulky fiber that helps to prevent constipation, and is found in whole
grains, wheat cereals, and vegetables such as carrots, celery, and tomatoes.
Soluble fiber dissolves in water and helps control blood sugar levels and reduce cholesterol. Good sources include barley,
oatmeal, beans, nuts, and fruits such as apples, berries, citrus fruits, and pears. Many foods contain both soluble and
insoluble fiber. In general, the more natural and unprocessed the food, the higher it is in fiber. There is no fiber in meat,
dairy, or sugar. Refined or “white” foods, such as white bread, white rice, and pastries, have had all or most of their fiber
removed.
The health benefits of fiber The latest figures show that nine out of ten Americans are not eating enough fiber; and
people in other parts of the world are also falling well short. Part of the problem may be due to the association between
fiber and bathroom habits. Yes, fiber offers a healthy and effective way to stay regular. But that’s not the only reason why
we should be including more in our diets. Many different studies have highlighted how eating a diet high in fiber can
boost your immune system and overall health, and improve how you look and feel. Some of the benefits include:
Digestive health. Let’s get this one out of the way first. Dietary fiber normalizes bowel movements by bulking up stools
and making them easier to pass. This can help relieve and prevent both constipation and diarrhea. Eating plenty of fiber
can also reduce your risk for diverticulitis (inflammation of the intestine), hemorrhoids, gallstones, kidney stones, and
provide some relief for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Some studies have also indicated that a high-fiber diet may help
to lower gastric acid and reduce your risk for gastroesophageal reflux disorder (GERD) and ulcers.
Diabetes. A diet high in fiber—particularly insoluble fiber from cereals—can lower your risk for type 2 diabetes. If
you already have diabetes, eating soluble fiber can slow the absorption of sugar and improve your blood sugar levels.
Cancer. There is some research that suggests eating a high-fiber diet can help prevent colorectal cancer, although the
evidence is not yet conclusive. Diets rich in high-fiber foods are also linked to a lower risk for other common digestive
system cancers, including stomach, mouth, and pharynx.
Skin health. When yeast and fungus are excreted through the skin, they can trigger outbreaks or acne. Eating fiber,
especially psyllium husk (a type of plant seed), can flush toxins out of your body, improving the health and appearance of
your skin.
Heart health. Fiber, particularly soluble fiber, is an important element of any heart-healthy diet. Eating a diet high in
fiber can improve cholesterol levels by lowering LDL (bad) cholesterol. A high fiber intake can also reduce your risk for
metabolic syndrome, a group of risk factors linked to coronary heart disease, diabetes, and stroke. Fiber can also help to
lower blood pressure, reduce inflammation, improve levels of HDL (good) cholesterol, and shed excess weight around the
abdomen.
When we think about following a healthy diet, we often fixate on what we shouldn’t be eating, such as sugary desserts and
fatty fried foods. A better strategy may be to focus on what we should be eating – especially more foods naturally rich in
fiber.Even though fiber passes through our bodies without being digested, it provides many health benefits, particularly
for the heart. Fiber-rich diets may reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke by as much as 30%.
Source: Harvard Heart Letter, May 2019.
Fiber and weight loss As well as aiding digestion and preventing constipation, fiber adds bulk to your diet, a key factor
in both losing weight and maintaining a healthy weight. Adding bulk can help you feel full sooner. Since fiber stays in the
stomach longer than other foods, that feeling of fullness will stay with you much longer, helping you to eat less. High-
fiber foods such as fruits and vegetables tend to be low in calories, so by adding fiber to your diet, it’s easier to cut
calories. There are other ways that a high fiber intake can aid weight loss:
 By regulating your blood sugar levels, fiber can help maintain your body’s fat-burning capacity and avoid insulin
spikes that leave you feeling drained and craving unhealthy foods.
 Eating plenty of fiber can move fat through your digestive system at a faster rate so that less of it can be absorbed.
 When you fill up on high-fiber foods such as fruit, you’ll also have more energy for exercising.
By regulating your blood sugar levels, it can help maintain your body’s fat-burning capacity and avoid insulin spikes that
leave you feeling drained and craving unhealthy foods. Eating plenty of fiber can also move fat through your digestive
system at a faster rate so that less of it can be absorbed. And when you fill up on high-fiber foods such as fruit, you’ll also
have more energy for exercising.

How Much Fiber Do You Need?

Minimum recommended daily intake (in grams)

Age Male Female

9-13 31 26

14-18 38 26

19-30 38 25
 How Much Fiber Do You Need?

31-50 38 25

51-70 30 21

Over 70 30 21

Source: Food and Nutrition Information Center, USDA

Tips for adding fiber to your diet Depending on your age and gender, nutrition experts recommend you eat at least 21 to
38 grams of fiber per day for optimal health. Research suggests that most of us aren’t eating half that amount. While
hitting your daily target may seem overwhelming at first, by filling up on whole grains, vegetables, fruit, and whole grains
you can get the fiber you need to start reaping the health benefits.
Fiber from whole grains Refined or processed foods are lower in fiber content, so try to make whole grains an integral
part of your diet. There are many simple ways to add whole grains to your meals.
Start your day with fiber. Look for whole grain cereals to boost your fiber intake at breakfast. Simply switching your
breakfast cereal from Corn Flakes to Bran Flakes can add an extra 6 grams of fiber to your diet; switching to All-Bran or
Fiber-One will boost it even more. If those cereals aren’t to your liking, try adding a few tablespoons of unprocessed
wheat bran to your favorite cereal.
Replace white rice, bread, and pasta with brown rice and whole grain products. Experiment with wild rice, barley,
whole-wheat pasta, and bulgur. These alternatives are higher in fiber than their more mainstream counterparts—and you
may find you love their tastes. Choose whole grain bread for toast and sandwiches.
Bulk up your baking. When baking at home, substitute whole-grain flour for half or all of the white flour, since whole-
grain flour is heavier than white flour. In yeast breads, use a bit more yeast or let the dough rise longer. Try adding
crushed bran cereal or unprocessed wheat bran to muffins, cakes, and cookies. Or add psyllium husk to gluten-free baked
goods, such as breads, pizza dough, and pasta.
Add flaxseed. Flaxseeds are small brown seeds that are high in fiber and omega-3 fatty acids, which can lower your total
blood cholesterol. You can grind the seeds in a coffee grinder or food processor and add to yogurt, applesauce, or
breakfast cereals.
Advantage to eating whole grains is that you’re likely to use them to replace refined grains, such as white rice and white
bread. The refining process not only strips away fiber but also removes up to 70% of many vitamins, minerals, and other
healthful plant-based chemicals. Those compounds remain intact in whole-grain foods. Refined grains also tend to raise
blood sugar and have other harmful metabolic effects.
Source: Harvard Heart Letter, May 2019.
Fiber from fruit and vegetables Most fruits and vegetables are high in fiber, another good reason to include more in
your daily diet. Here are some simple strategies that can help:
Add fruit to your breakfast. Berries are high in fiber, so try adding fresh blueberries, raspberries, strawberries, or
blackberries to your morning cereal or yoghurt
Keep fruit and vegetables at your fingertips. Wash and cut fruit and veggies and put them in your refrigerator for quick
and healthy snacks. Choose recipes that feature these high-fiber ingredients, like veggie stir-fries or fruit salad.
Replace dessert with fruit. Eat a piece of fruit, such as a banana, apple, or pear, at the end of a meal instead of dessert.
Top with cream or frozen yogurt for a delicious treat.
Eat whole fruits instead of drinking fruit juice. You’ll get more fiber and consume fewer calories. An 8oz. glass of
orange juice, for example, contains almost no fiber and about 110 calories, while one medium fresh orange contains about
3g of fiber and only 60 calories.
Eat the peel. Peeling can reduce the amount of fiber in fruits and vegetables, so eat the peel of fruits such as apples and
pears.
Incorporate veggies into your cooking. Add pre-cut fresh or frozen vegetables to soups and sauces. For example, mix
chopped frozen broccoli into prepared spaghetti sauce or toss fresh baby carrots into stews.
Bulk up soups and salads. Liven up a dull salad by adding nuts, seeds, kidney beans, peas, or black beans. Artichokes
are also very high in fiber and can be added to salads or eaten as a snack. Beans, peas, lentils, and rice make tasty high-
fiber additions to soups and stews.
Don’t leave out the legumes. Add kidney beans, peas, or lentils to soups or black beans to a green salad.
Make snacks count. Fresh and dried fruit, raw vegetables, and whole-grain crackers are all good ways to add fiber at
snack time. A handful of nuts can also make a healthy, high-fiber snack.
Making the switch to a high-fiber diet If you’re new to eating high-fiber foods, it’s best to start by gradually adding
fiber to your diet and increasing your water intake. Fiber absorbs water so the more fiber you add to your diet, the more
fluids you should drink. Suddenly adding a large amount of fiber to your diet can sometimes cause side effects such as
abdominal cramps, intestinal gas, bloating, or diarrhea. These should go away once your digestive system becomes used
to the increase in fiber, but adding fiber gradually and drinking plenty of fluids can help avoid discomfort.

Good Sources of Fiber

Food Serving size Fiber

grams

Cereals

Fiber One 1/2 cup 14

All-Bran 1/2 cup 10

Bran Flakes 1 cup 7

Shredded Wheat 1 cup 6

Oatmeal (cooked) 1 cup 4

Vegetables

Spinach (cooked) 1 cup 4

Good Sources of Fiber

Broccoli 1/2 cup 3

Carrots 1 medium 2

Brussels sprouts 1/2 cup 2

Green beans 1/2 cup 2

Baked goods

Whole-wheat bread 1 slice 3

Bran muffin 1 2

Rye bread 1 slice 2

Rice cakes 2 1

Legumes (cooked)

Lentils 1/2 cup 8

Kidney beans 1/2 cup 6

Lima beans 1/2 cup 6

Baked beans (canned)** 1/2 cup 5

Green peas 1/2 cup 4

Grains (cooked)

Barley 1 cup 9

Wheat bran, dry 1/4 cup 6

Good Sources of Fiber

Spaghetti, whole wheat 1 cup 4

Brown rice 1 cup 4

Bulger 1/2 cup 4

Fruit

Pear (with skin) 1 medium 6

Apple (with skin) 1 medium 4

Strawberries (fresh) 1 cup 4

Banana 1 medium 3

Orange 1 medium 3

Dried fruit

Prunes 6 12

Apricots 5 halves 2

Raisins 1/4 cup 2

Dates 3 2

Plums 3 2

Nuts and seeds

Peanuts, dry roasted* 1/4 cup 3

Walnuts 1/4 cup 2

 Good Sources of Fiber

Popcorn* 1 cup 1

Peanuts* 10 1

Filberts, raw 10 1

* Choose no-salt or low-salt version of these foods,

* *Choose low-sugar version of these foods

Fiber in fast food Fast food is often cheap and convenient, but finding a healthy meal with enough fiber can be a
challenge. Many fast food meals are packed with calories, sodium, and unhealthy fat with little or no dietary fiber. Even a
seemingly healthy salad from a fast food restaurant is often light on fiber—simple lettuce greens provide only about 0.5
grams of fiber per cup. Look for salads that include other vegetables, and whenever possible, up the fiber content by
adding your own nuts, beans, or corn.
Other tips for getting more fiber from meals at fast food restaurants:
 Choose sandwiches, burgers, or subs that come on a whole wheat bun or whole grain bread.
 Try a veggie burger. Many taste much better than they used to and contain two or three times more fiber than a
meat burger.
 Select a side of beans for a healthy fiber boost.
 Choose nuts or a salad over fries or potato chips.
 Combining a baked potato and a side of chili, available at some burger chains, can make a tasty, high-fiber meal.
 Several chains offer oatmeal bowls for breakfast, a higher fiber choice than most breakfast sandwiches. Try to
choose lower sugar versions if possible.
 Finish a fast food meal with a fruit cup, fruit and yogurt parfait, apple slices, or a piece of fresh fruit.
Fiber supplements While the best way to get fiber in your diet is from foods naturally rich in fiber—fruit, vegetables,
whole grains, beans, nuts—when that proves difficult, taking a fiber supplement can help make up the shortfall.
Supplements can also be useful to top up your daily fiber intake while you transition to a high-fiber diet. Fiber
supplements come in a variety of forms, including powders you dissolve in water or add to food, chewable tablets, and
wafers. However, there are some drawbacks to getting your fiber from supplements instead of fiber-rich foods:
 Fiber supplements won’t provide the same vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients offered by high-fiber foods.
 Supplements won’t fill you up or help you manage your weight.
 Fiber supplements can interact with some medications, including certain antidepressants, cholesterol-lowering
medications, and the anticoagulation drug warfarin. Check with your doctor or pharmacist about potential drug
interactions before taking a fiber supplement.
 If you have diabetes, fiber supplements may also reduce your blood sugar levels so, again, check with your
healthcare provider before adding supplements to your diet.
If you decide to take a fiber supplement, start with small amounts and gradually build up to avoid any abdominal bloating
and gas, and drink plenty of fluids.
Dietary fibre is found in cereals, fruits and vegetables. Fibre is made up of the indigestible parts or compounds of plants,
which pass relatively unchanged through our stomach and intestines. Fibre is mainly a carbohydrate. The main role of
fibre is to keep the digestive system healthy. Other terms for dietary fibre include ‘bulk’ and ‘roughage’, which can be
misleading since some forms of fibre are water-soluble and aren’t bulky or rough at all.
Benefits of fibre Dietary fibre is mainly needed to keep the digestive system healthy. It also contributes to other
processes, such as stabilising glucose and cholesterol levels. In countries with traditionally high-fibre diets, diseases such
as bowel cancer, diabetes and coronary heart disease are much less common than in Western countries. Most Australians
do not consume enough fibre. On average, most Australians consume 20–25 g of fibre daily. The Heart Foundation
recommends that adults should aim to consume approximately 25–30 g daily. Children aged between four and eight
should consume 18 g of fibre each day. Girls aged 9 to 13, and 14 to 18 years, need 20 g and 22 g per day respectively.
Boys aged 9 to 13, and 14 to 18 years, need 24 g and 28 g per day respectively.
Disorders that can arise from a low-fibre diet include: constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, heart disease,
some cancers.
Types of fibre in food There are two categories of fibre and we need to eat both in our daily diets, which are:
 soluble fibre – includes pectins, gums and mucilage, which are found mainly in plant cells. One of its major roles
is to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels. Good sources of soluble fibre include fruits, vegetables, oat bran, barley,
seed husks, flaxseed, psyllium, dried beans, lentils, peas, soy milk and soy products. Soluble fibre can also help
with constipation.
 insoluble fibre – includes cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin, which make up the structural parts of plant cell
walls. A major role of insoluble fibre is to add bulk to faeces and to prevent constipation and associated problems
such as haemorrhoids. Good sources include wheat bran, corn bran, rice bran, the skins of fruits and vegetables,
nuts, seeds, dried beans and wholegrain foods.
Both types of fibre are beneficial to the body and most plant foods contain a mixture of both types.
Resistant starch Resistant starch, while not traditionally thought of as fibre, acts in a similar way. Resistant starch is the
part of starchy food (approximately 10 per cent) that resists normal digestion in the small intestine. It is found in many
unprocessed cereals and grains, unripe bananas, potatoes and lentils, and is added to bread and breakfast cereals as Hi-
Maize. It can also be formed by cooking and manufacturing processes such as snap freezing. Resistant starch is also
important in bowel health. Bacteria in the large bowel ferment and change the resistant starch into short-chain fatty acids,
which are important to bowel health and may protect against cancer. These fatty acids are also absorbed into the
bloodstream and may play a role in lowering blood cholesterol levels.
Fibre keeps the digestive tract healthy The principal advantage of a diet high in fibre is in improving the health of the
digestive system. The digestive system is lined with muscles that massage food along the tract from the moment a
mouthful is swallowed until the eventual waste is passed out of the bowel (a process called peristalsis). Since fibre is
relatively indigestible, it adds bulk to the faeces. Soluble fibre soaks up water like a sponge, which helps to bulk out the
faeces and allows it to pass through the gut more easily. It acts to slow down the rate of digestion. This slowing down
effect is usually overridden by insoluble fibre, which does not absorb water and speeds up the time that food passes
through the gut.
Drink lots of water A high-fibre diet may not prevent or cure constipation unless you drink enough water every day.
Some very high-fibre breakfast cereals may have around 10g of fibre per serve, and if this cereal is not accompanied by
enough fluid, it may cause abdominal discomfort or constipation.
Fibre and ageing Fibre is even more important for older people. The digestive system slows down with age, so a high-
fibre diet becomes even more important.
Lowering blood cholesterol There is good evidence that soluble fibre reduces blood cholesterol levels. When blood
cholesterol levels are high, fatty streaks and plaques are deposited along the walls of arteries. This can make them
dangerously narrow and lead to an increased risk of coronary heart disease. It is thought that soluble fibre lowers blood
cholesterol by binding bile acids (which are made from cholesterol to digest dietary fats) and then excreting them.
Fibre and weight control A high-fibre diet is protective against weight gain. High-fibre foods tend to have a lower
energy density, which means they provide fewer kilojoules per gram of food. As a result, a person on a high-fibre diet can
consume the same amount of food, but with fewer kilojoules (calories). Fibrous foods are often bulky and, therefore,
filling. Soluble fibre forms a gel that slows down the emptying of the stomach and the transit time of food through the
digestive system. This extends the time a person feels satisfied or ‘full’. It also delays the absorption of sugars from the
intestines. This helps to maintain lower blood sugar levels and prevent a rapid rise in blood insulin levels, which has been
linked with obesity and an increased risk of diabetes.
Fibre and diabetes For people with diabetes, eating a diet high in fibre slows glucose absorption from the small intestine
into the blood. This reduces the possibility of a surge of insulin, the hormone produced by the pancreas to stabilise blood
glucose levels.
Conditions linked to low-fibre diets Eating a diet low in fibre can contribute to many disorders, including:
 constipation – small, hard and dry faecal matter that is difficult to pass
 haemorrhoids – varicose veins of the anus
 diverticulitis – small hernias of the digestive tract caused by long-term constipation
 irritable bowel syndrome – pain, flatulence and bloating of the abdomen
 overweight and obesity – carrying too much body fat
 coronary heart disease – a narrowing of the arteries due to fatty deposits
 diabetes – a condition characterised by too much glucose in the blood
 colon cancer – cancer of the large intestine.
Diet, cancer and heart disease Increasing dietary fibre and wholegrain intake is likely to reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity, and possible overall mortality. It is also very likely that
these observed health benefits occur indirectly, through the protective effects of ‘phytochemicals’ (such as antioxidants)
that are closely associated with the fibre components of fruits, vegetables and cereal foods. Studies have shown that
dietary fibre, cereal fibre and wholegrains are protective against colorectal cancer. Fibre is thought to decrease the risk of
colorectal cancer by increasing stool bulk, diluting possible carcinogens present in the diet and decreasing transit time
through the colon. In addition, bacterial fermentation of fibre results in the production of short-chain fatty acids, which are
thought to have protective effects against colorectal cancer. It is recognised that dietary fibre protects against colorectal
cancer, each 10 g per day intake of total dietary fibre equates to a 10 per cent reduction in risk of colorectal cancer.
Ways to increase your fibre intake Simple suggestions for increasing your daily fibre intake include:
 Eat breakfast cereals that contain barley, wheat or oats.
 Switch to wholemeal or multigrain breads and brown rice.
 Add an extra vegetable to every evening meal.
 Snack on fruit, dried fruit, nuts or wholemeal crackers.
A daily intake of more than 30 g can be easily achieved if you eat wholegrain cereal products, more fruit, vegetables and
legumes and, instead of low-fibre cakes and biscuits, have nuts or seeds as a snack or use in meals.
You do not need to eat many more kilojoules to increase your fibre intake. You can easily double your fibre intake
without increasing your kilojoule intake by being more selective. Compare the tables below.
Fibre intake of less than 20 g per day

Fibre (g) Kilojoules (kJ)

 1 cup puffed rice cereal 0.4 444

4 slices white bread 3.0 1166

1 tablespoon peanut butter 2.7 610

1 piece of fruit (apple) 1.7 268

1/2 cup canned fruit, undrained 1.4 468

1/2 cup frozen mixed vegetables 4.3 102

Mashed potato 120 g 1.7 336

1 cup white cooked rice 1.0 999

2 plain dry biscuits 0.4 150

1 slice plain cake 60 g 0.6 643

1 cup commercial fruit juice 0.8 391

TOTAL 17.9 g 5,557 kJ

Fibre intake of more than 30 g per day

Fibre (g) Kilojoules (kJ)

2 wholewheat cereal biscuits (for example Weetbix or Vita Brits) 3.2 398

4 slices wholegrain bread 5.7 1085

1 tablespoon peanut butter 2.7 610

 Fibre (g) Kilojoules (kJ)

2 pieces of fruit (apple & pear) 4.9 515

1 cup frozen mixed vegetables 8.6 203

1 small boiled potato with skin, 100 g 2.8 338

1 cup white cooked spaghetti 2.5 696

2 wholemeal dry biscuits 1.5 209

25 almonds 3.0 852

1 cup whole fruit juice 0.5 362

TOTAL 35.4 g 5,118 kJ

A sudden increase in dietary fibre A sudden switch from a low-fibre diet to a high-fibre diet can create some abdominal
pain and increased flatulence (wind). Also, very high-fibre diets (more than 40 g daily) are linked with decreased
absorption of some important minerals such as iron, zinc and calcium. This occurs when fibre binds these minerals and
forms insoluble salts, which are then excreted.
This could increase the risk of developing deficiencies of these minerals in susceptible people. Adults should aim for a
diet that contains 25 g to 30 g of fibre per day, and should introduce fibre into the diet gradually to avoid any negative
outcomes. It is better to add fibre to the diet from food sources rather than from fibre supplements, as these can aggravate
constipation, especially if you do not increase the amount of water you drink daily.
Where to get help Your doctor, Dietitians Association of Australia Tel. 1800 812 942
Things to remember: Dietary fibre is found in the indigestible parts of cereals, fruits and vegetables., A diet high in fibre
keeps the digestive system healthy., Most Australians don’t eat enough fibre.
Dietary fiber is an essential component of a healthy diet. It is defined as the plant compounds that resist digestion by the
human gut, but undergo complete or partial fermentation by gut microbiota.
Health benefits of fiber Good sources of dietary fiber include whole grains, fruits and vegetables, as well as nuts and
legumes. Fiber in food has been shown to reduce the risk of various medical conditions. The suggested benefits of fiber in
each condition are outlined below.
Breast cancer: According to some investigators, this risk is believed to be lowered by an early intake of high dietary
fiber, from childhood through adolescence and into early adult life, but commencing such a diet in adult life is not linked
to the same benefit. Fruits and vegetable intake seem to confer a higher level of protection in this case.
Type 2 diabetes A high fiber diet cuts the risk of diabetes in half by reducing high spikes in blood sugar. The glycemic
index of fiber-rich foods is low, because they cause only a small rise in the post-prandial(after feeding) blood sugar level,
and thus a reduction in the need for insulin production. This spares the pancreatic cell reserve. Fiber also increases the
insulin sensitivity of the peripheral glucose-utilizing tissues, such as skeletal muscle, liver, and fatty tissue. Insulin
promotes early uptake of glucose by the cells of these tissues and therefore leads to the normalization of the blood sugar
soon after eating a meal. Some studies have shown that adding 12g of fiber to the daily diet may be linked to a 22%
lowering of diabetes risk. These studies have shown that this finding holds good for all ages and various ranges of body
mass index (BMI), as well as for the status of physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption, fat ingestion and a family
history of diabetes. An important addition to our knowledge in this field is the need for insoluble fiber, and especially that
obtained from whole grains, nuts and seeds, rather than that acquired from fruit and vegetables, irrespective of the overall
dietary fiber intake. Again, this may be because insoluble dietary fiber results in faster intestinal transit, which reduces
absorption of digested carbohydrates. Increased cereal fiber also improves insulin sensitivity by 8%, increasing the
peripheral uptake of glucose, via the secretion of a substance called glucose-dependent insulintropic polypeptide (GIP)
immediately following the intake of insoluble fiber. GIP increases insulin levels in response to a meal. It also brings about
appetite reduction and increased satiety, reducing the overall energy intake. Dietary fiber is also relatively rich in
magnesium, the deficiency of which is common in diabetes and reduces the activity of the important enzyme tyrosine
kinase at the insulin receptor, which may contribute to insulin resistance.
Diverticular disease of the colon, Diet a significant factor in acne outbreaks, finds pioneering new study, Mediterranean
style diet found to relieve symptoms of depression, High levels of dietary salt can activate a brain pathway to cause
cognitive impairment, This is an inflammatory condition of the lower GI tract, which is most commonly seen in the
elderly population. It is believed that having adequate insoluble fiber in the diet cuts this risk by up to 40%.
Hyperlipidemia or high blood cholesterol, A high fiber diet has been shown to reduce the levels of blood cholesterol.
Nutritional benefits: Dietary fiber, in its natural state, is associated with many phytochemicals, such as plant
polyphenols, isoflavones and flavonoids, lignans and carotenoids, as well as with vitamins and minerals, as for instance in
the aleurone layer of wheat grains. This may explain why fruit, vegetables, whole grains and nuts have a beneficial effect
on so many health conditions.
Metabolic syndrome High fiber diets could play a crucial role in lowering the risk of metabolic syndrome, which
includes hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, low HDL levels, obesity or overweight, and hypertension. Metabolic
syndrome is a known high-risk factor for heart disease and diabetes.
Obesity: An excessive BMI is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, cancers and osteoarthritis.
Its treatment is closely related to limiting energy intake. Dietary fiber plays a huge role in this aspect, because it produces
a feeling of satiety and thus keeps the person feeling full for a longer time, thereby reducing overall calorie intake. One
study reported an average loss of over 4.4 lbs, primarily of body fat, when the dietary fiber was increased by 8g for every
1000 calories. The most important aspect was that this loss did not depend upon the baseline dietary intake of energy or of
fiber, the level of physical activity or the age. Other studies show that for each additional 20g of bran intake per day, the
weight went down by 0.8 lbs, and for each 40g increase in whole grains, weight gain was lowered by 1.1 lbs. This is due
to the production of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY from fermentation of fiber by gut microbes. Both of
these produce the feeling of satiety. Another explanation is the reduced fat intake with increased dietary fiber. The third
reason may be the lowering of the total metabolizable energy in the diet. This refers to the overall energy from food
without the loss of energy in feces, urine and combustible gases, which loss increases with the percentage of total dietary
fiber. An important caveat here is the synergistic effect of soluble fiber upon metabolizable energy when the diet is high
in fat. This may be because soluble fiber supports increased proliferation of gut bacteria, which in turn ferments short-
chain fatty acids (SCFA) in the diet, increasing their utilization and energy absorption. The gummy substance formed by
the dissolution of soluble fiber in water may also delay intestinal transit and allow greater time for energy digestion and
absorption, though this effect is debated. However, insoluble fiber reduces energy digestion by speeding up food passage
through the gut. The importance of this finding lies in the type of fiber, which should be supplemented to optimize weight
loss on different diets. Insoluble fiber is better at reducing metabolizable energy when on a high-fat or average diet,
whereas on a low-fat diet, either type of fiber is recommended.
Constipation: This is one of the most common symptoms related to the gut in the US and it is largely caused by a diet
high in animal and low in plant-based foods. Wheat and oat bran fiber is the most effective at producing soft regular
stools, even more than fruits and vegetables. This also prevents the pooling or stasis of toxins in the gut lumen, which is
believed to be linked to intestinal oncogenesis.
Conclusion: It is very important to investigate further how much and what type of dietary fiber will help to control
glucose metabolism in diagnosed diabetics, pre-diabetics and other at-risk populations, on the basis of the observed
favorable effects of fiber on glucose metabolism in healthy people. Including whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds, as
well as a variety of other seasonal fruits and vegetables, in the diet, besides substituting them for animal products three or
more times a week, is likely to bring about a host of beneficial metabolic changes in the body. Fiber, also known as
roughage, is the indigestible part of plant foods that travels through our digestive system, absorbing water along the way
and easing bowel movements.
Dietary fiber refers to nutrients in the diet that are not digested by gastrointestinal enzymes but still fulfil an important
role. Mostly found in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes, fiber has a host of health benefits, including reducing
the risk of heart disease and diabetes. In this article, we will look at the different types of fiber, why they are important,
and what foods contain high levels of fiber.
Fast facts on fiber Here are some key points about fiber. More detail and supporting information is in the main article.
 Fiber is often split into two types: soluble and insoluble.
 Dairy products and white bread have little to no fiber.
 Cereal grains, seeds, vegetables, and fruits are good sources of fiber.
 Fiber helps speed up the elimination of toxic waste through the colon.
 Oat cereals, Brussels sprouts, oranges, flax seeds, and beans, such as kidney, black, and pinto, are all good
sources of soluble fiber.
Benefits Fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes are all good sources of dietary fiber.
Eating fiber has many health benefits:
Protection against heart disease - according to the University of Maryland Medical Center, the consumption of soluble
fiber has been shown to protect against heart disease by reducing cholesterol levels.
Gastrointestinal health - the consumption of fiber promotes regular bowel movements and prevents constipation. It may
also reduce the risk of developing colitis and hemorrhoids. There is also mixed evidence that consuming fiber might help
reduce the risk of colon cancer.
Diabetes - people with diabetes who consume a lot of fiber tend to need less insulin than those whose fiber intake is low.
Fiber can help slow the absorption of sugar, helping to prevent spikes after meals.
Body weight - a high-fiber intake can significantly contribute toward body-weight control. Fiber produces a feeling of
fullness without adding calories (fiber calories are not absorbed by the body) - this can help treat or prevent
overweight/obesity. Most foods that are high in fiber are also very healthy for other reasons. Take, for example, fruit,
vegetables, and whole grains; they are high in fiber but also rich in vitamins and other essential nutrients. In other words,
eating a high-fiber diet protects health through both the intake of fiber and other essential nutrients.
Types; Fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides, such as cellulose, dextrins, inulin, lignin, chitins, pectins, beta-
glucans, waxes, and oligosaccharides. There are two broad types of fiber: soluble and insoluble.
 Soluble fiber dissolves in water. It changes as it goes through the digestive tract where it is fermented by bacteria.
As it absorbs water, it becomes gelatinous.
 Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. As it goes through the digestive tract, it does not change its form. It
can also be fermented by bacteria in the colon.
Foods that contain dietary fiber are generally divided into predominantly soluble or insoluble; both types of fiber are
present in all plant foods, but rarely in equal proportions. Both forms of fiber have major health benefits.
Functions: Insoluble fiber Insoluble fibers have many functions, including moving bulk through the digestive tract and
controlling pH (acidity) levels in the intestines.
Benefits of insoluble fiber: Promotes regular bowel movements and prevents constipation. Speeds up the elimination of
waste through the colon. By keeping an optimal pH in the intestines, insoluble fiber helps prevent microbes from
producing substances which can lead to colorectal cancer.
Food sources of insoluble fiber include vegetables - especially dark green leafy ones, root vegetable skins, fruit skins,
whole-wheat products, wheat bran, corn bran, nuts, and seeds.
Functions: Soluble fiber legumes are rich in soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber binds with fatty acids, it slows
down the time it takes to empty the stomach and the rate of sugar absorption by the body.
Benefits of soluble fiber: Reduces cholesterol, especially levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL - bad cholesterol).
Regulates sugar intake, this is especially useful for people with diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Soluble fiber is
fermented by gut bacteria, improving immune, digestive, and overall health. Good sources of soluble fiber include kidney
beans, pinto beans, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, spinach, zucchini, apples, oranges, grapefruit, grapes, prunes, oatmeal, and
whole-wheat bread.
Recommended intake: According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the recommended daily amount of fiber for
women is 25 grams and, for men, it is 38 grams. After the age of 50, the recommended intake for women is 21 grams and
men is 30 grams. As most high-fiber containing foods usually have insoluble and soluble fiber, it is not necessary to be
too careful about dividing them up. In other words, the focus should be on fiber intake in general, rather than on the
specific type of fiber. Oat, oat brans, psyllium husk, and flaxseed are rich in both types of fibers. Consuming 25 grams of
fiber each day should be enough to meet daily requirements. Ideally, individuals should consume at least five servings of
fruit and vegetables, as well as some servings of whole grain products, each day.
Dietary sources According to Dr. Warren Enker, at the Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Medical Center, MA, a good
diet involves watching your calorie count, including food rich in nutrients and vitamins, avoiding saturated fats, and
paying particular attention to all sources of fiber. Below is a selection of foods that contain high amounts of fiber:

Cereal grains - ½ cup cooked Soluble Insoluble

Barley 1 gram 4 grams

Oatmeal 1 gram 2 grams

Oat bran 1 gram 3 grams

Seeds Soluble Insoluble

Psyllium seeds ground (1 Tablespoon) 5 grams 6 grams

Fruit (1 medium fruit) Soluble Insoluble

Apple 1 gram 4 grams

Banana 1 gram 3 grams

Blackberries (½ cup) 1 gram 4 grams

Citrus Fruit (orange, grapefruit) 2 grams 2-3 grams

Nectarine 1 gram 2 grams

Peach 1 gram 2 grams

Pear 2 gram 4 grams

Plum 1 gram 1.5 grams

Prunes (¼ cup) 1.5 grams 3 grams

Legumes (½ cup cooked) Soluble Insoluble

Black Beans 2 grams 5.5 grams

Kidney Beans 3 grams 6 grams

Lima Beans 3.5 grams 6.5 grams

Navy Beans 2 grams 6 grams

Northern Beans 1.5 grams 5.5 grams

Pinto Beans 2 grams 7 grams

Lentils (yellow, green, orange) 1 gram 8 grams

Chick Peas 1 gram 6 grams

 Black-eyed Peas 1 gram 5.5 grams

Vegetables (½ cup cooked) Soluble Insoluble

Broccoli 1 gram 1.5 grams

Brussels Sprouts 3 grams 4.5 grams

Carrots 1 gram 2.5 grams

Supplements and food allergies: People who are allergic to high-fiber foods can find it difficult to get the right amount
of fiber. However, with such a wide variety of fiber-containing foods around, it should be possible to find some that do
not cause a reaction. Apples can be a good source of fiber for people who are allergic to other high fiber foods. Also,
pharmacies sell fiber supplements such as Metamucil, Citrucel, and FiberCon which can help bridge the gap. Although
these products do not provide the same levels of vitamins and nutrients as natural fiber-containing foods, they can be
useful for some people.
The following high-fiber foods are the least likely to be allergenic: apples, pears, berries, artichokes, potatoes, swede and
other root vegetables, broccoli, green beans, pumpkin, zucchini, peas, lentils, quinoa
Quality of Food is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as
appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency), texture, and flavour; factors such as federal grade standards (e.g.
of eggs) and internal (chemical, physical, microbial). Food quality in the US is enforced by the Food Safety Act 1990.
Members of the public complain to trading standards professionals, who submit complaint samples and also samples used
to routinely monitor the food marketplace to public analysts. Public analysts carry out scientific analysis on the samples to
determine whether the quality is of sufficient standard. Food quality is an important food manufacturing requirement,
because food consumers are susceptible to any form of contamination that may occur during the manufacturing process.
Many consumers also rely on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know what ingredients are present,
due to dietary, nutritional requirements (kosher, halal, vegetarian), or medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, or allergies).
Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the food processing
environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for the consumer. A recent example of
poor sanitation recently has been the 2006 North American E. coli outbreak involving spinach, an outbreak that is still
under investigation. Food quality also deals with product traceability, (e.g., of ingredient, and packaging suppliers),
should a recall of the product be required. It also deals with labeling issues to ensure there is correct ingredient and
nutritional information. There are many existing international quality institutes testing food products in order to indicate to
all consumers which are higher quality products. Founded in 1961 in Brussels, The international Monde Selection quality
award is the oldest in evaluating food quality. During the degustations, the products must meet the following selection
criteria, required by the Institute: sensory analysis, bacteriological and chemical analysis, the nutrition and health claims,
and the utilisation notice. In short, the judgements are based on the following areas: taste, health, convenience, labelling,
packaging, environmental friendliness and innovation. As many consumers rely on manufacturing and processing
standards, the Institute Monde Selection takes into account the European Food Law.
Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as
appearance, texture, and flavour; factors such as federal grade standards and internal. Food quality in the United States is
enforced by the Food Safety Act 1990. Members of the public complain to trading standards professionals, who submit
complaint samples and also samples used to routinely monitor the food marketplace to public analysts. Public analysts
carry out scientific analysis on the samples to determine whether the quality is of sufficient standard. Food quality is an
important food manufacturing requirement, because food consumers are susceptible to any form of contamination that
may occur during the manufacturing process. Many consumers also rely on manufacturing and processing standards,
particularly to know what ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements, or medical conditions. Besides
ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the food processing environment is
as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for the consumer.
5 characteristic of high quality food: Many people (like my former self) obsess about finding the perfect diet. The one
that will leave them healthy, energised and happy. Unfortunately there is no one “perfect diet”. We are all unique, and
have different nutritional needs. Your perfect diet can only be found by listening to your body and choosing foods that
make you feel good in every season of life. That being said, rather than obsessing over calories, carbs, or fat, it is much
more effective to focus on food quality. No matter what food you eat, choose the highest quality version of that food
available. Some Swiss, organic, 85% dark chocolate is going to have a much different effect on your body than a cadbury,
milk chocolate bar filled with biscuit and caramel. Similarly, organic, fresh baked sourdough bread will leave you feeling
much better than a loaf of generic, sliced white bread that has 30 ingredients and has been sitting on a shelf for 10 days.
Here are 5 guidelines to follow when grocery shopping:
1. Minimally processed- Choose foods that are close to the way they naturally occur. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
dairy, meats, beans, nuts and seeds. These are easier to digest and tend to be free from fake ingredients.
2. Organic- Organic produce is not sprayed with any pesticides or chemicals. There are no artificial substances added,
and nothing is genetically modified. Choose organic whenever possible.
3. Contains real ingredients- If you can’t pronounce an ingredient, or aren’t sure what it is, it’s probably not a real
ingredient. A perfect example is “natural flavouring”. Sounds good, but do you actually know what it is? You may be
surprised to know that these natural flavourings are usually artificial additives that are highly addictive and neurologically
toxic.
4. Local- Local produce is always healthier than shipped produce. Many imported foods are picked before they are ripe
and are delivered weeks after. The longer fruits and vegetables have been cut off from their life source, the less nutrients
they contain.
5. Seasonal- Seasonal food is higher in nutrients than food that is artificially grown out of season. Buying seasonal foods
usually means the taste will be much better and your fruits and vegetables will be less expensive.
Food Safety refers to practices and conditions that preserve the quality of food to prevent contamination and food-borne
illnesses during preparation, handling and storage. The correct Food Safety practices give assurance that food will not
cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use. **Food should be safe for
human consumption and free from hazards that may compromise the health of the consumer**
Examples of Food Safety procedures and policies: Personal hygiene, Personal presentation and preparation, Pest control,
Waste management, Cleaning and sanitizing, Temperature control and measurement, Food Safety hazard identification
These are only a few examples of Food Safety procedures that should be in place in a food-handling environment. Food
Safety procedures vary from company to company and industry to industry. It is important to know what your company’s
Food Safety procedures and policies are.
Definition of Food Quality Food Quality refers to the features and characteristics of a food product that is: acceptable to
consumers and meet their expectations; value for money; conforms to the required specifications, and, profitable to the
company.
Examples of Food Quality Attributes: External factors such as appearance (size, colour, shape and consistency). Texture,
Flavour (odour and taste), Correct labelling with the ingredients, nutritional information and supplier/manufacturer details
listed., Products must be properly packaged and sealed., Ingredient standards are maintained., Food quality also deals with
product traceability, should a recall of the food product be required.
Conclusion Food Safety and Food Quality, two of the most important aspects of any food-handling environment. It is
important to know the difference and have a proper Food Safety and Food Quality management system in place. It will
keep your customers healthy and happy, and you out of trouble. ASC Consultants are experts in the implementation and
maintenance of Food Safety and Food Quality management systems. Feel free to contact us for any advice or help.
About the journal Food quality and safety are the main targets of investigation in food production. Therefore, reliable
paths to detect, identify, quantify, characterize and monitor quality and safety issues occurring in food are of great
interest. Food Quality and Safety is an open access, international, peer-reviewed journal providing a platform to highlight
emerging and innovative science and technology in the agro-food field, publishing up-to-date research in the areas of food
quality and safety, food nutrition and human health. It promotes food and health equity which will consequently promote
public health and combat diseases. The journal will be an effective channel of communication between food scientists,
nutritionists, public health professionals, food producers, food marketers, policy makers, governmental and non-
governmental agencies, and others concerned with the food safety, nutrition and public health dimensions. The journal
will accept original research articles, review papers, technical reports, case studies, conference reports, and book reviews
articles. The scope of the journal will include:
 Global trend in food safety and security
 History and culture of foods
 Resource of food material and new resource exploration
 Postharvest technology of harvesting, handing, transportation, storage
 Biochemical and chemical properties of food material
 Novel detection methods in food safety
 Food microbial food safety and antimicrobial systems
 Mycotoxins
 Toxicology and safety of food material and foods
 Sustainable food systems
 Food safety regulatory affairs
 Methodology for monitoring food quality and nutritional quality
 Quality assurance and control
 Processing technologies, fresh-cut products, minimal processing technologies
 Good manufacturing practices
 Food process systems design and control
 Food packaging
 Environmental factors affecting food quality
 Original techniques for measuring various quality attributes
 Traditional and new processing processes and technologies of foods
 Food nutritional value and health benefits
 Phytochemicals and health benefits
 Nutraceuticals and functional foods
 Sensory and quality of food products
 Biotechnology advances in food materials
 Food applications
  Equipment and process for industrial production
 Process design for water recycling and energy saving
 Value-added processing of by-products
 Food engineering and physical properties
 Codes of practice, legislation and international harmonization
 Consumer issues
 Education, training and research needs.
 Food laws and regulations
 Food economics and marketing
Since the beginning of nutritional research, food quality (nature, class) has been a central theme; a great deal of effort is
concentrated on the goal of improving the quality of foods. To which extent this can be achieved, depends among other
things on the definition of the term food quality. Food quality represents the sum of all properties and assessable attributes
of a food item. Usually this is done by the three accepted categories of quality: sensoric value, suitability value and health
value. All three deal with assessments, that is, judgements with a subjective component. In addition to the value-related
interpretation of quality there is the value-neutral term in the sense of condition, that is the sum of properties of a product.
From this can be concluded that quality is not easily definable scientifically and that it comprises many different aspects.
Obligatory and uniform definitions are also made difficult, since those aspects are subject to constant change.
contradictions in the discussion about food quality arise mainly because of self-serving interests of producers, processors
and traders of food as well as consumers, since concerning the assessment of simple quality features of products these
interest groups often hold quite different views. The existing contradictions can be overcome, if all justified interests are
considered, that is, with a holistic view of all the separate aspects. A holistic assessment of quality of food comprises, in
addition to the three recognised partial qualities, additional categories of quality which are currently gaining in
significance. On the one hand there is a psychological or notional value of food, based on usually difficult-to-explain
conceptions, opinions (prejudices) and expectations of consumers concerning a product. Foods are imputed to have certain
properties which determine, whether these will be selected and eaten. Without a clear delimitation to this area foods have
a cultural or social value. The prestige value of food is determined by food habits of certain population groups as well as
by supply and price. Foods that are taboo or that are used as reward get their social value in this manner. The political
value of foods comprises aspects like the import of foods and feeds, especially from developing countries as well as
production and handling of food surplus and employment of food aid. A further category of quality is the ecological value
of foods which assesses the consequences on the environment due to food production and food processing, as well as their
manifold interactions and feedbacks. These additional criteria or properties of food are often more difficult to define and
to include, since they cannot be identified and measured on the product itself. From this, however, it should not be
concluded that these criteria in the spectrum of food quality are not important. Even though single interest groups in the
food sector will still get their way in regard to expectations and demands concerning quality, social demands and
necessities are gaining increasing importance. Future and social requirements relating to the quality of food are expected
to avoid misjudgements by using a holistic assessment.
 Dietary guidelines have changed over the years as research becomes more accurate in determining what we
should eat to attain optimal health and weight. The strongest evidence to date shows that calories matter, but
focusing on food quality is an equally important part of preventing weight gain and promoting weight loss.
 Focus on eating high-quality foods in appropriately sized portions.
Consider quality, not just calories
“A calorie is a calorie” is an oft-repeated dietary slogan, and not overeating is indeed an important health measure. Rather
than focusing on calories alone, however, emerging research shows that quality is also key in determining what we should
eat and what we should avoid in order to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Rather than choosing foods based only
on caloric value, think instead about choosing high-quality, healthy foods, and minimizing low-quality foods.
  High-quality foods include unrefined, minimally processed foods such as vegetables and fruits, whole grains,
healthy fats and healthy sources of protein – the foods recommended in the Healthy Eating Plate.
 Lower-quality foods include highly processed snack foods, sugar-sweetened beverages, refined (white) grains,
refined sugar, fried foods, foods high in saturated and trans fats, and high-glycemic foods such as potatoes.
There isn’t one “perfect” diet for everyone, owing to individual differences in genes and lifestyle.
Quality counts One study analyzed whether certain foods were more or less likely to promote weight gain. This type of
research examining specific foods and drinks allows us to understand whether “a calorie is a calorie,” or if eating more
higher-quality foods and fewer lower-quality foods can lead to weight loss and maintenance. Researchers in the
Department of Nutrition at Harvard School of Public Health show us that quality is in fact very important in determining
what we should eat to achieve and maintain a healthy weight, and that the notion of “a calorie is a calorie” does not tell
the whole story.
 In a study of over 120,000 healthy women and men spanning 20 years, researchers determined that weight change
was most strongly associated with the intake of potato chips, potatoes, sugar-sweetened beverages, and both
processed and unprocessed red meats. The researchers concluded that consumption of processed foods higher in
starches, refined grains, fats, and sugars can increase weight gain.
 Foods shown to be associated with weight loss were vegetables, whole grains, fruits, nuts, and yogurt.
 Researchers did not discount the importance of calories, instead suggesting that choosing high-quality foods (and
decreasing consumption of lower-quality foods) is an important factor in helping individuals consume fewer
calories.
View the HSPH news release, “Changes in specific dietary factors may have big impact on long-term weight gain:
Weight-loss Strategy to Only ‘Eat Less, Exercise More” May be Overly Simplistic’”
Managing macronutrients: Does it matter? With the proliferation of macronutrient-based diets over the past several
decades, from low-fat to low-carbohydrate, discussion of the three main macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
– has become standard when talking about optimal diets. Researchers have begun comparing these “macronutrient
management”-style diets to one another in order to determine which is most effective, but thus far evidence is largely
inconclusive. One study, published in JAMA in 2007, compared four weight-loss diets ranging from low to high
carbohydrate intake. This 12-month trial followed over 300 overweight and obese premenopausal women, randomly
assigning them to either an Atkins (very low carbohydrate), Zone (low carbohydrate), LEARN (high carbohydrate), or
Ornish (very high in carbohydrate) diet.
 After one year, weight loss was greater for women in the Atkins diet group compared with the other diet groups.
 This study also examined secondary outcomes focused on metabolic effects (such as cholesterol, body fat
percentage, glucose levels and blood pressure), and found that those for the Atkins group were comparable with
or more favorable than the other diet groups.
 There was no significant difference in weight loss among the other three diets (Zone, LEARN, and Ornish).
 This study does raise questions about about long-term effects and mechanisms, but the researchers concluded that
a low-carbohydrate, high-protein, high-fat diet may be considered a feasible recommendation for weight loss.
Another study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2009, challenged the above study’s findings by
testing four different types of diets and producing results that showed comparable average weight loss among the different
diets.
 The study followed 800 people over 2 years, assigning subjects to one of four diets: Low-fat and average-protein,
low-fat and high-protein, high-fat and average-protein, and high-fat and high protein.
 Researchers concluded that all of the diets resulted in meaningful weight loss, despite the differences in
macronutrient composition.
  The study also found that the more group counseling sessions participants attended, the more weight they lost, and
the less weight they regained. This supports the idea that not only is what you eat important, but behavioral,
psychological, and social factors are important for weight loss as well.
An additional study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2010, looked at the role of protein and
glycemic index upon weight loss maintenance. Researchers first implemented a low-calorie diet to produce weight loss,
then examined whether protein and glycemic index impacted weight loss maintenance.
 The study population was made up of nearly 800 overweight adults from European countries who had lost at least
8% of their initial body weight with a low-calorie diet. Participants were then assigned one of five diets to prevent
weight regain over a 26-week period: A low-protein and low-glycemic-index diet, a low-protein and high-
glycemic-index diet, a high-protein and low-glycemic-index diet, a high-protein and high-glycemic-index diet, or
a control diet.
 The low-protein-high-glycemic-index diet was associated with subsequent significant weight regain, and weight
regain was less in the groups assigned to a high-protein diet than in those assigned to a low-protein diet, as well as
less in the groups assigned to a low-glycemic-index diet than in those assigned to a high-glycemic-index diet.
 These results show that a modest increase in protein content and a modest reduction in the glycemic index led to
an improvement in maintenance of weight loss.
The results from these three studies suggest that there may be some benefits to a macronutrient-based dietary approach,
but research also shows that while a particular diet may result in weight loss for one person, it may not be effective for
another person due to individual differences in genes and lifestyle. For those seeking the “perfect” one-size-fits-all diet,
then, there isn’t one! The great news is that everyone can follow The Healthy Eating Plate guidelines and choose healthy,
flavorful foods to create a diet that works best for you.
The quality of food begins on the farm and is affected at each link of the food chain, and through the food flow in our
school kitchen. Our nutrition program develops product specifications that identify quality standards for each ingredient.
This is quality of products as purchased and quality of products when delivered to our kitchens. BUT if we don’t take care
of the foods properly, we may not have a final quality menu item. For example, we may purchase Choice Quality Beef
patties, but if we cook at too high of a temperature or for too long, or if we cook and hot hold for a long period of time, the
product’s appearance, temperature, and texture will decline. Quality characteristics of menu items are based on our senses:
appearance, aroma, temperature, texture, and taste.
Think of it as 2A’s + 3T’s! APPEARANCE is important because we eat with our eyes first, so presentation does matter.
Presentation of the environment also matters – we have to keep in mind what it is our primary customer, the students, see
when they come into the dining room. So, before each meal service – take a look at the line from the students’ view. Walk
around the front of the service lines and make sure there is a welcoming feel (i.e. Silverware, trays and napkin containers
full; no trash on floor or spills on counters). Better yet, have someone responsible for completing the What Do Your
Students See, Smell and Taste? Checklist, modified from the Institute’s No Time to Train – Quality Standards, before
each meal. AROMA can be a merchandising tool – who doesn’t love the smell of fresh baked whole grain rolls?
Scheduling batch cooking of menu items to coincide with service schedules means students can smell “fresh out of the
oven” goodies! And we know that “fresh out of the oven” means the hot food will be hot and not held so long that the
texture is mushy. TEMPERATURE makes a difference in perceived quality, and safety. Cold foods need to be kept cold.
We can organize production schedules to pre-prepare cold food entrees and sides, and keep cold until service. Service in
individual containers can be one way to improve presentation and increase speed of service. Self-service bars are another
way to provide students with choices. But these should be monitored at all times and kept fresh. Utensils should be
replaced each service period. New pans of product should be used rather than combining pans (old with new). Use smaller
pans if needed. TEXTURE of foods can be affected by storage temperatures and improper handling. Bruising, or
overcooking and extended hot holding of vegetables will result in a mushy product rather than one that is crisp and tender.
TASTE refers to the sensory aspects on the palate. Our taste buds can identify, sweet, sour, salty and acidic. Following
recipes ensures the proper proportion of ingredients are used to create the identifying taste for the menu item.
WHAT IS FOOD QUALITY? by Marie Ferree University of California Berkeley, California Presents the various aspects
of food quality from the consumers’ viewpoint. What is food quality? It’s a nice tidy Iittlequestion withas many answers
as there are people to give them, To come up with a workable answer, Isearched through the files, discussed the question
of quality with some consumers and I even gave the subject some thought. And I found an answer in the form of a
question. What is food quality? Quality of what, and according to whom? Definitions of quality include the precise:
“Thedistinctivet rait, characteristic, capacity or virtue of a product that sets it apart from all others.” “Quality”, according
to the 1970 Yearbook of Agriculture, “is the measure or expression of goodness.” When I asked one homemaker what
quality meant to her she said, “Ask my neighbor she really knows quality food.” A definition of quality I picked up while
attending an industry meeting is “Quality is what you think the competition thinks the standard is.” Put still another way
quality turns out to be the standard the consumer will accept. There is little need to emphasize the point that family and
institutional food buyers have a somewhat different set of quality standards from that of other buyers within the food
production and distribution system. Concerns of people involved in food production, processing and distribution include
selection and use of plants and animals which will produce characteristics of performance excellence related toharvesting,
shipping, processing, and shelf life, Characteristics of performance excellence do, of February 73/page 34 course, include
factors of food safety and nutritive valued I say “of course there is concern for food safety and nutritive value” although,
there seems to be considerable difficulty proving concern for either when confronted by consumer advocates.
Food buyers are concerned about some of these same characteristics of excellence. They express them differently,
Lacking the objective measuring devices of other segments of the production, processing and distribution system,
consumers rely on judgments of color, feel texture, odor, sound and the written word. When the opportunity presents
itself, the food buyer may also take advantage of the judgment of taste. We have been told, at times in rather strident
tones, that consumers’ chief concerns relate to food safety and nutritive value: -- That consumers fear nutritive value is
lost in processing and no attempt is made to restore it. .- That nutrients and other food ingredients are added to foods far
beyond safe limits. -- That pesticide, herbicide, and recently, that some hormone residues are present in the food Supply. I
did a count of questions that come into our Public Service Department and discovered that of 500 questions over the past
10 months, 400 of them were directly concerned with food. Presumably, these 400 questions should give some clues to
what concerns consu-mers. Bear in mind, please, this Public Service Department is located at the University of California,
Berkeley, where all sorts of craziness, food craziness included, is reputed to have its roots. Journal of Food Distribution
Research A little more than half the questions asked, 56%, were direct requests for howto-do-it. “HOW can I pickle
olives?” was the question asked most often. Other questions included: “what can I do with a tree full of lemons?” “Can I
freeze coconut?” “Could you sendme a recipe for baking a whole sa.lmon?’r About 33%of the questions were directly
concerned with nutrition: ‘Where can I get a list of the nutritive value of different foods?rr ‘rArevitamins in pills the same
as rrwhatcheeses are low vitamins in food?rr in fat?rr ‘rHow many calories in Ricotta cheese and in cottage cheese?’r
About 5% of the questions concernqd food safety: ‘rMygrandmother dies recently and left a large number of cans of home
canned pickles, fruits and vegetables. . . are they safe to eat?” “Are juniper berries safe to eat?” “How can you tell if tuna
is contaminated with botulism?” “My freezer was off for two days. . can I refreeze the vegetables and pork chops?’r
About 3% of the questions concerned meat grades and labeling: “Is a meat market allowed to package round steak cut in
small pieces, label it ‘stroganoff beef’ and sell it for a higher price than the piece of round steak in one piece?r’ ‘rWhat is
the best grade of beef?” “How much fat is in regular ground beef in the supermarket?” It was difficult to classify 3% of
the questions: “What is a kiwi?’r “Where can I buy eels?” and “Are guinea pigs edible?” I’m still not sure about the
guinea pig question. Was it a problem of safety? Nutrition? Preparation? Maybe the quinea pig had become a storage
problem. Food buyers have specific performance expectations for food: they expect meat to be tender when cooked; they
expect salad greens tobe crisp; they expect the packaged flour mix to turn out a product that is acceptable to the family or
clientele; they expect canned peaches to live up to the descriptive label; they expect frozen dinners to satisfy the appetite.
Food buyers put a high priority on eye appeal of fresh foods in the market. Well colored fruits and vegetables, uniform
sizes and products that are free of any kind of damage will get agood rating from most food buyers . Yet they know
intuitively or by whatever sixth sense food buyers use, that color isn’t the reliable guide to quality. If you don’t~elieve it
you have never watched food buyers perform their food buying chores. Because color and uniformsize get considerable
emphasis from other segments of the marketing system, consumers perhaps give these two factors a little too much
emphasis but that is the way it is. Exterior color often has little to do with what’s inside and uniform sizes do not indicate
how good or bad a food is. But what other factors can the food buyer judge? At the meat counter, the food buyer relies on
the reputation of the food store or on grades, or brand names as guides to quality. When you dig into food shoppers’
judgments of meat quality factors, you get a mixed bag and they may or may not match government and industry’s
judgment. We are all familiar with the studies done of consumer preferences for beef, in which the preference turns out to
result from the halo effect of the word “Choice,” rather than any accurate judgment of quality on the part of the food
shopper. Palatability, the way food tastes, ranks high on the family and institutional foodbuyer’s list of quality standards.
Yet, this is one quality factor the buyer can rarely judge until after the sales transaction. Indeed, there are maturity
standards for practically everything that grows--livestock, poultry, cereal, fruits and vegetables. The standards relate, or
are supposed to, to palatability, And there are palatability standards for processed foods. But the standards lose something
in the translation. Immature fruits and vegetables still appear in the market; overmature peas, beans and cornare still
processed; the word r’seasoningr’ on the package labels of processed foods (especially mixtures) translates “too much
salt”. Journal of Food Distribution Research February 73/page 35 So what is quality? Quality of food includes all those
characteristics of excellence that make it acceptable to the food buyer. The fact that food quality turns out to be the
standard consumers will accept doesn’t have to be a bad thing. The majority of consumers find acceptable product quality
in the market, They must, estimates vary, but it appears that shoppers in food markets make choices at the rate of about 4
per second. Shoppers do take sanitation and safety of food pretty much for granted. Another measure of how well quality
standards meet consumers’ expectations is that it has taken 20 years to get a real consumer movement under way. And we
aren’t hearing the majority of consumers, we hear the crusaders, those who will save us in spite of ourselves. What they
advocate is good. But the results of the crusade were obvious a long time ago. And the decisions that have brought
nutrition labeling, ingredient labeling and price per measure should have been made without the high pressure and
invective that finally precipitated them. And if you think all this additional information is the end to making better food
shoppers-- you are wrong. We may be better educated, more sophisticated and have access to a better commodity system.
It will be well worthwhile, starting now, to listen more closely to the real consumers . Hear them when they say they want
fresh strawberries that taste like fresh strawberries, fresh tomatoes that taste like fresh tomatoes, and ripe peaches, plums
and melons.
So how does a food producer—even one that is following strict standards for its products—manage to show that it is
indeed doing so? In an age when every advertisement and TV commercial touts product quality, the word has lost its
meaning to many. Nonetheless, being able to demonstrate the meaning of quality in food products is not only important,
but often required.
This is where tools come in. Among those that are useful in offering proof of quality performance are:
 Process behavior, Shewhart, or control charts;
 Statistical process control;
 Measurement systems analysis;
 Gage calibration management; and
 Process capability analysis.
Of course the specific tools that are important vary by industry and customer needs. Hospitals, for example, might want to
analyze wait times in the Emergency Department, while an ice cream manufacturer may measure the number of chocolate
chips in its mint chocolate chip flavor. Each process may be different, but all demand attention to stable systems that
produce quality products and services. Food production and distribution depends on unique and diverse processes, from
measurement of ingredients to production, labeling, and packaging.
The type of proof that is required also depends upon the consumer of the information. If you manufacture automotive
parts, your customer might require a Cpk with the part you ship. A quality auditor might require a calibration history for a
gage, and an expectant mother might want to see how C-section rates at a local hospital compare to those nationwide.
Food producers serve customers at both wholesale and retail levels, and require a number of diverse metrics to show that
their products are safe and represent quality.
Regulations or standards set by FDA and the Food Safety Modernization Act, or FSMA, may require information about
the condition of a measurement system. Calibration records for gages and other measurement devices demand the use of
different tools from that of training records for employees.
Among available tools, in brief, are the following.
Control charts, known as process behavior charts or Shewhart charts, demonstrate the predictability of a process by
charting data to indicate its stability. Packages of chocolate candy will have normal distribution in the number of pieces
per package, but data that falls outside control limits signals an issue that must be addressed in order to maintain
consistency.
Statistical process control is used to analyze and interpret data so that areas to improve become apparent. It may involve
collecting data on fill rates in food packaging, for example, or incidents of food-borne pathogens in output. Any process
can be measured, analyzed, and improved.
Measurement systems analysis is a method for determining if a measurement system is capable of measuring differences
among the units produced by a process. If scales are used to measure packaging units, these scales demand accuracy and
consistency in their calibration. Gage calibration management is fundamental to doing good business in any organization
that uses physical equipment to measure its product or service.
Capability analysis is a set of calculations used to assess whether a system is statistically able to meet a set of
specifications or requirements. This simple statistical tool will eliminate headaches when processes fail to meet unrealistic
expectations.
Bioavailability of Nutrients, When we consume a food or drink, the nutrients contained are released from the matrix,
absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to their respective target tissues. However, not all nutrients can be utilised
to the same extent. In other words, they differ in their bioavailability. Understanding nutrient bioavailability helps
optimise diets and set appropriate nutrient recommendations.
Defining nutrient bioavailability Several definitions exist for nutrient bioavailability, but broadly it refers to the
proportion of a nutrient that is absorbed from the diet and used for normal body functions. The following components
describe the different steps of the metabolic pathway where changes in nutrient bioavailability may occur:
 release of the nutrient from the physicochemical dietary matrix
 effects of digestive enzymes in the intestine
 binding and uptake by the intestinal mucosa
 transfer across the gut wall (passing through the cells, in-between them or both) to the blood or lymphatic
circulation
 systemic distribution
 systemic deposition (stores)
 metabolic and functional use
 excretion (via urine or faeces)
As is evident from this list, the bioavailability of a nutrient is governed by external and internal factors. External factors
include the food matrix and the chemical form of the nutrient in question, whereas gender, age, nutrient status and life
stage (e.g. pregnancy) are among the internal factors. Because aspects such as nutrient status also determine whether and
how much of a nutrient is actually used, stored or excreted, some definitions of bioavailability restrict themselves to the
fraction of a nutrient that is absorbed. The bioavailability of macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, fats – is usually
very high at more than 90% of the amount ingested. On the other hand, micronutrients, i.e. vitamins and minerals, and
bioactive phytochemicals (e.g. flavonoids, carotenoids) can vary widely in the extent they are absorbed and utilised.
Therefore, the following sections will use micronutrients and phytochemicals as examples to illustrate the different stages
at which nutrient bioavailability can be influenced.
Effects of food matrix and chemical form of nutrients The first step in making a nutrient bioavailable is to liberate it
from the food matrix and turn it into a chemical form that can bind to and enter the gut cells or pass between them.
Collectively this is referred to as bioaccessibility. Nutrients are rendered bioaccessible by the processes of chewing
(mastication) and initial enzymatic digestion of the food in the mouth, mixing with acid and further enzymes in the gastric
juice upon swallowing, and finally release into the small intestine, the major site of nutrient absorption. Here, yet more
enzymes, supplied by the pancreatic juice, continue breaking down the food matrix. In addition to the bodily means of
mastication and enzyme action, the digestibility of food matrices, especially of plant foods, is aided by cooking or
pureeing the food. For example, whereas raw carrots and spinach are good sources of dietary fibre, cooking them allows
the human body to also extract a much larger fraction of the carotenoids contained.5
Minerals and other nutrients exist in different chemical forms in the food and this can influence their bioavailability. A
classic example is iron. In general we talk about two types of dietary iron; haem and non-haem iron. The former is only
found in meat, fish and poultry, whereas the latter occurs in foods of plant and animal origin. Haem iron mainly stems
from the haemoglobin and myoglobin molecules responsible for oxygen transport and storage in the blood and muscles,
respectively. Once released from the food matrix, the haem molecule acts like a protective ring around the central iron
atom. Thus, it shields the iron from interaction with other food components, keeps it soluble in the intestine, and is
absorbed intact through a specific transport system on the surface of the gut cells.6 In contrast, non-haem iron is poorly
soluble under intestinal conditions and easily affected by other components of the diet.2 Therefore only a small fraction is
taken up by the cells.
Sometimes vitamins and minerals are added to foods to increase their nutritional value - a process called fortification. In
the case of the B vitamin folic acid, which is often added to breakfast cereals, flour and certain spreads, this added folic
acid usually is more bioavailable than that naturally present in the food, commonly referred to as dietary folate. Studies
reported 20-70% lower bioavailability of dietary folate (from fruits, vegetables or liver) vs synthetic folic acid. 7 This does
not mean though that one should only consume foods fortified with folic acid, but rather that natural dietary sources such
as green leafy vegetables can be complemented with foods fortified with this vitamin to ensure that individual
requirements are met.
Enhancers of nutrient bioavailability Nutrients can interact with one another or with other dietary components at the
site of absorption, resulting in either a change in bioavailability or – if enhancers and inhibitors cancel each other out – a
nil effect. Enhancers can act in different ways such as keeping a nutrient soluble or protecting it from interaction with
inhibitors. For example, since carotenoids are fat-soluble, adding small quantities of fat or oil to the meal (3-5 g per meal)
improves their bioavailability. Similarly, meat, fish and poultry, while containing highly bioavailable iron themselves, are
also known to enhance the absorption of iron from all foods. Although this ‘meat factor’ has yet to be identified, an
influence of the muscle protein has been suggested. Vitamin C is also a strong ‘helper’, being able to increase iron
absorption by two or three times. This means, for example, having a glass of orange juice with a bowl of breakfast cereal
helps the body use more of the iron in the cereal.
Impact of inhibitors on nutrient bioavailability Inhibitors may reduce nutrient bioavailability by: i) binding the nutrient
in question in a form that is not recognised by the uptake systems on the surface of intestinal cells, ii) rendering the
nutrient insoluble and thus unavailable for absorption, or iii) competing for the same uptake system. Phytic acid is highly
abundant in certain plant foods (e.g. pulses, whole-grain cereals, seeds, nuts) and strongly binds minerals such as calcium,
iron and zinc in soluble or insoluble complexes that are unavailable for absorption. Ways to reduce the phytic acid content
of foods include fermentation (e.g. extensive leavening of wholemeal bread dough) or the soaking and germination of
pulses.
An example of competition for the same uptake system is the interaction between calcium and non-haem iron. Both
minerals bind to a transporter on the surface of intestinal absorptive cells, but whereas non-haem iron enters the cells this
way, calcium basically stays in the doorway and hinders further entry of the iron. This effect is mainly relevant when
calcium and or iron supplements are used outside the meal setting. Therefore, the best advice is to use those supplements
at different times of day so as to avoid this interference.
The inhibitory effect of food constituents can also be used advantageously, as is done in the case of phytosterols. These
natural compounds are extracted from certain plant foods and added in higher doses (about 2 g per portion) to various
other foods (for example enriched spreads, fermented milk drinks) in order to lower the absorption of cholesterol, be it
from dietary sources or produced in the human body.
Host factors Internal or host-related factors can be subdivided into gastrointestinal and systemic factors. The role of
gastrointestinal factors is illustrated by the absorptive pathway of vitamin B12. This vitamin requires gastric acid to be
released from the food matrix and then it undergoes a sequence of binding to R protein, release from R protein, binding to
the protein “intrinsic factor” (IF) and finally absorption of the intact IF-vitamin B12 complex in the lower intestine. R
protein, IF and gastric acid are all produced in the gastric mucosa, and functional decline of this mucosa – as may occur in
the elderly and with certain conditions – can compromise their production and thus vitamin B12 bioavailability.
Systemic factors include deficiency of a certain nutrient or changes in physiologic state, e.g. pregnancy. In both cases, the
body may respond by increasing the respective nutrient absorptive pathway or utilisation to meet the increased
demand. Calcium and zinc are among the nutrients regulated in this way. On the other hand, some inflammatory
conditions or infections may reduce the absorptive capacity of the gut. For example, the absorption of iron is down-
regulated in people suffering from acute infections such as the common cold.
Impact on nutrient recommendations For several nutrients – primarily calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, folate and
vitamin A – knowledge of their bioavailability is needed to translate physiological requirements into actual dietary
requirements. The magnitude of adjustments varies by nutrient, habitual diet and a number of host-related factors, most of
which are difficult to assess. Considering all these influences, it is not surprising that nutrient-based dietary
recommendations differ between countries and institutions, but efforts are being undertaken by the EURRECA Network
of Excellence to standardise assessment methodologies across Europe.
Abstract / Synopsis Bioavailability aims to describe the effect of a sequence of metabolic events on nutrient utilization.
The supply of nutrients to the human body not only depends on the amount of the nutrient in a food, but also on its
bioavailability. The bioavailability of nutrients is highly variable and can be influenced by numerous factors. Different
nutrients (including protein, iron and vitamin A), and the forms in which they exist in the ingested medium, will react in
different ways to inhibitors and enhancers and the hosts’ nutritional status, all contributing to the complex variability of
nutrient bioavailability. 1 Background The correct assessment of the adequacy of dietary intakes of nutrients requires not
only knowledge of the nutrient content of the foods ingested, but also the extent to which the nutrient present in the diet is
available for absorption and utilization in the human body. Bioavailability is the technical term used to convey the fact
that not 100% of nutrients ingested will be absorbed, irrespective of whether consumed in the form of food or
supplements. Bioavailability aims to describe the effect of a sequence of metabolic events, including digestion,
solubilization, absorption, organ uptake and release, enzymatic transformation, secretion and excretion, on nutrient
utilization. The supply of nutrients to the human body thus not only depends on the amount of the nutrient in a food, but
also on its bioavailability. Understanding nutrient bioavailability helps to optimize diets and set appropriate nutrient
recommendations.
The bioavailability of macronutrients, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins and fats, is usually high with more than 90% of the
amount ingested being absorbed and utilized in the human body. On the other hand, micronutrients such as vitamins and
minerals, and bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonoids, carotenoids, can vary widely in the extent to which they are
absorbed and utilized after ingestion. 2 Defining bioavailability Until a nutrient passes from the digestive system into the
bloodstream, it has little or no value. Bioavailability can be explained as the amount of a nutrient absorbed from the gut
which becomes available for normal physiological functions or storage. 3 The variability of nutrient bioavailability The
bioavailability of nutrients is highly variable and can be influenced by numerous factors, including physiochemical
properties such as chemical binding form; the matrix in which the nutrient is incorporated; the presence or absence of
other food components that enhances or inhibits absorption; metabolization after absorption; host related factors
(including state of health, genetic factors, age and lifestyle); as well as other individual factors. 3.1 Enhancers and
inhibitors Nutrients can interact with one another or with other dietary components at the site of absorption, resulting in
either a change in bioavailability or – if enhancers and inhibitors cancel each other out – a nil effect. Enhancers can act in
different ways such as keeping a nutrient soluble or protecting it from interaction with inhibitors. For example, since
carotenoids are fat-soluble, adding small quantities of fat or oil to the meal (3 to 5g per meal) improves their
bioavailability. Similarly, meat, fish and poultry, while containing highly bioavailable iron themselves, are also known to
enhance the absorption of iron from other foods ingested at the same time. Although this ‘meat factor’ has yet to be
identified, it has been suggested that muscle protein exerts an influence. Inhibitors, on the other hand, may reduce nutrient
bioavailability by binding the nutrient in question into a form that is not recognized by the uptake systems on the surface
of intestinal cells, rendering the nutrient insoluble and thus unavailable for absorption, or competing for the same uptake
system. As an example, phytic acid is highly abundant in certain plant foods (e.g. pulses, whole-grain cereals, seeds, nuts)
and strongly binds minerals such as calcium, iron and zinc in soluble or insoluble complexes that are unavailable for
absorption. Ways to reduce the phytic acid content of foods include fermentation (e.g. extensive leavening of whole meal
bread dough) or the soaking and germination of pulses. The inhibitory effect of food constituents can also be used
advantageously, as is done in the case of phytosterols. These natural compounds are extracted from certain plant foods
and added in higher doses (about 2g per portion) to various other foods (for example enriched spreads, fermented milk
drinks) to lower the absorption of cholesterol, be it from dietary sources or produced in the human body. 4 Bioavailability
of specific nutrients Protein-energy malnutrition, vitamin A and iron deficiencies are of the most common forms of
malnutrition experienced globally and often co-exist. For effective interventions and dietary guidelines, consideration of
the bioavailability of these nutrients as supplied from different food sources is particularly important. The bioavailability
of these nutrients is also distinct, and influenced by different factors, which offers good examples of the complexity of
nutrient bioavailability. 4.1 Protein and amino acids Although protein is a macronutrient which is considered to be easily
absorbed into the human body, its bioavailability is directly linked to its digestibility. To be most bioavailable, a meal
needs to supply all the required essential amino acids in the correct proportions. Amino acids are the central units in
protein metabolism. They are incorporated into various proteins and converted to metabolically essential compounds such
as nucleic acids, creatine and porphyrins. Of the 20 amino acids building human proteins, 12 are manufactured by the
body and are known as nonessential amino acids. The remaining eight (8) (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) must be obtained from the diet and are thus termed essential or
indispensable amino acids. A sufficient intake of essential amino acids and adequate amount of nitrogen for the body to
produce the nonessential amino acids is important for protein metabolism. 4.1.1 Protein quality The nutritional quality of
food proteins varies and depends on essential amino acid composition. Foods that contain essential amino acids at levels
that facilitate tissue growth and repair are known as complete protein foods, supplying high quality proteins. Amino acids
containing sulphur (including methionine and cysteine) most commonly limit the nutritive values (quality) of proteins in
the human diet. These sulphur containing amino acid concentrations are generally considered lower in legumes and fruits
than in animal foods. The roles of these amino acids in the human body are crucial, as for example methionine is the
initiating amino acid in the synthesis of almost all eukaryotic proteins, and cysteine (due to its ability to form sulphur
bonds), plays an important role in protein structure. Other indispensible amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, are also
consistently found at lower concentrations in plant-based foods, than in animal foods, e.g. tryptophan and lysine are
limiting in corn, lysine in wheat, sorghum and other cereals, and methionine is limiting in soybeans and other legumes.
For further reading on the global protein quality debate, refer to the 2011 report of the FAO Expert Consultation on
dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition (FAO, 2011). In addition to protein quality, digestibility (absorption),
chemical integrity and inhibitors are three key properties of food that can influence the bioavailability of amino acids.
4.1.2 Amino acid digestibility Amino acid digestibility explains the proportion of consumed amino acids that is absorbed.
It is not a fixed attribute but reflects an interaction between the food and the host consuming it and therefore may be
subjected to individual variation. Although the digestibility (absorption) of macronutrients, including protein, is relatively
high, protein utilization is influenced by total dietary energy intake and by the quality of the protein in terms of its ability
to meet the metabolic demand. 4.1.3 Chemical integrity Chemical integrity describes the proportion of the amino acid
that, if absorbed, is in an utilizable form. Some amino acids present in foods may be in a structural form that is
unavailable (i.e. the amino acid may be absorbed in a form that cannot be utilized). This is most likely to be encountered
in foods that are heat-treated, oxidized or subjected to other severe processes that can limit amino acid bioavailability.
Heat treatment leads to the formation of Maillard compounds and a loss of lysine availability. Oxidization leads to
oxidized sulphur containing amino acids and the subsequent loss of bioavailability of tryptophan and threonine. High pH
induces racemization of L-amino acid residues to Disomers and formation of cross-linked amino acids such as
lysinoalanine, which also reduces bioavailability. 4.1.4 Inhibitors Many foods contain bioactive (protein or non-protein)
substances that may inhibit amino acid bioavailability either by affecting digestibility or post-absorptive utilization. These
inhibitors may be naturally occurring (e.g. tannins, phytates, trypsin inhibitors, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates), formed
during processing (e.g. D-amino acids, lysinoalanine), or formed during genetic modification of crops (e.g. lectins in
lentils). (Lectins depressed growth at low levels in the diet and are toxic at high levels). 4.2 Vitamin A Vitamin A is a
generic term used for a group of structurally related chemical compounds known as retinoids. Retinoids refer to both
naturally occurring and synthetic compounds with, or without, the biological activity of vitamin A. Figure 1 shows the
chemical structures of some retinoids. The term vitamin A is often used as a general term for all compounds that exhibit
the biological activity of retinol. Vitamin A activity in the diet derives from two sources: preformed vitamin A as retinyl
esters or retinoids and provitamin A carotenoids, such as β-carotene, α-carotene, and βcryptoxanthin. Although an
essential nutrient needed in only small amounts, vitamin A is necessary for normal functioning of the visual system;
growth and development; and maintenance of epithelial cellular integrity, immune function and reproduction. 4.2.1
Retinol (preformed vitamin A) In vivo, vitamin A is generally found as the free alcohol form (retinol) or esterified with a
fatty acid (retinyl ester). The vitamin is available in pure form by chemical synthesis or as vitamin A palmitate or acetate.
It is a pale yellow solid, which dissolves freely in oils and fats, but is insoluble in water. When vitamin A intake is
adequate, more than 90% of total body vitamin A is located in the liver, which releases the nutrient into the circulation as
needed. The major dietary forms of preformed vitamin A are long-chain fatty acid esters of retinol, commonly found in
foods of animal origin, such as glandular meats, liver and fish liver oils (especially), egg yolk, and whole milk and dairy
products. Preformed vitamin A is absorbed in the small intestine. The bioavailability of retinol is generally high, ranging
from 70% to 90%. Factors such as dietary fat and intestinal infections can affect the absorption of vitamin A by the body.
Products of fat digestion (e.g., fatty acids, monoglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids) and secretions in bile (e.g.,
bile salts and hydrolytic enzymes) are essential for the efficient solubilization of retinol. Absorption of retinol appears to
be reduced in individuals with diarrhea, intestinal infections and infestations. H3C CH3 OH CH3 CH3 CH3 all-trans
retinol H3C CH3 O CH3 CH3 CH3 O R O R CH3 Acetate O CH2 (CH2 ) R 13CH3 Palmitate retinyl ester H3C CH3
CH3 CH3 H3C N CH3 11-cis retinal Figure 1: Chemical structures of different retinoids. All-trans-retinol is by definition
vitamin A, and 1mg of all-trans retinol is equal to 1 retinol equivalent (RE). When a fatty acyl group is esterified to the
hydroxyl terminus of all-trans-retinol, a storage form of retinol, the retinyl ester is formed. The most abundant retinyl
esters are those of palmitic, oleic, stearic and linoleic acids. Retinyl acetate and palmitate are often used as dietary
supplements, but do not occur naturally. Retinol can be reversibly oxidized to retinal, which as the 11-cis isomer is
essential for the visual cycle (Packer et al., 2005). 4.2.2 Carotenoids Carotenoids are lipid-soluble plant pigments found in
photosynthetic plants and animal tissues. About 600 carotenoids have been isolated and characterized in nature, and about
10% of these can be metabolized to vitamin A in a variety of animal species, including humans. Both provitamin A
carotenoids such as α- and β-carotenes and cryptoxanthins and nonprovitamin A carotenoids such as lutein, zeaxanthin,
and lycopene are present in the blood and tissues of humans and have a variety of functions. Structures of these
carotenoids are shown in Figure 2. Provitamin A carotenoids are an important source of dietary vitamin A that are found
primarily in dark-green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, and in orange and yellow vegetables and fruit, such as carrots,
mango, and papaya, although their bioavailability is significantly more variable than that of preformed vitamin A (retinol).
The bioavailability of carotenoids is affected by various factors. Different carotenoids have different levels of vitamin A
activity depending upon the efficiency of their absorption and the rate of their conversion to vitamin A. Recent research
has shown that the bioavailability of traditional dietary sources of ß-carotene is considerably lower (by one-half to one-
fourth) than was previously assumed. Conversion factors for estimating vitamin A obtained from plant foods were revised
from 6:1 to 12:1 (µg ß-carotene:retinol activity equivalent (RAE)) and 24:1 for other provitamin A carotenoids in a mixed
diet. A wide variation in vitamin A equivalency ratios are found and can be affected by food- and diet-related factors and
health, nutritional, and genetic characteristics of human populations. There are various diet related and host related factors
affecting the bioavailability of carotenoids. These factors have been evaluated and extensively reported on by
Castenmiller and West, and De Pee et al. in 1998, Van Het Hof et al. in 2000, as well as Yeum and Russell in 2002.
Figure 2: Chemical structures of major provitamin A carotenoids (α-carotene, ß-carotene and ß-cryptoxanthin) and
nonprovitamin carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene) found in food. 4.2.2.1 Bio-availability of carotenoids The
main diet-related factors that influence bioavailability are the food matrix in which ßcarotene is incorporated, the amount
ingested and the habitual diet type. The nutritional status, health, and genetic characteristics of human populations can
also affect the absorption and bioavailability of carotenoids. Release of the carotenoids from the food matrix is an
important first step in the absorption process. The rupture of the plant cell walls by processing (e.g. heating or pureeing)
promotes the release of ß-carotene from cells before and during digestion, and therefore it facilitates solubilization and
absorption. The bioavailability of ß-carotene from fruits is generally higher than for vegetables, as the cell wall structure
in fruits is usually weaker than that in most vegetables and leaves. Furthermore, inhibitors of carotenoid absorption
present in fruit are also less than that of inhibitors present in leafy vegetables. The composition of the diet (due to nutrient-
to-nutrient interactions) affects to a large extent the absorption of carotenoids. The second step in the absorption process
that may affect bioavailability involves the incorporation of released carotenoids into mixed micelles. Among other
factors, formation of these micelles is dependent on the presence of fat in the intestine. Therefore, ingestion of fat along
with carotenoids is thought to be crucial. It was found that only a small amount of fat is sufficient to enhance carotenoid
absorption. As expected, unabsorbable fat-soluble compounds such as sucrose polyester (a fat replacer), reduces
carotenoid absorption. Also, as dietary fiber content increases, the absorption of ß-carotene decreases. Dietary fiber reacts
with bile acids and thereby decreases the absorption of fat and fat soluble nutrients. The presence of dietary fiber in
vegetables and fruits may explain in part the lower bioavailability of carotenoids from plant foods. Simultaneous ingestion
of various carotenoids may also reduce absorption of either of the carotenoids due to interactions at the intestinal level.
Studies on simultaneous ingestion of carotenoids indicate that lutein may interfere with absorption of ß-carotene resulting
in reduced bioavailability. It has also been found that with pharmaceutical doses of ß-carotene, conversion of ß-carotene
to vitamin A decreases as the oral dose of ß-carotene increases. Further research is required to identify the mechanisms
behind these interactions. The absorption of carotenoids is furthermore highly likely to be dependent on vitamin A status
of the host. Feeding ß-carotene–rich foods to humans leads to an increase in serum retinol levels only when these are
initially low. The serum response to ß-carotene is higher in women than in men; however, part of this effect could be
attributed to differences in body weight and body composition. Intestinal helminthic infections are associated with
malnutrition, and their effects are possibly mediated through impaired fat absorption and reduced vitamin absorption,
particularly of vitamin A. 4.3 Iron Minerals (and other nutrients) exist in different chemical forms in food and this can
influence their bioavailability. A classic example is iron. There are two primary forms of dietary iron, namely heme and
non-heme iron. The former is only found in animal products such as red meat, fish and poultry. The heme iron content of
animal source foods is estimated at 40% of total iron, but data suggest that considerably more heme iron is provided by a
portion of red meat than by a portion of white fish for example. Heme iron is a component from hemoglobin and
myoglobin (see Figure 3) which explains why it is only found in animal tissue. Non-heme iron is found mostly in plant-
based foods, and makes up the remaining estimated 60% of iron found in animal products. The type of iron (heme or non-
heme) notably influences bioavailability. Approximately 90% of dietary iron is consumed in the non-heme form,
however, due to a low bioavailability it constitutes only approximately 50% of iron actually absorbed into the human
body. The absorption of non-heme iron is usually much lower than that of heme iron. In general, the rate of non-heme iron
absorption is related to its solubility in the upper part of the small intestine. The presence of soluble enhancers such as
ascorbic acid and inhibitors such as phytates, polyphenols and calcium, consumed during the same meal will have a
notable effect on the amount of non-heme iron absorbed. Heme iron is much less affected by other dietary factors and
contributes more significantly to absorbable iron. Figure 3: Chemical structure of heme iron as found in food from animal
sources. 4.3.1 Inhibitors and enhancers of iron bioavailability Non-heme food iron that enters the common iron pool in the
digestive tract is absorbed to the same extent, which depends on the balance between the absorption inhibitors and
enhancers and the iron status of the individuals. Phytate and polyphenols in plant-based diets is the main inhibitors of non-
heme iron absorption. The negative effect of phytate on iron bioavailability is dose-dependent and any food processing
and preparation methods, such as milling, heating, soaking, germination and fermentation that degrade phytate to a
varying extent, will have a positive effect on iron absorption. Controversies exist on the inhibitory effect of oxalic acid in
spinach and cabbage and non-digestible carbohydrates in beans on iron absorption, as these foods are also good sources of
ascorbic acid which enhances iron absorption. Calcium and dairy products have also been shown to have a negative effect
on non-heme iron absorption, but what separates it from other inhibitors is its ability to also inhibit heme iron absorption.
Single meal studies show a negative effect of calcium on iron absorption, but multi-meal studies with a variety of other
inhibitors and enhancers indicate that calcium has only a limited negative effect on iron absorption. In a recent study the
two major milk protein fraction, casein and whey, and egg protein, albumin, were reported to have a negative effect on
iron absorption in humans. Although phytate was shown to be the major inhibitor in soy, even after complete phytate
digestion in soy protein isolates significant inhibition of iron absorption was still observed. It was concluded that both
phytate and a protein fraction were the main inhibitors of iron absorption in soy. Ascorbic acid has convincingly been
shown to enhance iron bioavailability in a dosedependent manner. This effect is largely due to ascorbic acid’s ability to
reduce ferric to ferrous iron. Ascorbic acid has also been shown to, at least partially counteract the inhibitory effect of
both phytate and polyphenols on non-heme iron absorption. Small amounts of meat are recognised to enhance the
absorption of non-heme iron from plant foods, although the mechanism for the enhancing effect of meat on non-heme iron
absorption is unknown. Studies support the enhancing effect of cysteine-containing peptides following the proteolysis of
meat muscle. Vitamin A and β-carotene can also enhance non-heme iron absorption and improve hemoglobin levels,
although several studies suggest that it is only observed in iron deficient individuals. Host related factors that influence the
absorption of heme and non-heme iron includes mainly iron status, other nutritional deficiencies, infection, genetic
disorders and physiological state. As with inhibitors and enhancers, the iron status of an individual mainly influences on
the absorption of non-heme iron, while heme iron absorption is less affected. There is an inverse relationship between iron
status and iron absorption. Protein-energy malnutrition, riboflavin and vitamin A deficiencies have also been shown to
impair iron metabolism and absorption. The correction of nutritional deficiency will improve iron absorption. Iron
deficiency often co-exists in a double burden of disease in seemingly well-fed, overweight populations. This can be
partially due to iron absorption being decreased by the peptide, hepcidin. Hepcidin secretion is increased due to chronic
inflammation and obesity. It is a regulatory hormone secreted by the liver and inhibits iron absorption. Achlorhydria
might also be a substantial cause of iron deficiency, mainly in elderly people in whom atrophic gastritis is common, and
gastric acid secretion is low. Gastric acid is needed to maintain ferric iron forms in solution and bioavailable. However,
heme iron does not appear to be affected by lack of acid and is normally absorbed in individuals with atrophic gastritis.
Other common causes of lowered iron absorption and iron deficiency are mucosal atrophy in coeliac disease and,
possibly, Helicobacter Pylori infection, although no consensus has been reached. For further reading on iron
bioavailability, refer to Heath and Fairweather (2002), Zimmerman and Hurrel (2007), and Hurrel and Egli (2010). 5
Conclusions Different nutrients react differently once ingested into the human gastro-intestinal tract, and can be
influenced by various factors including the quality of the food source and the matrix in which it is consumed, the
composition of the whole meal, inhibitors, enhancers and the status of the host. Although bioavailability is only a partial
measure of the body’s ability to benefit from a nutrient, this factor quantifies the amount of a substance that successfully
enters the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, the nutrient must cross cellular membranes before it can nourish body
cells. In addition to considering the nutrient content of foods, nutrient bioavailability should also be taken into
consideration when nutrition-sensitive policies, nutrition interventions and dietary guidelines are developed. It should
however be noted that bioavailability can’t attain a constant calculated value, and needs to be considered with caution as
multiple factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic, can notably affect the bioavailability of nutrients present in food-, and non-
food sources of nutrients.
Recently consumer demands in the field of food has significantly changed. Consumers, in fact, are aware of that food is
related to their health. Even the concept of food has undergone in recent years a profound transformation since it is not
only to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent diseases and improve physical and mental consumer
health. In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role. There is no official definition of Functional Foods
common to all States since in several Countries there is no legislation. Actually “functional foods” can be definite as
“foods that may provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition” or “food similar in appearance to conventional food that is
intended to be consumed as part of a normal diet, but has been modified to sub serve physiological roles beyond the
provision of simple nutrient requirements”. In the past decades, the functional foods market growing rapidly and
dynamically. Data from Euromonitor 2010 revealed that the value of their global market is 168 billion in US$ with
worldwide annual growth rate of 7.2% in the 10 years to 2017. The first Functional Foods to be developed were fortified
food, in which food are enriched in vitamins such as C and E, folic acid, calcium, iron, and zinc. Afterward, omega-3 fatty
acid, phytosterol, soluble fiber and micronutrients such as polyphenols, carotenoids etc. were added [5]. One of the most
critical aspects of the activity of functional foods regards the possibility that their constituent remain “active” and
"bioavailable" even after processing. When consumers consume a functional food or functional drink, the bioactive
constituents contained are released from the dietary matrix, metabolized under the action of digestive enzymes, absorbed
into the bloodstream, transported to their respective target tissues or excreted via urine or faeces. However, not all
constituents can be used to the same extent since they differ in their bioavailability. Bioavailability is defined as the
amount of an ingested nutrient that is available for absorption in the gut after digestion. Therefore, the bioavailability of a
nutrient is directed by internal and external and factors. Internal factors are age, gender, nutrient status and particular
health-condition (e.g. pregnancy, diseases) whereas the release of the functional constituents from food matrix and its
chemical form that allow to permit to enter into the gut cells or pass between them were considered as external factors.
The bioavailability of macronutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats is usually more than 90% of the amount
ingested while minerals, vitamins and bioactive phytochemicals such as carotenoids, flavonoids tec. can vary widely in
the extent they are absorbed and consumed. Among mineral a classic example is iron. Dietary iron has two main forms:
heme and nonheme. Nuts, beans, vegetables, and fortified grain products contain non-heme iron only, whereas meat,
seafood, and poultry contain both form. Generally, heme iron has higher bioavailability than non-heme iron with a
bioavailability value approximately of 14-18%. When heme-iron is released from the food matrix, the heme group protect
the central iron atom and allow permitting it absorbtion through a specific transport system on the surface of the gut cells
(Hurrel “et al.”, 2010). Folate or vitamin B is recognized as beneficial health-wise in anemia, cardiovascular diseases, in
the prevention of neural tube defects etc. Several national health authorities have introduced mandatory food fortification
with synthetic folic acid characterized by a superior bioavailability and bioefficacy. Recently, Ohrvik & Witthoft
demonstrated that limited folate bioavailability (20-70%) for vegetables, fruits, breakfast cereal products. For the above-
mentioned reasons they recommend to use synthetic folic acid. This does not mean though that one should only consume
foods fortified with folic acid, but rather that natural dietary sources such as green leafy vegetables can be complemented
with foods fortified with this vitamin to ensure that individual requirements are met. The possibility that the
bioavailability of vitamin C from natural sources might be different from that of synthetic was investigated in two human
studies, and no clinically
significant differences were observed. In particular, Gregory demonstrated that vitamin C derived from orange products or
cooked broccoli is equally bioavailable. A controversial interference with vitamin C bioavailability was observed when in
food matrix both vitamin C and flavonoids are contained. Uchida “et al.” . Showed a significant reduction in urinary
excretion of vitamin C in the presence of flavonoids whereas Jones “et al.” . Observed an increased level of vitamin after
consumption of flavonoids rich juice such as kiwifruit and blackcurrant. Among phytochemicals with functional
properties, carotenoids and flavonoids are predominant. Carotenoids are enclosed in plant cell walls and cell organelles.
Their bioavailability may be also influenced by cooking, fat content and by the presence of fibers . Carotenoid release
from the food matrix can be enhanced by cooking or freezing however, the literature on the effect of cooking and
processing is controversial [11,12]. A low bioavailability was observed also for flavonoids. For example, urinary
excretion of anthocyanins was 43%. Moreover their content in food matrix can be influenced, also by temperature, pH,
light, oxygen, presence of enzymes, proteins, metallic ions and other flavonoids. Flavonoids with complex structures and
larger molecular weights can reaching out to a bioavailability may be even lower . RodriguezMateos “et al.”. Investigated
the effect of processing in blueberry polyphenols. Although processing did not significantly change the total phenols
content, the processed products contained significantly less anthocyanins, more chlorogenic acid, and significantly more
flavanol. A flow-mediated dilation was observed after consumption of the baked products to a similar degree as the
unprocessed blueberries, despite significant differences in the levels of individual plasma metabolites. Bioactive food
compounds, whether derived from various sources, need to be bioavailable in order to exert any health effects. Several
factors affect bioavailability, such as molecular structures, food matrix release, transporters, and metabolizing enzymes.
Bioefficacy may be improved through enhanced bioavailability. Therefore, several technologies have been developed to
improve the bioavailability, including structural modifications, nanotechnology and colloidal systems. Due to the complex
nature of food bioactive constituents and the different mechanisms of their absorption, distribution and excretion
unravelling the bioavailability of food bioactive constituents is challenging. Even though there are several research
investigations reporting on bioavailability and bioefficacy of these bioactive food constituents, the literature appear
sometimes controversial. For the above-mentioned reasons further studies are necessary to understanding their
interactions, metabolism and mechanism of action
Deficiencies of iron, zinc, iodine and vitamin A are widespread in the developing countries, poor bioavailability of these
micronutrients from plant-based foods being the major reason for their wide prevalence. Diets predominantly vegetarian
are composed of components that enhance as well as inhibit mineral bioavailability, the latter being predominant.
However, prudent cooking practices and use of ideal combinations of food components can significantly improve
micronutrient bioavailability. Household processing such as heat treatment, sprouting, fermentation and malting have
been evidenced to enhance the bioavailability of iron and β-carotene from plant foods. Food acidulants amchur and lime
are also shown to enhance the bioavailability of not only iron and zinc, but also of β-carotene. Recently indentified newer
enhancers of micronutrient bioaccessibility include sulphur compound-rich Allium spices—onion and garlic, which also
possess antioxidant properties, β-carotene-rich vegetables—carrot and amaranth, and pungent spices—pepper (both red
and black) as well as ginger. Information on the beneficial effect of these dietary compounds on micronutrient
bioaccessibility is novel. These food components evidenced to improve the bioavailability of micronutrients are common
ingredients of Indian culinary, and probably of other tropical countries. Fruits such as mango and papaya, when consumed
in combination with milk, provide significantly higher amounts of bioavailable β-carotene. Awareness of the beneficial
influence of these common dietary ingredients on the bioavailability of micronutrients would help in devising dietary
strategies to improve the bioavailability of these vital nutrients.
1. Introduction Numerous wild edible plant species have been used by different communities in Ethiopia, mainly as
supplement to conventional foods. However, the biodiversity is threatened through replacement of forests with
agricultural expansion and deforestation without cultivation and domestication of potential species. These situations could
exacerbate local food shortages and aggravate widespread malnutrition in the country. Diversification of production and
consumption habits to include a broader range of plant species, particularly those currently identified as underutilized,
could significantly contribute to improve health and nutrition, livelihoods, and ecological sustainability. Edible wild and
traditional vegetables have played an important role in supplementing staple foods by supplying trace elements, vitamins,
and minerals. As wild food plants grow in natural conditions, they are easily accessed and freely harvested for their
human food and nutrition values. They are relevant in household food security and nutrition in some rural areas,
particularly during seasonal food shortage periods, and provide good nutritional supplies, notably micronutrients [10].
Micronutrient deficiencies affect billions of people globally. Although less prevalent in higher-income populations, these
deficiencies do occur in such groups, especially among premature infants, children, and the elderly. Several sources
revealed that edible wild plant and traditional vegetable species increase the nutritional quality by providing minerals,
fiber, vitamins, and essential fatty acids and enhance taste and color in rural diets. Underutilized green leafy vegetables
are a good source of many nutrients like iron, calcium, ascorbic acid, and β-carotene that could help in overcoming
micronutrient malnutrition and easily accessed by the community at a low cost. Because micronutrient deficiencies (such
as vitamin A) are associated with low intake of foods such as vegetables, as opposed to starchy (energy rich) staples
which provide the majority of energy intake in typical African diets, increment in energy production and consumption will
likely do little to ameliorate the problem of micronutrient deficiency unless identification, proper evaluation, and
domestication of nutritionally potential lesser known vegetables are integrated into the diets of the population. Moreover,
the roles of edible wild plants and lesser known crops in human nutrition are potentially valuable to maintain a balance
between population growth and agricultural productivity, particularly in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world.
Hence, continuous search for new source of nutrient especially from plant foods is a basis for selecting promising species
for further studies on green leafy vegetables to meet the nutritional requirements. Evaluation of the nutrient and
antinutrient compositions of wild edible plants helps to identify foods rich in minerals and acquiring knowledge on the
methods of appropriate preparation to enhance bioavailability of nutrients. As the consumption of plant products low in
bioavailable minerals is high in rural communities of Ethiopia, the presence of antinutritional factors that limits the
optimal utilization of wild and traditional vegetables and the extent to which the household food preparation methods
could reduce them need investigations. Therefore, the objective of this work was to assess mineral contents and their
bioavailability as a function of local household preparation methods of some wild and traditional vegetables of the Gumuz
ethnic community located in Benishangul Gumuz state western Ethiopia.
2. Materials and Methods The study plants were collected from Agalo Meti district in Kemash zone of Benishangul
Gumuz Regional state located at 530 km west of the capital Addis Ababa.
2.1. Selection of Species Selection of species for our investigation was based on ethnobotanical study findings in the
study area. Dioscorea abyssinica (tuber), Oxytenanthera abyssinica Munro (young shoot), Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)
Moench (immature pod), and Portulaca quadrifida (aerial part) were selected based on their wider utilization by the
community in the study area. The first two species are wild and the last two exist both under cultivation and wild stand.
The selected vegetables were recommended for domestication according to an association in Benishangul Gumuz called
“Tikuret le Gumuz Limat Mahiber” for the reason that they are widely consumed by the community and because they are
most suited for domestication. Each species was collected at the time when edible parts are acceptable for consumption by
the local community. Voucher specimens of the selected edible plants were collected and processed for verification. The
specimens were identified by a botanist from Bioversity International and Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) using
standard procedures and deposited in the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University (AAU).
2.2. Sample Collection and Preparation Edible parts of the selected vegetables were harvested manually from their
natural habitat in different areas of Agalo Meti woreda. Five-kilogram edible parts of the respective species were collected
from 20 different plants of the same species to ensure the representativeness.
2.3. Mineral Analysis The methods of were used to determine minerals. The sample extract solution was transferred to
polyethylene bottle and stored until use for determinations of minerals. Blank was prepared without sample by taking the
same amount of reagents under the same condition. The minerals, namely, calcium, iron, zinc, and Cu, were analyzed
using Shimadzu atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AA-6800/“AA Wizard” software). Sodium and potassium contents
were determined using flame photometer (Jenway, PF 7, Essex, UK) according to the method described by AOAC 2005,
966.16 and 965.30, respectively. Phosphorus was determined using UV-visible spectrophotometer (CECIL Instruments,
Cambridge England, deuterium F 500 mA, power T3. 15 A) based on method 970.39. Absorbance of standard, blank, and
samples was read at 660 nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer. Absorbance versus concentration calibration curve was
constructed and the equation obtained was used to calculate the unknown phosphorus concentration in the
samples:where is the absorbance of sample, is the absorbance of blank, and Slope is calculated from the calibration
curve.
2.4. Determinations of Antinutritional Factors
2.4.1. Phytic Acid The phytate content was determined as described by. Briefly, 0.5 gm of dried sample was extracted
with 10 mL of 0.2 N HCl for 1 hour at an ambient temperature and centrifuged (3000 rpm for 30 m). The clear supernatant
was used for the phytic acid determination. Two mL of wade reagent (0.03% FeCl36H2O and 0.3% sulfosalicylic acid)
was added to 3 mL of the supernatant sample solution. The solution mixture was homogenized and centrifuged
(3000 rpm/10 minutes). The absorbance was measured at 500 nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The amount of
phytic acid was calculated using phytic acid standard curve prepared in the same condition and the result was expressed as
phytic acid mg/100 g dry weight.
2.4.2. Oxalate The oxalate content of the samples was determined using titration method.. Two g of finely ground
samples was placed in a 250 mL conical flask containing 190 mL of distilled water. Ten mL 6 M HCl solution was added
to each of the samples and the suspension was digested at 100°C for 1 h. The samples were then cooled and made up to
250 mL mark of the flask. The samples were filtered and duplicate portion of 125 mL of the filtrate was measured into
beaker and four drops of methyl red indicator was added, followed by the addition of concentrated NH4OH solution (drop
wise) until the solution was changed from pink to yellow color. Each portion was then heated to 90°C, cooled, and filtered
to remove the precipitate containing ferrous ion. Each of the filtrates was again heated to 90°C and 10 mL of 5%
CaCl2 solution was added to each of the samples with stirring consistently. After cooling, the samples were left overnight.
The solutions were then centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 5 min. The supernatants were decanted and the precipitates were
completely dissolved in 10 mL 20% H2SO4. The total filtrates resulting from digestion of 2 g of each of the samples were
made up to 200 mL. Aliquots of 125 mL of the filtrates were heated until near boiling and then titrated against 0.02 M
standardized KMnO4 solutions to a pink color which persisted for 30 sec. The oxalate contents of each sample were
calculated. The analysis was carried out in duplicate, and the results were expressed in dry basis.
2.5. Minerals Bioavailability Molar ratios of antinutrient/minerals were used to predict the minerals bioavailability. The
suggested critical values used to predict the bioavailability were calcium : phytate < 6, phytate : iron > 1, phytate : zinc >
15, and phytate : calcium/zinc > 0.5.
2.6. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviation were calculated using SPSS version
16 software. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to see the effect of household processing methods on
mineral contents and the bioavailability of minerals in selected vegetables. Multiple comparison tests using least
significant difference technique (LSD, ) were applied to compare the means of each parameter between different
household preparation practices using SPSS version 16 software. Paired comparison -test was used to determine if there
was a significant mean difference between raw and processed vegetables for each parameter.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Results From the results presented in Table 1, it is noticeable that the concentration of different macroelements (Ca,
P, Na, and K) and trace elements (Fe, Zn, and Cu) of the wild and traditional vegetables was high and the vegetables
studied could be regarded as appreciably important sources of these essential elements. Potassium is abundant in all
vegetables analyzed followed by calcium, phosphorus, and sodium from the macroelements. From the trace elements, iron
level was relatively higher followed by zinc and copper.
Table 1: Mineral content (mg/100 g, fresh basis) of raw and processed vegetables.
3.2. Effect of Processing on Minerals Content of Young Pods of Abelmoschus esculentus As presented in Table 2, the
iron and zinc contents of raw A. esculentus (okra) were 2.3 mg/100 g and 0.68 mg/100 g, respectively. Iron content in
immature pods of raw A. esculentus obtained in the present study was higher than findings of for different A.
esculents varieties reported within the range of 0.87–0.97 mg/100 g FW but the zinc content (0.68 ± 0.04 mg/100 g FW)
obtained in this study was slightly lower compared to the value reported (1.29–1.37 mg/100 g FW) in their study. The
variations in the contents of the minerals in A. esculentus may be due to the varietal difference or genetic factor,
environmental factor, and their interactions. Significant loss of iron and zinc was observed in the cooked A. esculentus but
not statistically significant between raw and sun dried young pods of A. esculentus. This could be due to leaching of the
minerals into the cooking water. Sun drying is the gradual loss of water through evaporation and cannot support leaching.
It has to also be noted that minerals are not volatile.
Table 2: Antinutrient/mineral molar ratios of raw and processed vegetables.
3.3. Effect of Cooking on Minerals Content of Dioscorea abyssinica Iron level in raw (whole) Dioscorea
abyssinica was 27 mg/100 g FW. However, cooking and peeling the bark of the tuber significantly reduced the iron
content to 1.79 mg/100 g FW. The iron content of D. abyssinica obtained in this study in the raw sample was higher when
compared with the value reported for Dioscorea pentaphylla (8 mg/100 g FM). Zinc concentration of D. abyssinica was
also significantly reduced during cooking and debarking from 0.5 mg/100 g to 0.3 mg/100 g FW. The statistically
significant () reduction of iron and zinc concentration upon cooking and peeling of the tuber may be because of the
presence of minerals in the outer nonedible part of the tuber which was removed by peeling after boiling the tuber. The
same reason may apply to the minerals which showed enormous reduction in the boiled and peeled D. abyssinica.
Reduction in zinc content was also reported in peeled and boiled tubers of Dioscorea cayenensis . The potassium level in
raw tubers of D. abyssinica was 341.16 mg/100 g. Statistically significant losses were observed when the tubers were
cooked compared to the raw samples. This loss may be attributed to the leaching out of minerals including potassium into
the cooking water. The high potassium content in this tuber could help to maintain normal blood pressure and can be
labeled as heart protective vegetable.
3.4. Effect of Cooking on Minerals Content of Young Shoots of Oxytenanthera abyssinica The minerals content of
raw and cooked juvenile shoots of Oxytenanthera abyssinica is presented in Table 1. The iron and zinc contents of
juvenile shoots of O. abyssinica were 0.6 mg/100 g and 0.9 mg/100 g, respectively. The zinc content was higher in raw
bamboo shoots compared to other study vegetables. All minerals tested were decreased in the cooked samples with the
reduction being statistically significant in Zn, Cu, P, Na, and K but Fe and Ca were not significantly () lost in the cooked
samples. The variation in the degree of loss might be related to the chemical forms of minerals in the food matrix. The
respective potassium contents determined in raw and cooked samples of O. abyssinica were 456.2 mg/100 g and
273.2 mg/100 g on fresh weight basis. The potassium content of raw O. abyssinica obtained in the current study is well
agreed with the value reported for other bamboo species such as Bambusa tulda (408 mg/100 g, FW) and Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii (416 mg/100 g, FW). Raw shoots of O. abyssinica had the highest phosphorus content compared to other study
vegetables. However, cooking has significantly reduced the phosphorus level. Phosphorus is a major component of bones
and teeth. Studies confirmed that there is no known benefit of high sodium consumption. Sodium intakes more than 1 g
per day tend to aggravate a genetically determined susceptibility to hypertension, and intakes above 7 g/day may induce
hypertension even in individuals who have no specific genetic susceptibility. In this context, all the vegetables contained
safe sodium levels.
3.5. Potential of the Study Vegetables in Meeting the RDA Requirements of Some Minerals The recommended
dietary allowance (RDA) for iron is 10 mg/day for adults. The raw immature pods of A. esculentus could provide 116.5%
of the RDA requirement for iron if 500 g fresh vegetable is consumed per day, considering it would be fully bioavailable.
The cooked and sun dried A. esculentus could provide 34% and 129% RDA requirement for iron from 500 g FW meal.
Cooked D. abyssinica and bamboo shoots can also provide 89.5% and 30% RDA requirement of iron from fresh 500 g
meal, respectively, and only 125 g fresh leaves and steams of Portulaca quadrifida can provide 100% RDA requirement
for iron. This RDA calculation did not consider the inhibitory effect of different antinutritional factors that affect the
bioavailability of iron. The RDA for zinc is 12 mg/day for lactating woman. Five hundred grams of meal (fresh basis)
from cooked A. esculentus could provide 23% of the zinc RDA requirement for lactating mothers. Similarly, cooked D.
abyssinica and juvenile shoots of O. abyssinica in the cooked form could provide 12.1 and 22.5% RDA requirement for
zinc, respectively. Portulaca quadrifida could provide 35% of RDA for zinc considering the requirement for lactating
woman. Calcium content ranged from 22.9 mg/100 g FW in cooked bamboo shoot to 140.4 mg/100 g FW in sun dried A.
esculentus. Raw immature pods of A. esculentus contained 131.7 mg/100 g fresh weight basis. The calcium level obtained
in this study for A. esculentus grown in Ethiopia was higher than the values reported for different A. esculentus varieties
in Nigeria. Raw aerial part of P. quadrifida contained higher (118 mg/100 g FW) calcium content next to sun dried and
raw A. esculentus. The calcium content in raw and cooked O. abyssinica was 24.5 mg/100 g and 22.9 mg/100 g FW,
respectively. The calcium content reported in India for the different bamboo species was within the range of 21.17–
180.69 mg/100 g (29); the present value obtained for O. abyssinica was similar to Bambusa balcooa (24.01 mg/100 g). The
calcium content shows no significant variation between raw and boiled D. abyssinica and O. abyssinica (Table 1).
However, significant reduction was observed when A. esculentus was cooked but sun drying did not affect the calcium
content. The RDA for calcium is 1000 mg/day for adults. Consumption of 500 g cooked A. esculentus, cooked D.
abyssinica, and O. abyssinica and raw P. quadrifida can contribute 52.12, 20.37, 11.5, and 59.0% RDA requirement for
calcium, respectively. Abelmoschus esculentus and P. quadrifida are good source of calcium. Copper was the element
found in a trace amount in all wild and traditional vegetables analyzed which ranged from 0.07 to 0.46 mg/100 g FW. This
is important due to the fact that copper is required by body at a trace level for many metabolic activities (25). Phosphorus
content in this study ranged from 23.7 mg/100 g to 57.3 mg/100 g FW. Raw A. esculentus, D. prehensilis, and O.
abyssinica contained 39.1, 40.7, and 57.3 mg/100 g phosphorus, respectively. Cooking resulted in significant losses (7.3–
41.76%) of phosphorus with variable degree of proportion among the vegetables (Table 1). Similar findings were reported
in the earlier studies. RDA for phosphorus is 700 mg/day for adults. Consumption of 500 g cooked A. esculentus, D.
abyssinica, and O. abyssinica and raw P. quadrifida could contribute by meeting 25.9, 16.9, 27.9, and 28.4% RDA
requirement for phosphorus, respectively.
3.6. Bioavailability of Minerals Antinutritional components such as oxalates, tannins, polyphenols, and phytic acid
(myoinositol hexaphosphate) present in plant foods are known to have adverse effects on human nutrition by inhibiting
iron and zinc absorption. The molar ratios along with the suggested critical values for predicting the bioavailability
calcium, iron, and zinc are presented in Table 2.
3.7. Molar Ratio of Phytate to Zinc The calculated phytate/zinc molar ratios for raw and processed WEPs were within
the range of 2.03–14.22, which were in the range of the suggested critical level (<15 regarded as favorable for zinc
absorption). Ratios ≥15 are associated with low zinc bioavailability. According to WHO cut-offs phytic acid to zinc mole
ratio ≥15, 5–15, and <5 is equal to zinc bioavailability as low (10–15%), moderate (30–35%), and high (50–55%),
respectively. In this context, A. esculentus and P. quadrifida had moderate zinc bioavailability, whereas the molar ratios
suggested that high zinc bioavailability could be achieved from D. abyssinica and juvenile shoots of O. abyssinica.
However, the critical phytate : zinc molar ratio may also depend on dietary calcium levels because of the kinetic
synergism between calcium and zinc ions resulting in Ca : Zn : Phy complex which is less soluble than phytate complexes
formed by either of the ions alone, suggesting that Ca : phy/Zn molar ratio is better predictor of zinc bioavailability than
Phy : Zn molar ratio alone.
3.8. Molar Ratio of Calcium × Phytate/Zinc Calcium × phytate/zinc molar ratios of cooked and sun dried A.
esculents and P. quadrifida were above the critical level (0.5 mol/Kg) as indicated in Table 2, suggesting that calcium
interference was more likely to affect zinc bioavailability. The Ca × Phy/Zn molar ratio reported in the earlier study for
different A. esculentus varieties in Nigeria was within the range of 0.293–0.436. Higher calcium content in A.
esculentus that grows in Ethiopia compared to Nigeria could be attributed to genetic differences, environmental
variability, and interaction of the genetic factor with the environment. Considering both Phy/Zn and Ca × Phy/Zn molar
ratios, zinc could adequately be absorbed in the body from D. abyssinica and shoots of O. abyssinica.
3.9. Molar Ratio of Phytate to Iron As indicated in Table 2, phytate/iron molar ratios were >1 (indicative of poor iron
bioavailability) for all raw and processed study plants except D. abyssinica. This might be due to the reported higher
phytate content and insufficient phytic acid degradation (4.5–27.5%) by boiling alone. Phytate reduction (13–33%) after
boiling Dioscorea sp. was reported by. Dioscorea abyssinica could be a better source of bioavailable iron.
3.10. Molar Ratio of Calcium to Phytate The calcium/phytate molar ratios in all the raw and processed study plants
were >6, which is regarded as favorable for calcium absorption, predicting that a good calcium bioavailability could be
achieved from all the selected vegetables. In addition to phytic acid, oxalic acid in insoluble form is responsible for
interference of divalent metals absorption particularly calcium by forming insoluble salts. The oxalate/calcium molar
ratios of all the selected raw and processed vegetables were below the critical level of 2.5 known to significantly impair
calcium bioavailability suggesting that they are good calcium bioresources for the local populace.
4. Conclusions Immature pods of Abelmoschus esculentus, aerial parts of Portulaca quadrifida, and juvenile shoots
of Oxytenanthera abyssinica consumed by the Gumuz community indicated that they are appreciably important sources of
essential minerals. Except D. abyssinica, the wild and traditional plant parts have significant micronutrient compositions.
However, cooking significantly reduced some of the minerals. Reducing duration of cooking time and using other
processing methods such as fermentation (D. abyssinica and O. abyssinica) might alleviate the deterioration of the
nutrients. The predicted mineral bioavailability shows adequacy in terms of calcium and zinc (moderately bioavailable)
but not in iron. Hence, there is a need for some enhancers to increase iron absorption in all species. The study results
further revealed that A. esculentus and P. quadrifida are rich sources of bioavailable calcium. With the exception of D.
abyssinica, the vegetables are rich in potassium and can contribute in maintaining normal blood pressure and its heart
protective role.
To be able to justify the overall nutritional value of the wild and semiwild edible vegetables, proper assessment of the type
and concentration of their antinutrients is necessary. The rate in reduction of antinutritional factors depended upon the
type of processing (cooking and sun drying) and vegetable. However, the reduction of phytic acid, oxalate, and tannins by
traditional cooking methods alone was not adequate to the level that could improve iron and zinc bioavailability. The
vegetables have higher moisture content and are mostly used after cooking as side dishes by the community. The
combination effects of these factors might reduce the actual impact of antinutritional factors in impairing bioavailability
of nutrients and/or causing ill health. However, appropriate processing methods that are known to reduce the
antinutritional factors (such as fermentation) could be encouraged in the community.
Texture, and the related mouthfeel of a product, plays an essential role in how consumers evaluate a product. In some
cases, these characteristics are even more important than those of taste, appearance, or smell. Texture refers to how the
physical attributes of a food texture are processed by the brain during mastication. Characteristics like hard, soft, crispy,
crunchy, are used by consumers to describe food texture. Mouthfeel is related to texture in that it refers to the interactions
between the surfaces in the mouth and the food. In its most simple form, mouthfeel is exactly that: how it feels in the
mouth. Once the producer has an understanding of how the consumer views the texture and mouthfeel of their product,
they can develop methods to measure, and ultimately control, these properties during processing. It is vital that producers
be able to measure, and therefore control, these attributes in order to maintain customer loyalty, texture analyser systems
like the TMS PRO system from Food Technology Corporation is able to determine mouth feel and textural characteristics
for producers. Initially, processors must determine what consumers expect in relation to texture of their product. This is
typically done through consumer feedback using tools such as surveys and consumer evaluation panels. Armed with this
information, processors can develop a method that allows them to measure and control these characteristics. Food
producers constantly strive to produce a product that is desirable to the consumer in all aspects. Often they have to deal
with circumstances like regulation changes, or even changes in the raw ingredient supply that can have an effect on the
texture and mouthfeel of a product. Another, and prevalent, situation is where a company decides to make a product with
an adjusted fat level, to market to the health-conscious buyer. Fat content is a major factor in how a person perceives
quality in relation to texture. Sensory testing and texture analysis clearly have a crucial role to play in product quality and
consistency.
These two techniques are used by food producers in combination to measure and control food texture. The difference
between them is that sensory testing is subjective while texture analysis is objective. Each method has its pros and cons,
though ideally they should be used together in order to verify information. The first step is to compare human sensory test
data with instrumental texture analysis data on a standard product, judged to have ‘good texture’. Next, the same process
is performed on samples of the same product deemed to have ‘off spec’ texture characteristics. Once this correlation is
made, a target range can be established. This range can then be entered into the texture analyser’s software to give
production QC testers quick and objective pass or fail information. Any product that falls into the fail category can be
flagged for human sensory evaluation testing to confirm the findings of the texture analysis. This synergistic relationship
between the two primary methods of texture assessment allows processors to make quick and informed decisions on the
parameters that can affect the final texture and mouthfeel of a product. Using this kind of testing, food processors can
consistently deliver a product with the desired mouthfeel and texture, even with variations in raw ingredients or changes
in formulation.
Gathering texture data from the consumer is important, but the most critical step is how processors use this data to control
their product and ensure its consistency. A substantial amount of testing needs to be done on all fronts, the data then
interpreted and individual findings correlated. Processors can then begin to fine tune their processing steps or recipe to
produce a product that is consistently deemed desirable by consumers. Canned and retorted products are a good example.
The thermal process by which these items are preserved will have an effect on the final product. Typically longer or hotter
cook times required to sterilise certain products will produce a softer or less firm product, which consumers could find
less desirable. The required thermal processing profile is more crucial for the microbiological safety of the product than
the food’s texture profile. If a processor has to lengthen the cook time for preservation reasons, the final product will
usually be different from what is intended. Sensory and instrumental texture analysis can be used to determine if this is
going to be significant. If the variation still falls within the criteria determined by the initial testing, the product can be
released. If it falls outside the criteria, processors may still be able to make formulation changes to keep the finished
product within specification.
Calcium for example, is a popular texture-modifying ingredient often added to canned products to help them maintain a
desirable texture and mouthfeel. Usually these changes to formulation are tested on a small scale, pilot process before
applying them to full-scale processing lines. For these reasons texture and mouthfeel are important characteristics to
understand and control at all levels of the food production process.
Texture and mouthfeel are often overshadowed by taste but that does not make them any less important to the food
industry. At a consumer level, no-one likes surprises. Bite into a potato chip and you expect it to be crispy. Most people
do not understand how much effort goes into ensuring that chips are indeed crispy. It starts with incoming raw product.
The formulation and process must then be constantly adjusted (often daily, or even hourly) to maintain a level of quality
consistent with consumer requirement using the results of the sensory testing and texture analysis. Processors have a
challenging job producing a consistent product given the many variables involved. It is truly aiming for a moving target.
The product must then arrive to the customer safely, on time, and in acceptable condition. No one expects a sealed bag of
potato chips to be stale (i.e. an undesirable texture). While the safety of food is the primary concern for all products,
quality is also a major concern and needs to be monitored before complaints are raised. In reality, the interpretation of an
‘ideal’ texture and mouthfeel of a product is quite individual among consumer groups. Given the amazingly large scale of
food production there is bound to be some product generated that is considered to be of lower-end quality. Occasionally,
minor quality issues may be accepted by consumers but long-term quality issues can lead to more serious problems.
Companies can best meet consumer expectations through measurement (sensory testing and texture analysis) and control
(formulation and processing parameters).
The most important thing to understand about texture and mouthfeel is the relationship with quality. Whether it is a chip
that is crispy, cheese that is soft, or a vegetable that is firm; these characteristics are inherently linked to the perceived
quality of a product. One of the most difficult challenges is to quantify these traits in a consistent manner. Methods such
as sensory science and instrumental texture analysis (and the correlation of the two) have become very effective at
providing measurements of texture and mouthfeel. Consequently, most products that are available to consumers today are
very consistent. It is a rare occasion when one is surprised by the texture or mouthfeel of a commercially available
product. As consumers, we have a desired texture and mouthfeel ingrained in our brain for each consumable that we eat.
Few of us understand the extraordinary lengths to which food manufacturers go to ensure that we get exactly what we
expect every time.
Food Texture is defined by Bourne as the properties of a food that are that group of physical characteristics arising from
the structural elements of the food, primarily sensed by the feeling of touch, related to the deformation, disintegration, and
flow of the food under a force, and measured objectively by functions of mass, time, and distance.
Food texture is a collective term of sensory experiences originated from visual, audio and tactile stimuli. The sensation of
food texture plays a crucial role in influencing consumers’ liking and preference of a food product. Consumer concern and
interest of food texture vary from one type of food to another. For solid foods, sensory experience associated with fracture
and breaking could be the most relevant textural features, whereas the sensation of flow behaviour could be the most
critical texture-related feature for fluid foods. For semisolid or soft solid foods, different patterns of stress–strain
deformation provide key information for the delicate texture variation among this type of food.
Food texture and food structure are the two internally linked properties. Although food structure influences textural
properties of a food, it is regarded as material property of the food. The term food texture has a strong inclusion of sensory
experience. Ingredient interactions and food processing and preparation are the most important industrial approaches for
food texture (or food structure) creation or modification. Moisture content and fat content are the two key determining
factors for texture creation. Content of air, as expressed as structure openness, also plays a critical role in texture creation.
Using these parameters as three dimensions, foods can be conveniently grouped for their textural properties.
It is only when food physics interacts with oral physiology that the sensation and perception of food texture becomes
possible. The underpinning principles of food texture sensation are very different from that of taste and aroma.
Mechanoreceptors are the key for the detection of texture stimuli. However, the interpretation of these sensory stimuli is a
very complicated internal process where the underlying psychophysical principles are still not fully understood.
Introduction The sensory properties of foods play a key role in food choice decisions, the amount of food intake and
eating behavior. The texture of a food in particular, has great leverage on acceptability and determining quality. Texture
has been defined as “the sensory manifestation of the structure of the food and the manner in which this structure reacts to
applied forces; the specific senses involved being vision, kinaesthetic, and hearing.” Kinaesthetic are described as “those
factors of quality that the consumer evaluates with his sense of feel, specially mouthfeel.” The term textural complexity is
associated with a range of differing texture attributes in a food that from the first bite through to the point of swallowing
stimulate the senses, creating a variety of texture perceptions. Textural complexity is of great interest as a food property in
its own right. However, the authors also hypothesize that the textural complexity of a food may be associated with
increasing the satiation response, satiation being the process of events, which result in the termination of eating, which in
turn controls the amount of food consumed. Thus, creating model foods of varying discernable textural complexities that
can be used for future satiation testing is important.
Research conducted on the textural complexity of foods is scarce, although there is an increasing body of literature
showing the role of food structure and texture in satiation or satiety responses. Many of which have focused on food
viscosity in yogurt-based drinks and custards.
The textural complexity of foods most likely influences the oral breakdown process during the mastication cycles and
there are a number of studies concerned with the oral breakdown process of model and “real” foods such as bread, Many
investigations into oral breakdown pathways have typically used homogeneous foods to provide simple models in which
physical and sensory properties can be evaluated. However, the consumption of heterogeneous foods happens on a daily
basis and thus, mastication of multiple textures and structures occurs simultaneously. This is why it is of importance to
study foods with textural complexity and the implication their unique nature has on oral breakdown and further processing
such as satiation.
The effect of texture and sucrose spatial distribution on sweetness has been previously studied by making gelatine-agar
gel samples of differing strength and sucrose content and then assembling in layers to create an inhomogeneous model.
The current study aimed to define and evaluate textural complexity by developing unique gel-based model foods of
comparable nutritional properties and varying levels of textural complexity, which could be used in the future to study the
hypothesised textural complexity-satiation relationship. Sensory evaluation analysis techniques were used to assess the
textural complexity and intensity of the “built-in” textures.
We are incredibly sensitive to texture. Touch is of course the primary sense we use to determine it, but kinesthetics (the
sense of movement and position), sound (crunch: good, squeak: bad) and sight are also involved. We can detect ice
crystals in ice cream measuring 40 microns (or 1/25th of a millimeter). Millions of pounds are spent in research and
development to deter the growth of these harmless crystals. This is also why ice cream made with liquid nitrogen is so
prized. It freezes so fast that the crystals are weeny, giving the creamiest mouth feel.
Food texture is defined as those properties of a food that are sensed by touch in the mouth and with the hands. We use
many words to describe food texture—foods can be soft or hard, mushy or crunchy, or smooth or lumpy. Texture is
important to the enjoyment and acceptability of foods. Would you enjoy a mushy apple or soggy toast?
Food Texture and Swallowing Problems Older adults with chewing and swallowing problems may not be able to safely
eat foods with regular textures. They may need to eat only soft foods, or they may require that foods be cut up, or
ground/minced. Offering foods that are normally the desired texture, such as mashed potatoes, cooked cereal, pudding and
yogurt is recommended. Gravies and sauces may need to be added to foods to ensure that foods are moist enough to
swallow. Some older adults with swallowing problems require a puréed diet—a diet where foods are blended to a smooth
texture.
Enhancing Texture-Modified Foods It is important that older adults with swallowing problems be provided foods with a
texture that is easy and safe to swallow. However, as food texture is lost with grinding and puréeing, foods may become
less acceptable. Enhancing the flavor and appearance of texture-modified foods will help to improve the acceptability and
enjoyment of these foods.
Taste When foods are ground or puréed, the taste of the food changes—liquids may be added during preparation, which
may then dilute or mask the flavor of the food; gravies or sauces may be added to ensure the food is moist, but can also
change the flavor of the food. Microwave reheating can change the taste of the texture-modified food. Aroma, which is
closely related to taste, may be decreased or altered during preparation as well. Once texture has been modified, taste
becomes a very important sense used to identify the food. Enhancing the natural flavor of the food may help with food
recognition. Adding a little sugar or other sweetener goes a long way to improving the acceptability of some texture-
modified foods such as sweet vegetables, while adding a dash of salt, gravy or a flavor enhancer to meats is
recommended. Serving "hot foods hot" and "cold foods cold" improves flavor and acceptability too, and is very important
for food safety! Enhancing the flavor of foods has also been shown to increase the flow of saliva and improve
immunity (Schiffman 2000). Highly-flavored food stimulates swallowing and mastication.
Food Presentation The appearance of the food is dramatically changed with grinding and puréeing. The appearance of
the food often changes so much that the individual receiving the meal may not know what foods are being served (Lepore
et al. 2014).
Color of the food becomes a key to food recognition. For example, if an orange-colored and puréed food is served for
dinner, we might expect it to be carrots (remember, the shape and texture of the carrots have been lost). Mixing
vegetables, such as a purée of peas and carrots, may make it impossible to identify the food as both the color and taste of
the original vegetables are lost. With the loss of food texture, the ability to see, taste, and smell is essential to the
enjoyment of the food. However, illness, medications and disease conditions can alter these senses in the older adult and
further decrease the enjoyment of foods. Ensuring natural, vibrant colors and delicious flavors and aromas in texture-
modified foods may result in food enjoyment and improved food intake in people with swallowing problems.
Where can I get more information? A registered dietitian (RD) can provide reliable information to you regarding
texture-modified foods for older adults with swallowing problems. The Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) agent at
your county Extension office may have more information about nutrition and older adults and may have classes for you to
attend.
Flavor Flavor sensations in food are highly influenced by the aroma and taste compounds. Reviewing the extensive
literature of recent years in this field has shown that the reconstitution of flavor based on aroma and taste compounds
poses numerous problems. These are of different nature and include among others (a) chemical transformations among
these compounds, (b) changes in the concentrations of the compounds responsible for the perceived flavor, (c) interactions
among the chemical compounds that enhance or reduce a specific flavor sensation, and finally, (d) the complexity of the
different food matrices and its influence in the flavor perception. Another difficulty that flavor scientists must face is how
to properly model and visualize the complex relationships existing between the chemical composition of foods and the
flavor perception. These problems have repercussions on the reconstitution of the flavor signature of food based on the
natural concentrations of its key aroma and taste compounds. Therefore, the main aim of this review is to deal with all
these issues to propose potential solutions for a robust transformation in a science-based quality approach.
Flavor or flavour is the sensory impression of food or other substances, and is determined primarily by the chemical
senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, as well as
temperature and texture, are also important to the overall gestalt of flavor perception. The flavor of the food, as such, can
be altered with natural or artificial flavorants which affect these senses. A "flavorant" is defined as a substance that gives
another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc. A flavor is
a quality of something that affects the sense of taste. Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food
item's flavor. Five basic tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami (savory) are universally recognized, although some
cultures also include pungency[3] and oleogustus ("fattiness"). The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor,
therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially
flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different
flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are
typically created by flavorists.
Although the terms flavoring and flavorant in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and
smell, the same terms are used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the
flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor
extracts, most commercial flavorants are "nature-identical", which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural
flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from source materials. Identification of components of
natural foods, for example a raspberry, may be done using technology such as headspace techniques, so the flavorist can
imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present.
Flavorants or flavorings Flavorings are focused on altering the flavors of natural food product such as meats and
vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most
types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since
these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. Three principal types of flavorings are used in foods, under
definitions agreed in the EU and Australia:
Natural flavoring substances These flavoring substances are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical,
microbiological, or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human
consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.
Nature-identical flavoring substances These are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are
chemically and organoleptically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human
consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.
Artificial flavoring substances These are not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or
not the product is processed. These are typically produced by fractional distillation and additional chemical manipulation
of naturally sourced chemicals, crude oil, or coal tar. Although they are chemically different, in sensory characteristics
they are the same as natural ones. Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally
occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are
formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different
product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds,
and the flavor chemist (flavorist) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorants
consist of esters, which are often described as being "sweet" or "fruity".

Chemical Odor

Manzanate Apple

Diacetyl, acetylpropionyl, acetoin Buttery

Isoamyl acetate Banana

Benzaldehyde Bitter almond, cherry

Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamon

Ethyl propionate Fruity

Methyl anthranilate Grape

Limonene Orange

Ethyl decadienoate Pear

Allyl hexanoate Pineapple

Ethyl maltol Sugar, cotton candy

2,4-Dithiapentane Truffle
 Ethylvanillin Vanilla

Methyl salicylate Wintergreen

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested
that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency
that are enforced either by the company or by law. Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources,
while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for
consumption. Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic
smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it. Unlike smelling, which occurs
upon inhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the exhalation phase of breathing and is perceived
differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before
or after it has entered one's mouth.
Taste While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only
compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors, are considered and referred to as taste
flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants. Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called
taste or flavor enhancers, are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides. These are typically used
as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include:

Acid salts Description

This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG), is one of the most
Glutamic acid salts commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts
are also commonly used.

Glycine salts Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers

Guanylic acid salts Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers

Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP, due to high costs of
Inosinic acid salts
production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers

5'- Nucleotide salts typically combined with other amino acids and nucleotide salts as
ribonucleotide salts flavor enhancers

Certain organic and inorganic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar, these are usually not
considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the
flavor of a food.

Acid Description Formulation pH

C
2H pH
Acetic acid Gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive smell.
4O 3.91[13]
2

C
Ascorbic Found in oranges and green peppers and gives a crisp, slightly 6H pH
acid sour taste, better known as vitamin C. 8O 3.59[13]
6
 C
6H pH
Citric acid Found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour taste.
8O 3.24[13]
7

C
Found in bolete mushrooms, Icelandic moss and lichen, Not
Fumaric 4H pH
found in fruits, used as a substitute for citric and tartaric acid.
acid 4O 3.19[13]
Enhances flavor and sourness.[14]
4

C
Found in various milk or fermented products and give them a rich 3H pH
Lactic acid
tartness. 6O 3.51[13]
3

C
4H pH
Malic acid Found in apples and gives them their sour/tart taste.
6O 3.33[15]
5

H
Phosphoric pH
Used in some cola drinks to give an acidic taste. 3PO
acid 3.06[13]
4

C
Found in grapes and wines and gives them a tart taste. Also 4H pH
Tartaric acid
called racemic acid. 6O 3.18[13]
6

Color The color of food can affect one's expectations of the flavor significantly. In one study, adding more red color to a
drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though
it had 1% less sucrose concentration. Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; different colors of Froot Loops cereal
and most brands of gummy bears often use the same flavorings.
Restrictions and regulations
UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as: A flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by
physical, enzymatic, or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either
raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other
than one normally so used. The UK food industry also draws a distinction between a food being "X-flavoured", where it
contains some amount of X as an ingredient, and "X-flavour", where it has the taste of X but does not contain it.
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavorant" as: The essential oil, oleoresin, essence, or
extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating, or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring
constituents derived from a spice, fruit, or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf,
or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof,
whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. The European Union's guidelines for natural flavorants
are slightly different. Certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels.
Dietary restrictions Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of
flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal
byproducts. Some flavor ingredients, such as gelatin, are produced from animal products. Some, such as glycerin can be
derived from either animal or vegetable sources. And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol.
Many Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims adhere to religious dietary laws, and vegans to personal convictions, which
restrict the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in foods unless subject to oversight and inspection by their respective
religious authority or moral beliefs. In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a
Jewish kosher pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and
dairy (although they can still contain fish). The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260
companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and
colorings). Similarly, persons with known sensitivities or allergies to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain
generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food. Such flavors may be
derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common allergens, such as dairy, soy, sesame, eggs,
and nuts.
Flavor creation Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low
fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products. In 2011, about US$10.6
billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed in processed and packaged
food. Most flavors represent a mixture of aroma compounds, the raw material that is produced by flavor companies. In
rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form. Artificial vanilla flavors vanillin and ethylvanillin are a
notable exception, as well as the artificial strawberry flavor (ethyl methylphenylglycidate). The ubiquitous "green apple"
aroma is based on hexyl acetate. The flavor creation is done by a specially trained scientist called a "flavorist", whose job
combines scientific knowledge of the chemical palette with creativity to develop new and distinctive flavors. The flavor
creation begins when the flavorist receives a brief from the client. In the brief, the clients attempt to communicate exactly
what type of flavor is sought, in what application it will be used, and any special requirements (e. g., it must be all
natural). The communication barrier can be quite difficult to overcome since most people are not experienced at
describing flavors. The flavorist uses his or her knowledge of the available chemical ingredients to create a formula and
compound it on an electronic balance. The flavor is then submitted to the client for testing. Several iterations, with
feedback from the client, may be needed before the right flavor is found.Additional work may also be done by the flavor
company. For example, the flavor company may conduct sensory taste tests to test consumer acceptance of a flavor before
it is sent to the client or to further investigate the "sensory space". The flavor company may also employ application
specialists who work to ensure the flavor will work in the application for which it is intended. This may require special
flavor delivery technologies that are used to protect the flavor during processing or cooking so that the flavor is only
released when eaten by the end consumer. The flavor obtained is determined not just by the simple presence of a flavorant
or a mixture of flavorants, but also by their concentrations. Thus, even if a non-flavored ingredient is added/removed
to/from a food or beverage, this can noticeably affect the final flavor if it dilutes or otherwise changes the concentrations
of the remaining flavored ingredients.
Determination Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors. In chemical analysis of
flavors, solid phase extraction, solid phase microextraction, and headspace gas chromatography are applied to extract and
separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various mass
spectrometric techniques. A flavor lexicon can aid the development of objective language for food.
Quality of Packed and Frozen Food: The shelf life of a food can be defined as the time period within which the food is
safe to consume and/or has an acceptable quality to consumers. Just like any other food, frozen foods deteriorate during
storage by different modes or mechanisms. Microbes usually are not a problem since they cannot grow at freezing
temperatures unless subjected to extensive temperature abuse above the freezing point. Enzymes are a big concern for
frozen foods, which can cause flavor change (lipoxygenase) in non-blanched fruits and vegetables and accelerated
deterioration reactions in meat and poultry (enzymes released from disrupted membranes during precooking). Cell
damage or protein and starch interactions during freezing cause drip and mushiness upon thawing. Discoloration could
occur by nonenzymatic browning, bleaching, and freezer burn. Vitamin C loss is often a major concern for frozen
vegetables. Physical changes, such as package ice formation, moisture loss, emulsion destabilization, recrystallization of
sugars and ice of frozen desserts are often accelerated by fluctuating temperatures. For any specific frozen product, which
mode determines its shelf life, depends on the product characteristics (raw materials, ingredients, formulation), pre-
freezing treatment, freezing process, packaging film and processes, and of course storage conditions. All of the quality
deterioration and potential hazards are usually exaggerated or complicated by a fluctuating time-temperature environment
(e.g. freeze/thaw cycle) during storage. On the other hand, the shelf life of a frozen food can be extended through
ingredient selection, process modification and change of package or storage conditions, as discussed in Section 3 of this
book. This chapter will focus on shelf life testing of frozen foods for product development and market practices. Shelf life
testing consists basically of selecting the quality characteristics which deteriorate most rapidly in time and the
mathematical modeling of the change. Table 19.1 can be used as a reference for the selection of quality characteristics,
which depends on the specific product and usually requires professional judgment. Mathematical modeling of quality
deterioration will be discussed next. 3 Table 19.1 Deterioration modes of frozen foods Frozen Foods Deterioration Modes
Frozen meats, poultry and seafood Rancidity Toughening (protein denaturation) Discoloration Desiccation (freezer burn)
Frozen fruits and vegetables Loss of nutrients (vitamins) Loss of texture (temperature abuse) Loss of flavor (lipoxygenase,
peroxidase) Loss of tissue moisture (forming package ice) Discoloration Frozen concentrated juices Loss of nutrients
(vitamins) Loss of flavor Loss of cloudiness Discoloration Yeast growth (upon temperature abuse) Frozen dairy products
(ice cream, yogurt, etc.) Iciness (recrystallization of ice crystals) Sandiness (lactose crystallization) Loss of flavor
Disruption of emulsion system Frozen convenience foods Rancidity in meat portions Weeping and curdling of sauces
Loss of flavor Discoloration Package ice Frozen bakery products (raw dough, bread, croissants) Burst can (upon
temperature abuse) (dough) Loss of fermentation capability (dough) Staling (becoming leathery) Loss of fresh aroma 19.2
Modeling of quality deterioration 19.2.1 Basic equation A frozen food starts to degrade once it is produced (Figure 19.1).
The rate and the degree of degradation depends on both the composition and the environmental conditions during storage
and distribution. In general, the loss of food quality or shelf life is evaluated by measuring a characteristic quality index,
"A". The change of quality index A with time (dA/dt) can usually be represented by the following kinetic equation: -
dA/dt = k An (19.1) where k is called a rate constant depending on temperature, product and packaging characteristics; n
is a power factor called reaction order which defines whether the rate 4 of change is dependent on the amount of A
present. If environmental factors are held constant, n also determines the shape of deterioration curve. Ao A a b c t d e
Figure 19.1 Quality deterioration curves: a) linear; b) exponential; c) hyperbolic; d) quadratic; e) complex. 19.2.2 Zero
and first order kinetics Equation 19.1 can also be written as: f(A) = k t (19.2) where f(A) is the quality function, k and t
are the same as above. The form of f(A) depends on the value of n. When n is equal to zero it is called zero order reaction
kinetics, which implies that the rate of loss of quality is constant under constant environmental conditions (curve (a) in
Fig. 19.1). If n is equal to one it is called first order reaction kinetics, which results in an exponential decrease in rate of
loss as quality decreases (curve (b) in Fig. 19.1, which becomes a straight line if plotted on a semi-log plot). These quality
functions can be expressed as follows: f(A) = Ao - A = kzt zero order (19.3a) f(A) = ln Ao - ln A = kft first order (19.3b) 5
where Ao is the initial quality value. If Ae corresponds to the quality value at the end of shelf life, the shelf life (θ) of the
food is inversely proportional to the rate constant: θ = (Ao - Ae) / kz zero order (19.4a) θ = ln (Ao/Ae) / kf first order
(19.4b) It should be noted that most chemical reactions leading to quality loss in frozen food systems are much more
complex. However, the reaction kinetics can be simplified into either pseudo-zero order or pseudo-first order kinetics. In
the case of complex reaction kinetics with respect to reactants, an intermediate or a final product (e.g. peroxides or
hexanal in lipid oxidation ) could be used as a quality index. There are few cases where neither zero nor first order
kinetics apply. Curve (c) in Fig. 19.1 shows the degradation curve for a 2nd order reaction (with single reactant), which
also shows a straight on a semi-log paper. A fractional order should be used to describe the curve (d) in Fig. 19.1.
Sometimes, there is an induction period or lag time before the quality deterioration begins (e.g. browning pigment
formation in the Maillard reaction or a microbial growth lag phase, as shown in curve (e) in Fig. 19.1. The length of the
lag depends on many factors, but temperature is a predominant factor. Given this, modeling of both the induction or lag
period and deterioration phase are necessary for accurate prediction of quality loss or shelf life remaining. An example of
such work has been demonstrated by Fu et al. (1991) for the growth of bacteria in milk. In certain circumstances (e.g. A
represents a sensory hedonic score), a nonkinetic approach, e.g. a statistical data fitting technique can also be used to
describe the deterioration curves. Varsanyi and Somogyi (1983) found that the change in quality characteristics as a
function of time could be approximately described with linear, quadratic and hyperbolic functions and that storage
temperature and packing conditions affected the shape of the deterioration curves. However, the parameters determined by
data fitting are difficult to use for prediction under variable storage conditions except for the linear curve. 19.2.3
Temperature dependence of deterioration rate 19.2.3.1 Arrhenius kinetics Once a frozen product is made and packaged
and starts its journey from the manufacturer's plant to warehouse, distribution center, retail store and finally 6 consumer's
freezer, the rate of quality loss is primarily temperature dependent (Zaritzky, 1982). The Arrhenius relationship is often
used to describe the temperature dependence of deterioration rate where for either zero or first order: k = ko exp (-Ea/RT)
(19.5a) or ln k = ln ko - Ea/(RT) (19.5b) where ko is a pre-exponential factor; Ea is an activation energy in cal/mol; R is
the gas constant in cal/mol K and equal to 1.986; T is an absolute temperature in K (273 + °C). Thus, a plot of the rate
constant on semi-log paper as a function of reciprocal absolute temperature (1/T) gives a straight line as shown as Fig.
19.2. The activation energy is determined from the slope of the line (divided by the gas constant R). A steeper slope
means the reaction is more temperature sensitive, i.e., a small change in T produces are large change in rate. Figure 19.2
Arrhenius plot ln k 1/T slope = -Ea/R Thus, by studying a deterioration process and measuring the rate of loss at two or
three temperatures (higher than storage temperature), one could then extrapolate on an Arrhenius plot with a straight line
to predict the deterioration rate at the desired storage temperature. This is the basis for accelerated shelf life testing
(ASLT), which will be discussed later. One should note however that in some cases a straight line will not ensue for a
variety of reasons, especially if a phase change occurs (Labuza 7 and Riboh, 1982). Thus for frozen foods, extrapolation
from temperatures above 0∞C are meaningless for shelf life prediction. 19.2.3.2 WLF kinetics Besides the Arrhenius
equation, another popular equation at least in the more recent food literature, is the Williams Landau Ferry (WLF) model
(Williams et al., 1955). Its original form was based on the variation of the viscosity in the temperature range above Tg as
addressed in Chapter 3. When the rate constant at Tg' is substituted for Tg (Tg' is the Tg of a maximally freeze-
concentrated system), the WLF model can be written as follows: log (kT/kg) = C1(T-Tg')/[(C2+(T-Tg')] (19.6a) or [log
(kT/kg)]-1 = (C2/C1)/(T-Tg') + 1/C1 (19.6b) where C1 and C2 are constants. Thus a plot of [log (kT/kg)]-1 vs. (T-Tg)-1
will be a straight line with the slope equal to C2/C1 and the intercept equal to 1/C1. As can be seen this is a two parameter
temperature dependent model as is the Arrhenius equation. Frozen foods stored below Tg' are stable to ice
recrystallization and other physical changes. Levine and Slade (1988) postulated that stability is related to the temperature
difference between storage temperature and Tg'. This cryostabilization of foods assumes stability below Tg' and rapid
decrease of stability above Tg' according to the WLF relationship, exhibiting an increase in reaction rate, much higher
than expected from the Arrhenius kinetics. However, this may not be true since the rate of chemical reactions can be
expected to be influenced by temperature increase in a complex way: (i) an increase of the rate constant, resulting from
both the viscosity decrease and the increased molecular mobility (Fennema 1996); (ii) a decrease of the reaction rate as a
consequence of the increasing dilution of the reactants Roos et al. (1996). For these reasons, it seems that the WLF model
over predicts the temperature effect of rate constant (Simatos et al., 1989). As noted by Nelson and Labuza (1994),
because of the small temperature range over which foods are stored, e.g., about ∆30°C for dry foods and ∆20°C for frozen
foods, both the Arrhenius and the WLF model give good correlations as long as one does not use the universal coefficients
suggested by Slade and Levine (1991). In fact as shown by Nelson and Labuza (1994), their use of the Lim and Reid
(1991) data for enzymatic activity in the frozen state as shown in 19.3 is not proof that the Arrhenius relationship does not
apply, WLF was assumed because the rate was negligible below -10°C which was the measured Tg. But as seen in 8
Figure 19.3b if the data is plotted as Arrhenius plot an r2 of 0.999 ensues. The challenge in applying the WLF model for
stability or shelf life prediction is that (1) Tg is not known; (2) Tg is difficult to determine; and (3) the universal
coefficients of Levine and Slade (1986) are not applicable. 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 1 2 3 4 5 -3.5 -5.5 -8.5 -13 -19 Time
(hours) Relative absorbance Temperature (°C) 0.0037 0.0038 0.0039 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1/T (K-1) ln(k) y = 79.497 -
2.1621E+4x R2 = 0.999 Figure 19.3 Hydrolysis of maltodextrin in the frozen state (Lim and Reid; 1991) a. Rate as a
function of temperature (Note Tg is -10 °C) b. Arrhenius plot 19.2.3.4 Shelf life model Most published data related to
quality deterioration do not give rates or rate constants but rather are in the form of an overall shelf life (end-point
analysis) as a function of storage temperature. Since the temperature range used is usually quite narrow, the following
exponential relationship exists between shelf life and storage temperature: θ = exp(-bT+c) (19.7a) or ln θ = -bT+c (19.7b)
where θ is shelf life at temperature T in °C, b is the slope of the semilog plot of θ vs T and c is the intercept or reference
temperature as shown as Fig. 19.4. Practically, this is used frequently for shelf life determination and prediction due to its
simplicity and straightforwardness. 9 Figure 19.4 Shelf life plot ln θ T 19.2.3.4 Q10 or q10 The Q10 approach is also
often used for estimation of the temperature acceleration of shelf life, which is defined as : Q10 = rate @ T1+10 °C / rate
@ T1 (19.8a) Q10 = shelf life @T1 / shelf life @T1+10 °C (19.8b) Q10 = (q10)1.8 (19.8c) where T1 is temperature in °C.
If the temperature unit is in °F, then the term q10 is used, which in fact is more often used than Q10 in the frozen food
literature. The magnitude of Q10 depends on the food system, the temperature and the absolute range. Q10 values from 2
up to 20 have been found for frozen foods (Labuza, 1982) Labuza and Schmidl, 1985. Q10 can be shown to be related to
the Arrhenius equation and the shelf life model through the following expression: Q10 = exp [10 Ea/(R T (T+10)] (19.9a)
Q10 = exp (10 b) (19.9b) Thus Q10 is not constant but depends on Ea and the absolute temperature T. Some data gleaned
from July (1989) and Labuza (1982) is shown in Table 19.2. 10 Table 19.2 Estimate of the Q10 for shelf life of selected
frozen foods Days of HQL Item -10°C -20°C Q 10 pork sausage 20 120 4 pork 50 400 8 beef 60 200 3.3 ground
hamburger 250 800 3.2 fried hamburger 35 250 7 raw poultry 200 700 3.5 fried poultry 25 700 3.2 fatty fish 7 60 9
19.2.3.5 Other models The following models have also been proposed to describe the temperature dependence of the rate
constant (Kwolek and Bookwalter, 1971) for frozen systems: kT = a + b T (19.10a) kT = a Tb (19.10b) kT = a / (b - T)
(19.10c) where a, and b are constants. In most cases, Equation 19.10c fits data better. However, all these have very limited
practical application. 19.2.4 Time-temperature tolerance Frozen foods are often exposed to a variable temperature
environment, e.g. during distribution or due to freezing/defrosting cycle in retail or home freezers. In general, the value of
the quality function, f(A), at time t under changing environmental conditions can be estimated from: f(A) = ∫ k[T(t)] dt
(19.11) where T(t) is the temperature as a function of time. The form of f(A) depends on the reaction order as discussed
previously. If an effective temperature, Teff, is defined as 11 that constant temperature exposure which causes the same
quality change as the variable temperature condition, as proposed by Schwimmer et al. (1955), then f(A) = keff t (19.12)
The rate constant at that defined temperature is termed the effective rate constant, i.e. keff. To estimate the quality change
under variable temperature conditions, one needs to either solve for f(A) numerically or know the value of Teff or keff
that corresponds to the variable conditions. The numerical approach for a randomly variable temperature history is
essentially the same as the Time/Temperature/Tolerance (TTT) approach initiated by Van Arsdel et al. (1969) and derived
empirically in the 1960's for the prediction of shelf life of frozen foods (July, 1984). It is assumed that the temperature
history of the product is known. Thus the fraction of shelf life consumed, fcon, was calculated as the sum of the times at
each temperature interval, ti , divided by the shelf life at that temperature, θi : fcon = Σ (t i / θi ) (19.13) Thus the
remaining shelf life at a reference temperature is equivalent to (1-fcon)*θ. Equation 19.13 assumes that the rule of
additivity is valid for frozen foods (July, 1984), which means that the loss of remaining storage life or quality can be
calculated from knowledge of the prior time-temperature episodes the product has been exposed to. This also implies that
the prior sequence of the time-temperature episodes is of no importance except to calculate the amount of quality
remaining up to that time, i.e. there is no history effect. If the rule of additivity is valid with reasonable accuracy, the use
of time-temperature integrators (TTI) should provide reliable results with respect to prediction of shelf life remaining,
which will be discussed later. However, there are some cases where the total effect of various temperature experiences
may not be independent of the order in which they occur or of the nature of temperature history. For example, widely
fluctuating temperatures may cause freezer burn or in-package desiccation, which is not additive (July, 1984). Where the
colloidal nature of a product is affected, the effect of time-temperature history may not be additive either, especially with
a freeze/thaw cycles. This is also true when growth of microorganisms occurs (Fu et al., 1991). Certain chemical
reactions, enzymatic as well as nonenzymatic, could even proceed more rapidly at temperatures below 12 freezing. This is
called a negative effect of temperature (Singh and Wang, 1977), which could be caused by one or more of the following
factors: (1) a freeze concentration effect; (2) the catalytic effect of ice crystals; (3) a greater mobility of protons in ice than
in water; (4) a change in pH, up or down with freezing; (5) a favorable orientation of reactants in the partially frozen state;
(6) a salting in or out of proteins; (7) decrease in dielectric constant; and (8) the development of antioxidants at higher
temperatures. As has been shown by Fennema (1975), the freeze concentration effect can cause rates of chemical
reactions to increase dramatically just below the freezing point (Figure 19.5), e.g. ascorbic acid loss at -3°C can be faster
than at higher temperatures this one should not use data in the -4°C to 0°C range or above as part of an accelerated shelf
life test to predict rates at lower temperatures. Fennema (1975), showed that the time to 50% loss of vitamin C in broccoli
was 44 days at -5°C, 120 days at -2°C and 162 days at +2°C. This concentration effect is evident in the shelf life plot of
frozen strawberries as shown in Fig. 19.6 using the data of Guadagni (1968). If the data collected only at 25 and 30°F (-
3.9°C and -1.1°C) are used, the predicted shelf life at 0°F (-17.8°C) is over 27 years, if data are collected at only 20 and
25°F (-6.7 and 3.9°C), the shelf life predicted at 0°F is 40 days while data below 20∞F extrapolated to the true expected
shelf life is about 280 days. Figure 19.5 Rate of chemical reaction as a function of temperature above and below the
freezing point of a food. 13 Figure 19.6. Shelf life plot of frozen strawberries showing the influence of the freeze
concentration effect just below the freezing point on prediction of shelf life at 0°F . Data from Guadagni (1968). Each line
represents a regression through a different selected set of temperatures. The response ratio of the food to changes in
environmental temperature (RT) is dependent on the fluctuating temperature conditions as well as the heat transfer
properties of the food as well as the package (Cairnes and Gordon, 1976; Dagerskog, 1974). In the analysis of food shelf
life, an inherent assumption is made that the food is responding instantaneously to the environmental temperature
changes, i.e., RT = 1. This may be acceptable if a surface deterioration process is the deterministic factor for shelf life, e.g.
mold growth in some foods. Freeze-defrost cycles generally can be considered as sinusoidal oscillations. The amplitude of
the effect is reduced inside the package by some factor thus RT. < 1. It can be expected that the shorter the period of the
ambient variation the smaller the RT, and hence the smaller the amplitude of the cyclic temperature variation in the
package. Zuritz and Sastry (1986) also studied the effect of packaging materials on temperature fluctuations for frozen ice
cream and found that packaging materials coupled with a layer of stagnant air were effective barriers against thermal
fluctuations. 19.2.5 Hazard function 14 After the product is produced, it may fail at any point in time in accordance with
its life distribution (Nelson, 1972). The hazard function h(t) of a distribution is defined for t ≥ 0 by: h(t) = f(t)/[1-F(t)]
(19.14) where f(t) is a probability density function and F(t) is a cumulative distribution function. The h(t) is the
conditional probability of failure at time t, given that failure has not occurred before .. The behavior of a hazard function
for studying the shelf life of food products can be easily understood by examining the "bathtub" shaped curve in Fig. 19.7.
Note that at time to, a frozen food product begins its journey to many distribution outlets for consumption. During the
time between to and t1, early failures may occur owing to a failure in the process itself, faulty packaging, extreme initial
product abuse, and many other environmental stresses to which the product is subjected. Early failure should not be taken
as a true failure relative to the shelf life of the product unless it represents the normal condition. From t1 to t2 one can
expect, barring chance major temperature fluctuations, no failures. This interval represents the true period of the product's
stability. The failure rate is almost constant and small during this time. The hazard or failure rate increases from time t2 to
the termination point t3, owing to the true deteriorative changes occurring within the product. The concept of hazard
function is important in the analysis and interpretation of the failure times of a product. Time to t1 t2 t3 Early failure
Period of product stability Failure due to product deterioration Figure 19.7 Failure rate as a function of time 15 A
fundamental assumption underlying statistical analysis of shelf life testing is that the shelf life distribution of a food
product belongs to a family of probability distributions and that observations are statistically independent. Parameters of a
shelf life distribution are estimated by use of shelf life testing experimental data. Once the parameters of a shelf life model
have been estimated, it can be used to predict the probabilities of various events, such as future failures (Nelson, 1972).
Five statistical models, normal, log normal, exponential, Weibull and extreme-value distributions were tested for a few
food products (Gacula and Kubala, 1975; Labuza and Schmidl, 1988) and it was found that the Weibull distribution fits
best, which will be demonstrated later. 19.3 Shelf life testing — overall aspects 19.3.1 Purpose In the development of any
new food product including reformulating, change of packaging or storage/distribution condition (to penetrate into a new
market), one important aspect is the knowledge of shelf life. The shelf life of a food product is vital to its success in the
marketplace. This life must at least exceed the minimum distribution time required from the processor to the consumer.
Shelf life testing can assess problems that the product has in the development stage, following a "fail small fail early"
philosophy, thereby eliminating large disasters later. Marketing/brand managers also need reliable shelf life data to
position the products and to establish the brand. Periodic determination of shelf life help to provide assurance that the
product remains consistent over time with respect to quality. Different shelf life testing strategies are necessary at
different stages, as illustrated in Fig. 19.8. If the objective is to identify whether pathogens and spoilage microbes will
grow in the case of temperature abuse, then a challenge study is necessary. If the objective is to quickly estimate the
approximate shelf life of the product then an ASLT can be used, as long as the proper temperature range is chosen. A
confirmatory shelf life test may be conducted at the last stage with simulated distribution chain conditions, although in
today’s R & D environment, this may be skipped.
skipped. 16 Product concept Prototype development Pilot line testing Scale-up line trial Full line production Marketplace
General stability information Challenge Study Accelerated shelf life testing Confirmatory storage study On-going shelf
life monitoring Figure 19.8 Shelf life testing strategy at different product development stages 19.3.2 Shelf life criteria The
criterion for the end of shelf life may be variable depending on the definition of product quality grade, so the shelf life of a
product may also be variable. The shelf life of most perishable and semiperishable foods is almost solely based on sensory
quality. For example, fresh meat degrades mainly by bacterial activity and rapid chemical oxidations that cause an off-
flavor development and loss of color. This is readily recognizable by consumers. In contrast, many longer shelf-life foods
including most frozen foods degrade mainly by slow chemical reactions such as loss of nutritional value. For example, the
vitamin C content of some frozen fruits and vegetables, may fall below the required standard as listed on the label before
sensory quality becomes inadequate. The criteria for shelf life may also vary depending on the sensitivity of the consumer.
For consumers, taste, odor, and appearance are the most obvious criteria; in academia and in the industry, sensory
evaluation correlated with instrumental measurements of a given quality index (e.g., vitamin C level) are usually
conducted. In general, the criteria level corresponding to the end of shelf life of a product depends 17 on: (i) any legal
requirement, e.g. zero tolerance for botulinum toxin; (ii) consumer preferences or marketing requirements; and (iii) cost.
In essence, the end of shelf life depends on the percentage of consumers a company is willing to displease. If 100%
acceptance is required then high cost ingredients and absolute control of distribution up to point of consumption is
necessary, otherwise there will always be some people who will get foods beyond shelf life. The aim is to keep this as
small as possible. 19.3.2.1 Just noticeable difference (JND) Sensory (organoleptic) examination of foods was a general
procedure used by the human race to evaluate wholesomeness of foods long before the discovery of microorganisms.
Sensory evaluation of foods by scientific methods can be used to evaluate such attributes as taste, odor, body, texture,
color and appearance. Changes in these attributes may be brought out by microbial or non-microbial actions, usually the
latter for frozen foods. The methods used to evaluate sensory shelf life data include difference testing and hedonic
scoring. Difference testing can involve paired comparisons, duo-trio tests, or triangle tests. The paired comparison
procedure determines the time when a measurable difference in quality occurs between two test samples at a certain level
of probability. When applied to frozen foods, this method is often referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) test
or High Quality Life (HQL) test (July, 1984), which is usually based on flavor changes. Duo-trio testing compares two
unknowns to an unabused control sample and asks the question of whether either of the unknowns are the same as or
different from the identified control. Triangle testing determines the one different product among three test samples
presented randomly to a set of judges (at least 10). Probability plots are used to predict shelf life at a given probability
level. The difference method can result in finding a difference when none really exists (Type I error), or not finding one
when indeed there is a true difference (Type II error). Labuza and Schmidl (1988) have discussed this topic more
thoroughly in relationship to shelf life testing, which is not commonly found in sensory textbooks. Table 19.3 shows some
data from Guadagni (1968) for HQL of frozen foods. 18 Table 19.3 Days of High Quality Life for fruits and vegetable
(from Guadagni 1968) Product Type 0°F 10°F 20°F apples pie filling 360 250 60 blueberries pie filling 175 77 18 cherries
pie filling 490 260 60 peaches retail syrup 360 45 6 blackberries bulk, no sugar 630 280 50 raspberriesbulk, no sugar 720
315 70 retail, syrup 720 110 18 strawberries bulk, sugar 630 90 18 retail 360 60 10 green beans retail 296 94 30
cauliflower retail 291 61 13 peas retail 305 90 27 spinach retail 187 57 23 corn retail 720 360 corn on cob retail 275 150
19.3.2.2 Hedonic scoring Hedonic scoring — which indicates acceptance on a numerical scale, e.g. a 1-9 point scale
labeled from "dislike extremely" to "like extremely", is typically used for shelf-life evaluation. The test can be designed to
not only evaluate the overall acceptance of the product, but that of specific characteristics such as flavor, texture,
appearance, aftertaste, etc. Trained panels can also use this technique on a line scale, which can be converted to numerical
equivalents. If the hedonic method is used to evaluate shelf life, one can simply use the score as quality index A and plot
the score vs. storage time, run a linear regression, and choose the end of shelf life as the time when the progressed value
drops below a pre-set level (Waltzeko and Labuza, 1976; Gacula, 1975). The shelf life determined in this way is called the
practical shelf life (PSL) for frozen foods (July, 1984), and is longer than the HQL or JND. The use of hedonic rating
scales may be of limited use in shelf life testing, yet it is probably the most used method. Many food companies use a loss
in hedonic score equal to ∆=0.5 for HQL and ∆=1.5 for PSL as the end of shelf life 19 (Labuza, 1982). Objective
measurements and professional judgment are often required to determine the end point. Data in Table 19.4 from an report
published by the former Refrigerated and Frozen Foods Institute (1973) Unfortunately there were no methods given, but
the data suggests that the PSL is about 2 to 3 times longer than the HQL value. This in itself suggests that the HQL
methods can be used to shorten shelf life testing times. Table 19.4 Relationship between practical shelf life (PSL) and
High Quality Life for frozen foods. Frozen Food PSL/HQL Ratio lean meat 1.9 - 2 fatty meat 2.0-2.4 lean fish 1.9-2.2
fatty fish 2.4-2.7 precooked foods 2.8-3.0 fruit 2.8-3.1 vegetables 3.1-3.5 19.3.2.3 Instrumental analysis Chemical or
instrumental analysis, such as moisture, nutrient loss, free-fatty acids or color measurement that closely correlate to
sensory attributes, can supplement sensory techniques. They are usually less expensive and less time-consuming than
sensory approaches. A correlation between a physical or chemical test can increase the confidence level of the sensory
results. For example, the following constituents or properties can be considered for monitoring chemical changes of pizza
quality during frozen storage: total free fatty acids, specific volatile free fatty acids by HPLC, peroxides, oxidative
volatiles (e.g., hexanal) by GC, spice volatiles by GC, lysine, color (decrease in red color or increase in brown), in
addition to sensory evaluation of taste and flavor (Labuza, 1986). Most sensory experts agree that analytical methods
should complement the sensory tests. Vice versa, the endpoint determined by objective measurements should be
confirmed by sensory techniques as well. 20 19.3.2.4 Weibull Hazard analysis The Weibull Hazard procedure requires
one to first make an estimation of the time to the end of shelf life. This becomes the initial estimated time limit for the
study. The time limit is then divided into several segments at which points panelists grade the product. Additional
panelists are added at a constant number for each subsequent time period to maximize the number of testers near the end
of the test. The panelist is asked to grade the food as good (acceptable) or bad (unacceptable), i.e. no ranking on a hedonic
score. When the product is identified as unacceptable by 50% of the panelists, the number of testers for the next period is
increased by the number of failed samples plus the constant number. The interval between sample times is also shortened
as the end of shelf life gets closer. The test ends when no more samples or panelists are available. The scores are ranked
and the cumulative hazard calculated. The critical probability of failure Pc, can then be calculated from the following
equation: Pc = 100 (1 - exp(-∑(H/100))) (19.15) where H is the hazard value equal to 100/Rank. Choosing Pc = 50%,
corresponds to an accumulated hazard value of 69.3%. The relationship between the logarithm of storage time (log t) and
the logarithm of hazard value (log H) is linear: log t = (1/β) log H + log α (19.16) where β is the shape parameter and α is
the scale parameter. The shelf life can then be determined based on the desired probability level allowed for product
failure. The lower this probability, the shorter the shelf life. This plot then allows one to make a management decision
with respect to the probability of displeasing a certain fraction of consumers. It is hoped that the distribution time is such
that greater than 99 percent of the product is consumed before the end of shelf life based on displeasing less than X% of
consumers where X is the economic value. An detailed example was given by Labuza and Schmidl (1988). It should be
noted that this process can also be used for simple analytical tests such as plate counts or vitamin C. In these cases the
number of panelists are replaced with the number of samples tested. Some criterion such as 20% vitamin C loss is used as
the negative response. Figure 19.9 shows an example of Weibull plot for a frozen food based on assumed data. A shelf life
of 16 months is 21 found at Pc = 50% from the graph. From this graph then, if 95% of the food were distributed and
consumed in 3 weeks, only 1% of the consumers would be displeased .01 .1 1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 Cumulative hazard
(%) Shelf life (wk) Probability (%) 0.01 0.1 1 10 50 99.99 Figure 19.9 An example of Weibull plot for a frozen food. A
shelf life of 16 wk was determined at Pc = 50%. (or 0.95% of the product is out of compliance). If the rest were held and
consumed at 10.5 weeks, 50% of those eating it would have out of quality food or another 0.5 x 5% = 2.5% of product.
Thus in this distribution model about 3.5% of the product is unacceptable. To improve on this, the product must either
move faster or one must distribute it at a lower temperature. Wittinger and Smith (1986) used this approach to determine
sensory shelf life of ice cream based on iciness and found a shelf life of 5 weeks at 0°F (-15.5) which fits the general data
for iciness in ice cream as shown in Figure 19.10 (Labuza, 1982). It should be noted that this gives a Q10 of about 12. 22
.1 1 10 100 Temperature °C 1 10 100 -30 -20 -10 0 0.1 weeks Figure 19.10 Shelf life plot for ice cream based on icyness
perception from data of Labuza (1992) 19.3.3 General procedures Shelf life testing experiments are designed to measure
the average shelf-life of a product under given conditions. General procedures for shelf life testing of foods were proposed
by Labuza and Schmidl (1985), which include: Step 1: Develop testing protocol — The protocol should consist of: i)
specific objective; ii) detailed test design in terms of product, package, and storage condition; iii) execution procedures in
terms of time, space and resource availability; iv) cost estimation. Step 2: Identify key quality indicator — Any previous
shelf life data and kinetic parameters of food deterioration available in the literature (Labuza, 1982; Man and Jones, 1994)
or the distribution turnover time of a similar or a competitive product in the market place, if any, would be very helpful in
this preliminary identification or in determining the shelf life requirement. Step 3: Estimate product sample and control
needs — The number of samples and controls required should be based on the detailed experimental design. If sufficient
product is available, extra samples should be placed into each storage 23 condition. Now and then it may be necessary to
recheck a sample, especially if a value is not in line with other data. It would be disastrous to be out of sample before
failure has occurred or the predetermined termination of the test is reached. Extra controls should also be prepared and
stored. When the samples are placed into storage rooms, they should be positioned so that the complete package is
exposed to the external atmosphere, unless otherwise specified. The specific location of the test sample should be
recorded. Temperature controllers should be checked for accuracy, periodically. In addition, removal of all unused
samples from the storage room to make space for future studies is a must. There are various thoughts when it comes to
using a control product. Some sensory experts prefer an actual physical control; others are satisfied to just use the
numbers obtained in the zero time evaluation. There are three alternatives when using a physical example as a control: (i)
making the control from scratch each time using the same ingredients, procedures, etc.; (ii) deep-freezing the control (e.g.
pizza held at -70 °C) and accepting that it might have changed slightly, but minimally compared to the product in shelf
life; (iii) using a fresh batch of product which may not be identical. Step 4: Select proper package materials and package
size — This is largely dependent on shelf life requirements, packaging costs and availability, and consumer information.
Factors such as vacuum packaging, nitrogen flushing, or use of antioxidants are often considered in combination with
packaging materials. Step 5: Choose storage conditions — Storage conditions are chosen based on the type of shelf life
testing. For example, the intended commercial storage/distribution temperature range should be used in confirmatory shelf
life testing. Elevated temperatures are often used in accelerated shelf life testing to obtain data for prediction of shelf life
at lower temperature or for prediction of shelf life under variable time-temperature distributions. Humidity control and/or
monitoring is less important for frozen foods as compared to other foods (e.g., snacks, cakes, pies, and pastries). Light in
the room should be properly controlled depending on the package. Step 6: Estimate sampling frequency and duration of
testing — The sampling frequency is generally an estimation based upon experience from prior studies with similar foods.
However, once one knows an interval at one temperature, then the intervals at other temperatures can be estimated using a
Q10 value i.e., if the Q10 is 3 then for a 10°C lower temperature the sampling times can be 3 times longer. If the interval
between sampling is too long, the risk of under- or over-estimating shelf life increases. The more analyses that are
completed, the more accurate will be the shelf life determination. 24 The question as to when one should end the
experiment must be based on some pre-set criteria for failure. One criterion could be the minimum shelf life requirement
driven by product category, distribution chain, and the benchmark's product stability. If there is an accompanying sensory
test, the end time can be based on some organoleptic inferior quality criteria from which one then can get a microbial or
chemical index limit. For frozen products, several weeks to months are usually needed. If the shelf life can be estimated
with any accuracy, the test intervals can be lengthened and clustered around the expected failure period. Most of the
experts only require about six evaluations to provide reliable results. Step 7: Schedule for execution — Before scheduling
the starting date for a shelf life test, one must check for the availability of ingredients, packaging materials, and storage
space, and the time and resource available in the pilot plant or in the processing plant to prepare the samples. One should
also check for the time and resources available in the microbial lab, the analytical lab and/or the sensory support staff
throughout the test period. A copy of the test request and schedule should be sent in advance to those who will be doing
the work. The courtesy of providing those involved with this advance information always pays dividends. Holidays should
be marked on the scheduling calendar, since scheduling too many evaluations near major holidays or Friday afternoon is
not recommended. However, once scheduled, sample observations on weekends and holidays should not be skipped over,
since important data points could be missed. Step 8: Take sample and evaluate quality — Samples should be taken and
evaluated following pre-determined schedules. Sampling plans should be administratively and economically feasible,
taking into account the heterogeneity of the food. Maxcy and Wallen (1983) pointed out the problem of heterogeneity of
samples in shelf life prediction. Multiple subsamples (≥ 3) should be done for nonhomogenous samples. A single package
is usually used as an experimental unit. Replication of 3 or 4 units are desired for each measurement. For frozen foods, a
thawing process is often involved in the sampling procedure. Proper thawing or microwave heating is critical to the
product quality. All samples should be thawed or microwaved in the same way to minimize any biases. The intended
analyses should be based on the specific mode of deterioration, which was discussed earlier. Whatever the choice, the
tests should be reasonable and logical. The key is to make sure that one is measuring the right thing. If the wrong quality
factor is measured, the test starts out a failure. Unfortunately, in many cases this cannot be established initially, so sensory
evaluation is a must in almost all shelf life 25 tests. Key sensory evaluation techniques for frozen foods have been
discussed before. At the time of each pull, one unit of the sample should be evaluated (informally by a minimum of 2-3
people) for changes in flavor and texture. This should be done in addition to the final tasting prior to a consumer sensory
test. This is necessary since it helps the developer know approximately how the product is doing during the progress of the
shelf-life, helping to avoid any surprises in the results. Control samples may need to be prepared fresh. Step 9: Analyze
data — Shelf life is the predicted day at which the stored product (test pull) is X% less than the control at day zero
(Reference). The data should be plotted and regressed to determine that point using the proper model (zero or first). All
too often the data are not analyzed until the experiment is over and then the scientist finds that nothing can be concluded
because of lack of points or a poor fit or some surprises. Statistical curve fitting should be consistent with the chosen
model based on a theoretical mechanism. The amount of change and number of data points are related to the coefficient of
variation (CV) of the test. A weighting factor may be used in estimating the rate constant and its statistical limits. When
the data for an attribute does not fit the regression model well (adjusted R2 of < 0.8), scientific judgment should be used
to decide whether the data are applicable. When in doubt, a rerun on retention samples might help understand or clarify
the results. Error analysis could be performed before experiments are run by first finding inherent errors in time,
temperature, and quality index measurements, then calculating an expected standard deviation for the plot being used to
determine a rate constant. If the experimental data have a standard deviation much higher than the expected value, either
the functional form of the rate expression is incorrect or the data contain errors from unanticipated sources. Step 10:
Prepare shelf life report — Depending on the type of shelf life determination, the results should either throw light on the
technical viability of the product or provide answers to the questions about the maximum safe shelf life as well as the
maximum quality shelf life of the product. Before a shelf life is finally set, factors in the scale-up of shelf life data will
need to be taken into consideration. Based on results from ASLT, the provisional shelf life will be set for the product.
There is no government regulation which defines the product end point except for that related to nutrient levels (vitamin C
and vitamin A) in 21 CFR 101.9(g)(1)(ii) which states that for the vitamins listed, the analysis level cannot be below 80%
of the label value if it is a natural food with no added nutrients or cannot be below 100% (21 CFR 101.9(g)(1)(i)) 26 if the
product has any added vitamin or nutrient whether or not it is the nutrient under test. Thus one must base the label value
on some predicted initial variability and some predicted loss during distribution and storage. The FDA usually takes
samples at the supermarket level (where they can purchase them) for compliance testing, not from the end of the process
line so distribution losses must be factored in. The end point of shelf life is thus dependent on your corporate objectives
and how much risk the company is willing to take with the brand. No shelf life test is completed until a termination
summary has been written. All termination summaries should include the objective of the test, product description,
package description, conditions and length of storage, methods of evaluation, results (in the form of graphs, shelf life plots
and Q10 values) and conclusions. Termination summaries should become a permanent record in the company library for
future reference and preferably indexed well on a computer data base for later retrieval when needed. The final shelf life
should also be set to give a clear margin of safety. In any case, the shelf life of a new product, particularly of the high risk
category, should be set based on data that relate to the worst case manufacturing and storage scenario. The shelf life can
then be reviewed and if necessary re-set in the light of further experience in manufacturing and control after the product
has been launched. Step 11: Implementation — One should get top management’s approval of the test results so that they
can be implemented. Management must believe and support those test results. It is important for production, sales,
distribution, purchasing and quality control to work together to be sure that the production is properly handled from the
time of manufacture until this product is consumed. 19.4 Challenge study 19.4.1 Basis Freezing reduces the microbial
population of foods but considerable numbers usually survive even prolonged frozen storage. A challenge study is often
used in the laboratory to study the factors and factor interactions as they affect the shelf life of the product. Such
simulated experiments enable the researcher to better control the study. A challenge study is necessary for frozen foods
for two reasons: (i) to predict microbial growth and potential risk of the product upon temperature abuse in a distribution
chain; and (ii) to assess the relative stability and the relative risk of different formula, different processes or different
packaging materials, which is a must in new product development. A challenge study may also be considered as a
preliminary shelf life determination in terms of microbiological safety. It is often used in the early stage of 27
development since if microbial safety is a concern at this stage, then reformulating can be done quickly. 19.4.2 Microbial
abuse procedures Step 1: Identify barriers — A composition/ingredient analysis should be done to identify any barrier(s)
against spoilage microbes and pathogens in case of temperature abuse. Step 2: Choose types of organisms/strains and
inoculation level — One principle is to use an organism or a strain that has been isolated previously from the product or
similar foods which is responsible for spoilage or risk. The more isolates in the study, the greater is the confidence in the
accuracy of the shelf life assessment. An inoculation level must also be determined, which is generally much higher than
the normal contamination level in a product. If the average contamination level for a particular product is known, then the
inoculation level should be as close to that level as possible. Sometimes several inoculation levels are used. Step 3:
Determine temperature abuse conditions — After inoculation, products should be packaged using the desired commercial
packaging conditions, and subjected to temperature abuse. Factorial design and response surface methodology are often
used in designing a challenge study. A typical temperature abuse condition used by some food companies is provided in
Table 19.5. It starts out with five sets of test packages placed at -18 °C to begin the cycle. At the end of the first 24 hr, one
set of packages is removed and tested for microbiological indicators to establish a zerotime level. All the other packages
are kept at -18 °C for the next 20 hr, then removed and abused by placing them at 38 °C for 4 hr. Another set of packages
is then removed for microbiological testing, and the cycle is repeated for the remaining packages, i.e. they are all returned
to -18 °C for at least 20 hr, then abused at 38 °C for 4 hr. This procedure is repeated so that one set goes through at least
four freezethaw cycles. If there is no significant increase in spoilage organisms or pathogenic organisms after the fourth
cycle, the food is deemed safe microbiologically. 28 Table 19.5 A typical temperature abuse test sequence for microbial
challenge studies Day Abuse temperature cycle Number of package sets remaining 1 24 hr at -18 °C 5 2 20 hr at -18 °C 4
hr at 38 °C 4 3 20 hr at -18 °C 4 hr at 38 °C 3 4 20 hr at -18 °C 4 hr at 38 °C 2 5 20 hr at -18 °C 4 hr at 38 °C 1 Source:
Labuza and Schmidl (1985) Step 4: Do microbial survival analysis — This is to find out if there are any microbial growth
upon temperature abuse or if the inoculated microbes survived the process. Appropriate detection and enumeration
techniques should be used. 19.4.3 Applicability The use of inoculated pack studies conducted by independent laboratories
allows a food processor to assess the relative risks that can occur under conditions of temperature abuse of the food
product in question. Taking frozen pizza as an example, both the cheese and sausage, if naturally fermented, will have
high total counts of bacteria. Since the product is usually partially pre-baked and then frozen, the numbers of vegetative
microorganisms will decrease until thawing occurs. Unfortunately, pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus will not be
totally inactivated by these treatments. If the product is abused during distribution so severally that the temperature near
the surface reaches about 7 °C, pathogens may grow. A challenge study with Staphylococcus aureus will verify the
microbial safety of the product. It should be noted that inoculated pack studies with pathogens should not be conducted in
food industry laboratories that are located close to the food processing facilities because of the possible transfer of
pathogens to food products. No sensory 29 panel can be applied to evaluate the inoculated samples other than visual
observation. 19.5 Accelerated shelf life testing 19.5.1 Basis During product development, preliminary shelf life
knowledge is often needed in addition to microbiological safety. Shelf life testing experiments at this stage are often
accelerated to evaluate the effects of various formulation and processing parameters on shelf life stability of the product
being developed periodically since one can not afford the relatively long shelf life period for a frozen food stored under
normal freezing conditions. In addition, temperature fluctuations may occur in distribution and retail holding for frozen
storage. Thus kinetic studies at several temperatures within that range are necessary to predict its shelf life. Accelerated
shelf life testing conducted at elevated isothermal temperatures and/or with freeze/thaw cycles for frozen products have
been used extensively for several decades by industry and government agencies (Labuza and Schmidl, 1985). The
Arrhenius relation and the Q10 approach are used to extrapolate the results to the expected lower storage temperature.
Acceleration factors other than temperature have also been studied for some other deterioration modes, such as moisture
gain or loss and lipid oxidation (Labuza, 1984), but rarely done for frozen foods. 19.5.2 Unique procedures Step 1: Clarify
test objectives — In general there are two occasions where ASLT applies: i) estimate approximate shelf life quickly
during development stage; ii) collect kinetic parameters for actual shelf life prediction as in the marketplace, which is
conducted generally near the launch phase. Step 2: Select accelerating temperature conditions — Suggested isothermal
accelerating conditions for frozen foods are -15, -10, and -5 °C with a control stored at < -40 °C (Labuza and Schmidl,
1985). The inherent assumption is that the deterioration mechanism is the same across the temperature range although as
noted earlier, there is concern about how close to freezing one can go. Moisture migration from the food into the
surrounding air with resulting desiccation of the food and ice crystal formation in the package is a major mode of
deterioration of frozen foods under fluctuation temperature conditions. Cycling temperature storage is used to test for this,
i.e. from 0 °F or 10 °F up to 20 °F with one day at each temperature and then repeated several times. A freeze-thaw
cycling study is also needed to determine its effect on sensory quality. Usually, the high temperature 30 can be much
lower than that used in a microbial challenge study unless microbial survival is still a concern. Typically, cycling
temperature/time can be three to five 24 hour cycles between -18 °C and -7 °C, or between - 18 °C and 7 °C, depending
on the product. Step 3: Estimate testing time and sampling frequency— Testing times are dependent on a desired shelf life
at target storage conditions. For example, given that a shelf life of 12 months at -18 °C is desired, a shelf life plot can be
constructed. Figure 19.11 indicates the test time at -4 °C that equates to 12 months at -18 °C for various Q10 values.
Sampling times at -4 °C should thus be 1 wk, 2 wk, 1 month, 3 months, and 4.5 -5 months. Most published results suggest
that Q10 values for vitamin C loss and quality loss in frozen vegetables range from 2 to 20 and that the shelf life of
vegetables is only 6-8 months at -18 °C (Labuza, 1982). Considering these Q10 values, a product that does not retain good
quality for 4.5 months at -4 °C may not retain good quality for 12 months at -18 °C. This also suggests the sampling
frequency shown in Table 19.6. All simple tests should be conducted at each sampling time, while sensory testing should
be concentrated mainly toward the end of the test sequence with a few near the beginning. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 .1 1 10 100
T (°F) Shelf life 12 mo at 0 ASLT at 25 °F 4.5 mo 1.2 mo 14 days 6 days Q10=2 Q10=5 Q10=10 Q10=20 Figure 19.11
Shelf life testing times at 25 °F equivalent to 12 mo at 0 °F for various Q10 values. Table 19.6 Sampling frequency for
frozen pizza ASLT 31 Temperature (°C) Sampling times (wk) - 4 1, 2*, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 14, 16*, 20* - 7 2, 4*, 10, 15*, 20*
- 10 4*, 10, 15*, 20* * Sensory test times Source: Labuza (1986) Step 4: Determine end point — Figure 19.12 shows a
comparison of times to various levels for the loss of vitamin C in frozen spinach as a function of temperature (Kramer,
1974). The dotted line represents the 80/80 rule, i.e., from a legal standpoint, for natural products, 80% of the tested
sample must have no more than a loss of 20% (i.e. 80% of the label value). Consumer sensory testing will not always give
such a clear shelf-life result since different shelf life times can result using different quality attributes. Often professional
judgment has to be made to decide what factor to use as the base for the end of shelf-life of the product. When shelf life is
unacceptably short, adjustments should be made to the food, its environment, packaging, process and hygienic conditions,
until a suitable extension of shelf life can be achieved. For some products, the test results may demonstrate that the target
shelf life is not attainable. At this point, the question of whether to launch the new product with a shorter shelf life or to
abandon the entire project becomes a marketing decision. -20 -10 0 1 0 1 10 100 Storage Temperature (°F) Shelf life (mo)
Figure 19.12 Shelf life of frozen spinach as a function of vitamin loss level 50% loss 25% loss 10% loss Quality (80/80
rule) 32 Step 5: Estimate kinetic parameters — From each test storage condition, estimation of k or q is needed to make
the appropriate shelf life plot. From this one can then estimate the potential shelf life and confidence interval for the
storage condition. Then parameters for the Arrhenius relation and the shelf life plot are determined by linear regression,
which are used for shelf life prediction. Step 6: Extrapolate to normal freezing storage condition — The most useful shelf
life information is obtained for product kept at its intended storage temperature, which is about -18°C for retail frozen
products and -23°C for distribution of frozen foods. Figure 19.13 demonstrates how the shelf life plot is used for
extrapolation. It is always a good practice to compare a model's prediction against actual experimental results because of
the potential for errors from using the higher temperature data as noted earlier besides the other errors suggested by
Labuza and Riboh (1982). In addition, the existence of a glass transition at a temperature between the test temperature and
the prediction temperature would lead to error as shown by Nelson and Labuza (1994). In the case of frozen foods, most
likely the error would be an under prediction of the shelf life. ln Θ T T1 T2 T3 Ts (commercial storage temperature)
Figure 19.13 Extrapolation from ASLT Step 7: Predict quality loss for a fluctuating time-temperature distribution — The
prediction is based on two assumptions: (1) that there is no history effect from the time-temperature variation and (2) that
the key deterioration mode does not change as a function of temperature. The frozen spinach data shown in Figure 19.12
is used in the following example in Table 19.7 for a time-temperature distribution. The line 33 equivalent to 20% loss is
set as the end of shelf life limit i.e., if Ao = 36 mg/100 g then A at the end of shelf life is 0.8 x 36 or 28.8 mg or 7.2 mg of
vitamin C can be lost. For each temperature of exposure, the time on the 80/80 line is the time for 20% loss, thus at -10°F,
the 20% loss (equivalent to 100% shelf life) time is 16.5 months. Thus for 6 months storage at -10°F, there is 6/16.5 or
36.3% of the shelf life lost and the amount left is 36 - 6.36 x 7.2 = 33.4 mg. Table 19.7 Estimation of quality remaining of
frozen spinach after exposed to a variable time-temperature history with Ao = 36 mg/100g spinach. Temperature (°F)
Time t (months) θ shelf life (months) fcon (t/θ ) Σfcon Aremaining (mg/100g) -10 6 16.5 0.363 0.363 33.4 +3 1 4.5 0.256
0.619 31.5 +12 0.25 1.6 0.156 0.775 30.4 Since as noted 80% of Ao is equal to 28.8 mg/100g at end of shelf life, this
product is still acceptable at the end of the set of three different time/temperature exposures. In fact, the shelf life left @ 5
°F = (1-0.775) x 3.3 = 0.74 months = 22 days. 19.5.3 Applicability Because of relatively long shelf life for frozen foods
and the unique feature of freezing, the degree of temperature elevation is largely limited. Prediction of actual shelf life
from ASLT may be severely limited except in very simple food systems. Frozen foods such as frozen pizzas, may present
problems with moisture migration. The moisture may diffuse from the pizza sauce which has a higher aw into the crust
containing a lower aw , creating a pizza crust that is limp and soggy. Product development scientists should only use the
results as a guideline and must use as many storage conditions as possible to minimize prediction errors. 34 ASLT is just a
quick method, which can not replace the normal storage tests discussed next. Once it is verified that the extrapolation may
be wrong, i.e., too large an error, then a careful look should be taken at the deterioration mode, the experiment design and
procedure, the data collected and the model developed. If the extrapolation under predicts the true shelf life, then it
becomes an economic concern, it is over predicted, then reformulating may be necessary. If the shelf life prediction
indicates that the product meets the stability expectation, then the product has a chance of performing satisfactorily in the
marketplace. 19.6 Confirmatory storage study 19.6.1 Basis The difference in potential shelf life should be considered
when scaling up from experimental test batches to pilot plant and then to full scale production. Experience has shown that
results of small-scale experiments in the laboratory may not be of much use for large-scale production (Graf and Saguy,
1991). Scale-up not only affects the processability and quality of a food product, but it often alters its shelf life.
Depending on the mode of failure and the food scientist's approach to inhibiting microbial growth and chemical reactions
leading to deterioration, scale-up may increase or decrease shelf life. Because of the difficulty in predicting the precise
effect of scale-up on food stability, a confirmatory shelf life study is often needed (Graf and Saguy, 1991) simulating real
distribution conditions (if available) using fluctuating temperatures or freeze/thaw cycles. Ideally the products to be tested
are produced by the plant under typical steady-state manufacturing conditions. In this way the test can confirm that one
can achieve an acceptable product quality and acceptable shelf life of a realistic food (not hand-picked showcase samples)
at its intended commercial storage temperature conditions. 19.6.2 Unique procedures Step 1: Identify real distribution
chain conditions — The final decision as to the likely shelf life of a given frozen product must taken account of the fact
that the product is not going to be stored at a steady temperature of -18°C (0°F) from the end of freezing until thawing for
consumption or during end cooking. A typical frozen product will spend part of its shelf life in a bulk cold store, a
refrigerated vehicle or container, a distribution store, a retail display cabinet or institutional frozen food storage cabinet, a
period out of refrigeration during the journey from the retail outlet to home and time in a home freezer or star-marked
frozen food storage compartment, before being 35 consumed in the frozen state, thawed or end cooked. An essential part
of any shelf life determination in markets where the 'marked' frozen food storage compartments are in use is to assess the
shelf life at the relevant temperatures for '1-Star', -6°C (21°F) and '2-Star', -12 °C (10°F) conditions (Symons, 1995). Step
2: Determine shelf life — Shelf life determination can be done either using a kinetic modeling study or by sensory
evaluation. Figure 19.14 is the same shelf life plot for frozen strawberries using all the data as was presented by Guadagni
(1968). Based on that data, a demonstrative calculation for a known time-temperature distribution can be conducted and is
summarized in Table 19.8. The calculations are based on the following. It is assumed that the order is zero and that at time
zero the quality is 100%. At end of shelf life the quality level is set to zero percent. Thus the rate of loss is 100% divided
by the shelf life time as found in Figure 19.14. Thus for the first period, which is holding in the producers locker for 250
days at -22°C, the rate of loss is 100/660 or 0.15% per day based on a shelf life of 660 days at the temperature. Given that
the holding time was 250 days the accumulated loss is 250 x 0.15 or 38% loss. As seen there is a total of 66% loss up to
the point of the consumers freezer. If consumed within three weeks there is still 22% of the shelf life left. Another way of
looking at it, at -13°C with a loss of 66% of the total shelf life, there is 0.34 x 180 or about two months of shelf life left.
The question would be “is this enough”. 36 Table 19.5 Loss of shelf life of frozen strawberries Source: Jul (1984). Stage
Time (day) Temperature (°C) Shelf life θs Loss rate per day = 100/θs % Loss Producer 250 -22 660 0.15 38 Transport 2 -
14 220 0.45 1 Wholesale 50 -23 710 0.14 7 Transport 1 -12 140 0.71 0.7 Retail 21 -11 110 0.91 19 Transport 0.1 -3 18
5.56 1 Subtotal 324 66 Home freezer 21 -13 180 0.56 12 Total 344 78 Step 3: Correlate sensory with instrumental analysis
— Since at this stage effective methods intended for routine quality control must be established, a correlation to some
simply measured objective index must be made. 19.6.3 Applicability This type of test is usually carried out towards the
end of the product development process, most certainly using product samples obtained during prelaunch runs. This will
finally enable the shelf life to be set and the material, product, process, and packaging specifications to be finalized prior
to a full scale product launch. However, for frozen products, it is likely that product launch may occur before any
confirmatory shelf life determination is completed. In this case, an ASLT for products manufactured on the scale-up line
can be employed simultaneously. Without ASLT, no prediction can be made for other variable storage conditions (e.g.
another distribution chain as the market expands). In many cases sensory techniques must be used simultaneously to
determine the practical shelf life. These tests require a lot of samples, a lot of panelists and are thus relatively expensive
and may be passed over. As discussed earlier, individual packages will experience a series of different environments
corresponding to different locations during distribution and storage. Other packages from the same consignment will meet
conditions which differ both in duration of storage and by traversing different parts of the distribution system, different
temperatures and humidities. Thus, one cannot assume that all packages will be stored for the same period under identical
conditions, or will react in the same way, 37 that is why methods or devices that integrate time-temperature exposure are
required. In 1996 the USDA and FDA both began to examine the potential for using such devices for monitoring safety
during distribution. (Anon, 1996) 19.7 On-going shelf life monitoring 19.7.1 Basis It is very important that the shelf life
of every existing product should be monitored on a regular basis and in such a way that is compatible with the shelf life in
question, production volume and environmental conditions to which the product is exposed (or even abused) up to the
point of consumption. During storage and transportation distribution phases, temperature conditions are often less than
ideal and temperature abuses can occur. Reaction rates that are related to quality loss characteristics are strongly
temperature dependent, even when all the other factors are controlled through effective packaging and maintained at the
desirable levels. Ideally, what would be needed is a cost effective way to either maintain temperature or to individually
monitor the temperature conditions of food products throughout distribution in order to indicate their real quality state. If
either one is achieved, it could lead to an effective quality control of the distribution, optimized stock rotation and
reduction of waste, as well as give some meaningful information on the remaining shelf life of the products. This calls for
control over pallets, control over the cases of product and, finally, over the individual packages at every step in
distribution. Control over pallets is generally achieved by the computerized recording system of the producer in concert
with the bulk storage facility. Control over cases is achieved in Europe by printing the mandatory open shelf life date
which is demanded on individual packets on the outer case in standard format. Time-temperature indicators were
developed to monitor individual packages but could also serve in both other functions. (Labuza et al., 1991). 19.7.2 Time-
temperature indicators 19.7.2.1 Principle Broadly speaking, a time-temperature integrator/indicator is a device or tag that
can keep track of an accumulated time-temperature distribution function to which a perishable product is subjected from
the point of manufacture to the display shelf of the retail outlet, or even to the consumer. The operation of a TTI is based
on 38 mechanical, chemical or enzymatic systems that change irreversibly from the time of their activation. The rate
increases at higher temperatures in a manner similar to most chemical reactions. The change is usually expressed as a
visible response in the form of a mechanical deformation, color development and color movement. TTIs can be classified
into: i) temperature indicators — which would indicate if the package is below a predetermined temperature (Billet,
1983); ii) temperature abuse indicators — For guidance on whether a frozen product has been exposed to temperature
abuse, a small ball or cube of ice has often been placed in the frozen food pack. If it disappeared or has lost its shape, one
would know that the product has been above 0·C.; iii) temperature abuse integrators — a device which integrates the time
and the severity of the abuse, i.e. the sum of the multiples of degrees in degrees Fahrenheit over a critical point and the
time of excess in minutes. In the frozen food range, these devices are available for 0°F, 10°F, and 20°F, but may be
supplied with other melting points (July, 1984); iv) electronic or mechanical time-temperature integrators —Much effort
has been devoted to developing sophisticated electronic time-temperature integrators from which data could be
downloaded and the accumulated effect on shelf life calculated for a certain food after its passage through the freezer
chain (Olley, 1976). Many companies supply such instruments (Ryan, Cox, Sensitech) but no company presently has put
together spread sheets to do the analysis as we have shown previously. In fact some talk about the area under the T-t curve
as being important (i.e. number of °C/days) when in fact it is not. One company (Remosys, UK) has an electronic
integrator that displays the days of shelf life left for fresh fish. The square root temperature dependence model is used.; (v)
chemical time-temperature integrators. These devices show the physical or color changes as noted earlier and respond
with the same temperature sensitivity (Q10 or Ea) as the food they are monitoring. Companies that supply such devices
are 3M (St. Paul, MN), Lifelines (Morristown, NJ) and VITSAB (Malmo, Sweden). Note this latter company marketed
TTIs formerly as the i-Point Company. A general review has been done by Labuza et al. (1991). 39 19.7.2.2 Correlation
of a TTI with a food Figure 19.15 shows a schematic of how a TTI can be used to predict the shelf life of a food product
based on mathematical modeling. The left side of this scheme indicates that tag kinetics are required. As noted, these
kinetics have been determined for several types of TTI's. The tag basically predicts an effective temperature for a variable
distribution which is then used to predict shelf life of the food using the right side of the scheme. This effective
temperature is defined as that constant temperature, which if the tag was always at, would give the same measured
response as for the variable temperature exposure. The assumption is made that the effective temperature of the TTI
response is equal to that for the food deterioration based on the Arrhenius equation, the TTI response can then be
integrated for a variable time-temperature distribution. The rate constant for a TTI response must also follows the
Arrhenius theory. The EA(TTI) values of the commercially available indicators cover the range of the most important
deteriorative reactions in foods including frozen foods (Fu and Labuza, 1992). TTI response Shelf life TTI kinetics
Teff(TTI) Teff(food) Food kinetics = Assumption Teff(TTI) Teff(food) Figure 19.15 — Application scheme of time-
temperature indicators Other approaches such as equivalent time and equivalent point can also be used to correlate TTI
response with food reaction based on the Arrhenius relation (Fu and Labuza, 1995). These approaches will be able to
provide information on remaining quality or shelf life of the food at a targeted storage temperature after exposure to a
variable time-temperature history. It can also be used to compare the effectiveness of different distribution chains. 40
19.7.2.5 Applicability The usefulness of these sensors in monitoring quality depends on how well they can mimic changes
in quality. It has been proven mathematically that the effective temperature of the TTI will not be equal to that of a food
reaction unless the storage temperature is constant or the activation energy of the TTI is the same as that of the quality
loss reaction. Thus, the device will only be able to indicate the shelf life remaining for reactions whose activation energy
is the same as or close (DEa < 5 Kcal/mol) to that of the TTI or some correction factor is needed (Taoukis et al., 1991).
The reliability for TTI applications depends on the variability in responses within the temperature range encountered and
the confidence on the determined kinetic parameters and the difference between EA(food) and EA(TTI). Table 19.9 lists
some testing procedures for TTI to be used for monitoring frozen food distribution. In the case of frozen strawberries, a
decrease in firmness and a decrease in measured amount of ascorbic acid were well correlated with the response of the
iPOINT model 2340 (Singh and Wells, 1987; Wells and Singh, 1988). They also studied the potential applications of TTI
for monitoring quality changes during frozen storage of hamburger (Singh and Wells, 1985) and other frozen foods (Wells
et al., 1987). It should be noted here that they did not use the tags to predict shelf life, they merely showed a correlation
between quality change and tag change. In fact there are no published data giving a comparison of a TTI prediction to the
actual quality change of a food. Despite this, some food companies are using the Lifeline type tags on some frozen foods
such as turkey rolls (Labuza et al., 1991). The applicability problem involves deviations from the Arrhenius relationship
for both the TTI and food, the heat transfer problem since a TTI tag is usually applied on a package surface and does not
reflect the temperature response in the center of a pallet load, and the chemical and light sensitivity of TTIs. The cost of a
TTI also depends on the quantity required. All of these aspects and their potential solutions have been discussed in detail
by Taoukis et al. (1991). 41 Table 19.9 — Suggested Technical Standards and Procedures of TTI for Frozen Foods Test
procedure Technical standard Temperature response test -25, -15, -10, -5, +5 C Reproducible end point Maximum
tolerance: ±6 days or 2.5% of the life span of TTI Evaluation of kinetic parameters of TTI Make an Arrhenius plot based
on the data collected in the above temperature response test Arrhenius plot and the values of activation energy and
preexponential factor Temperature cycling test Cycling range: -25´ -15 C, -15 ´ -10 C, -10 ´ -5C, -25 ´ +5C Cycling
period: 10 times the interned life span of a TTI The predicted rate constant at the reference temperature from the
Arrhenius equation differs from the actually measured value by < 10%. Simulated field test Applicable and reliable From
George and Shaw (1992) 19.7.3 Other devices Alternatives to monitoring temperature during food distribution include the
use of flexible, miniaturized electronic temperature recording devices (LeBlanc, 1988). They record time-temperature
information that can be displayed and processed at the receiving end by interfacing with a microcomputer. In 1989 a
satellite tracking system (Geostar Satellite Tracking Service, Geostar, Corp., Washington, DC, USA) was introduced
(Labuza and Taoukis, 1990) but it is only used for drug shipments because of the cost. McMeekin and Olley (1986) gave a
list of other time-temperature recording systems. This will provide a valuable record for future use as well as contribute
towards evidence of due diligence.
Freezing is one of the easiest, quickest, most versatile and most convenient methods of preserving foods. Properly frozen
foods maintain more of their original color, flavor and texture and generally more of their nutrients than foods preserved
by other methods.
■ Introduction Freezing is one of the easiest, quickest, most versatile and most convenient methods of preserving foods.
Properly frozen foods maintain more of their original color, flavor and texture and generally more of their nutrients than
foods preserved by other methods. Good freezer management is important. The following tips will help you get the most
of your freezer dollar.
• Place your freezer in a cool, dry area where the temperature is constant.
• Keep your freezer at least ¾ full for efficient operation.
• Continue to use and replace foods. Do not simply store them.
• Open the freezer door as rarely as possible.
• Make proper use of energy saving features on your freezer.
• Keep door seals clean and check for proper sealing. Replace when necessary.
• Defrost manual freezers regularly.
• Keep the condenser coils clean.
■ Factors Affecting Quality The condition of the food at the time of freezing will determine the final quality of the frozen
food. Frozen food can be no better than the food was before it was frozen. Freezing does not sterilize foods as canning
does. It simply retards the growth of microorganisms and slows down chemical changes that affect quality or cause food
spoilage.
Enzymes Freezing, heating and chemical compounds can control enzyme actions. Freezing slows enzyme activity so that
many frozen foods, such as meats and many fruits, will keep satisfactorily with little or no further treatment. Enzymes in
vegetables are inactivated by heat during the recommended blanching process.
Air Oxygen in the air may cause flavor and color changes if the food is improperly packaged.
Microorganisms; Microorganisms do not grow at freezer temperature, but most are not destroyed and will multiply as
quickly as ever when the frozen food is thawed and allowed to stand at room temperature.
Ice Crystals”: The formation of small ice crystals during freezing is desirable. Fast freezing is the most practical way to
form small ice crystals. Large ice crystals associated with slow freezing tend to rupture the cells, causing an undesirable
texture change.
Freezer Temperature: Maintain temperature of 0 degrees Fahrenheit or less to keep frozen foods at top quality. The
storage life of foods is shortened as the temperature rises. For example, the same loss of quality in frozen beans stored at 0
F for one year will occur in three months at 10 F, in three weeks at 20 F, and in five days at 30 F. Fluctuating temperatures
result in growth in the size of ice crystals, further damaging cells and creating a mushier product. Changes in temperature
can also cause water to migrate from the product.
Evaporation of Moisture: Improperly protected food will lose moisture, color, flavor and texture. Ice crystal evaporation
from an area at the surface results in freezer burn, which is a dry, grainy, brownish area that becomes tough. Freezer burn
does not render a food unsafe, only less desirable.
■ Packaging Materials The prime purpose of packaging is to keep food from drying out and to preserve nutritive value,
flavor, texture and color. Labels on packages will say if the product is suitable for freezer storage. A good packaging
material should have the following characteristics:
• Moisture/vapor-proof or at least moisture resistant.
• Made of food grade material, i.e. designed to be used for food products.
• Durable and leakproof.
• Doesn’t become brittle and crack at low temperatures.
• Resistant to oil, grease or water.
• Protect foods from off flavors and odors.
• Easy to fill and seal.
• Easy to mark and store.
The packaging you select will depend on the type of food to be frozen, personal preference and availability. For
satisfactory results, do not freeze fruits and vegetables in containers larger than one-half gallon. Packaging not sufficiently
moisture/vapor-resistant for long-time freezer storage includes ordinary waxed paper and paper cartons from ice cream
and milk.
Rigid Containers: Rigid containers are made of plastic, glass, aluminum and heavily waxed cardboard and are suitable for
all packs. These are often reusable. Straight or tapered sides on rigid containers make it much easier to remove frozen
foods. Glass jars used for freezing should be made for the purpose. Regular glass jars may not withstand the extremes in
temperature. Do not use regular, narrow-mouth canning jars for freezing foods packed in liquid. Expansion of the liquid
could cause the jar to break at the neck. Cans, such as shortening and coffee cans, are good for packaging delicate foods.
Line the can with a food-storage bag and seal the lid with freezer tape because they are not airtight. Baking dishes can be
used for freezing, heating and serving. Dishes may be covered with a heavy aluminum foil taped with freezer tape. To
reuse the baking dish after the food is frozen, wrap the food in casserole-wrap fashion. (See “Food Freezing Basics:
Methods of Wrapping.”). Ice cube trays are good for freezing foods in small amounts. Freeze food until firm and then
transfer to freezer bags.
Flexible Bags or Wrapping: Bags and sheets of moisture/vapor-resistant materials and heavy-duty foil are suitable for dry
packed vegetables and fruits, meat, fish or poultry. Bags can also be used for liquid packs. Protective cardboard cartons
may be used to protect bags and sheets from tearing and to make stacking easier. Laminated papers made of various
combinations of paper, metal foil and/or cellophane are suitable for dry packed vegetables and fruits, meats, fish and
poultry. Laminated papers are also used as protective overwrap.
■ Packaging, Sealing and Labeling: • Cool all foods and syrup before packing. This speeds up freezing and helps retain
natural color, flavor and texture of food.
• Pack foods in quantities that will be used at one time.
• Most foods require head space between the packed food and the closure for expansion as the food freezes. Loose
packing vegetables, such as asparagus and broccoli, bony pieces of meat, tray-packed foods and breads, do not need head
space.
• Pack foods tightly to cut down on the amount of air in the package.
• Run a nonmetal utensil, such as a rubber scraper handle, around the inside of the container to eliminate air pockets.
• When wrapping food, press out as much air as possible and mold the wrapping as close to the food as possible.
• When packing food in bags, press the air from the bags. Beginning at the bottom of the bag, press firmly moving toward
the top of the bag to prevent air from re-entering or force the air out by placing the filled bag in a bowl of cold water
taking care that no water enters the bag. Seal either method by twisting and folding back the top of the bag and securing
with string, good quality rubber band, strip of coated wire or other sealing device. Many bags may be heat sealed, and
some have a tongue-in-groove seal built in.
• Keep sealing edges free from moisture or food so they’ll make a good closure.
• When using tape, it should be freezer tape, designed for use in the freezer. The adhesive remains effective at low
temperature.
• Label each package with name of product, date, amount and any added ingredients. Use freezer tape, freezer marking
pens or crayons, or gummed labels made especially for freezer use.
■ Loading the Freezer : • Freeze foods at 0 F or lower. To facilitate more rapid freezing, set the freezer at minus 10 F
about 24 hours in advance of adding unfrozen foods.
• Freeze foods as soon as they are packaged and sealed.
• Do not overload the freezer with unfrozen food. Add only the amount that will freeze within 24 hours. This is usually 2
or 3 pounds of food per cubic foot of storage space. Overloading slows down the freezing rate, and foods that freeze too
slowly may lose their quality.
• Place packages against freezing plates or coils. Leave space between packages so air can circulate freely. After freezing,
store packages close together.
• Arrange packages so you use those that have been in the freezer the longest first.
■ Freezer Inventory: Keep a list of all the foods in the freezer. Update the list each time food you put food in or take it out
of the freezer. Use of an inventory can prevent overstorage of foods and loss of quality.
■ Thawing Foods: Most of the changes that appear during thawing are a result of freezing and storage. When food is
thawed the ice crystals melt, the liquid is either absorbed back into the food or leaks out from the food. Slow, well-
controlled thawing usually results in better return of moisture to the food and results in a food more like the original food
than rapid thawing. Thawing in the refrigerator is the safest thawing method. Food standing at room temperature gives
microorganisms the opportunity for growth and activity.
■ What If the Freezer Stops? The basis for safety in refreezing foods is the temperature at which thawed foods have been
held and the length of time they were held after thawing. You can safely refreeze foods that still contain ice crystals or if
they are still cold, i.e. below 40 F, and have been held no longer than one or two days at this temperature after thawing. In
general, if it is safe to eat it is safe to refreeze.
Unfortunately, you often don’t know the time and temperature. In these cases, you need to consider the following points.
• Do not open the door to check items; make a plan first.
• Try to determine, if possible, when the freezer may have stopped working.
- Food in a closed, fully loaded freezer will keep for two days.
- Food in a closed less than half loaded freezer won’t keep longer than one day.
- Meat, because of density, will remain frozen longer than baked goods.
- Foods in a larger, well-stocked freezer, will stay frozen longer.
If the freezer will not be operational within a day or two: Use dry ice if available. Twenty-five pounds of dry ice in a 10
cubic foot freezer should hold the temperature below freezing for two to three days with less than half a load and three to
four days in a fully loaded cabinet if you obtain dry ice quickly following interruption of freezer operation. Place dry ice
on boards or heavy cardboard on top of packages. Open freezer only when necessary. Don’t handle dry ice with bare
hands as it will cause burns. When using dry ice be sure the room is ventilated. If dry ice is not available, other options are
to:
- Cover the freezer with layers of newspaper and blankets. Pin the blankets away from the air vent. The air vent must be
open because the freezer needs air when electricity comes on. A blanket cover will help even when using dry ice.
- Find other freezer storage at a locker plant or with friends and neighbors. Transfer foods in insulated boxes or well-
wrapped in layers of newspapers.
■ Refreezing needs to be done quickly. Clean the freezer before refilling. If the freezer has an adjustable temperature
control, turn it to the coldest position. Check each package or container of food. You often can check nonrigid containers
without opening by squeezing to feel for ice crystals. If they need to be opened they should be carefully rewrapped. Place
the warmer packages against the refrigerated surface when possible, but leave space between
packages for air circulation. The quality of refrozen foods is diminished. Label and use refrozen foods as soon as possible.
■ What to Refreeze Foods that have defrosted have no remaining ice crystals. If defrosted foods have warmed above
refrigerator temperature (40 F) they should not be refrozen, except for very high acid foods, such as fruits. Many thawed
foods, i.e. those still containing many ice crystals or a firm-to-hard core of ice in the center, may
be safely refrozen. Any signs of spoilage, off-odors or color in any food indicate you should dispose of the food without
tasting. Remember, however, that you can’t rely on appearance and odor. Some foods may look and smell fine, but if
they’ve been at room temperature too long, food poisoning bacteria may have multiplied enough to cause illness.
Meats, such as beef, pork, veal, lamb and poultry can be refrozen when they are still firm with ice crystals. Meat still safe
to eat can be cooked and refrozen. Discard meats if they have any signs of spoilage such as an off-color or off-odor.
Fruits usually ferment when they start to spoil, which will not make them dangerous to eat but will spoil the flavor.
Defrosted fruits that smell and taste good can be refrozen.
Vegetables should be refrozen only if they contain plenty of ice crystals.
Shellfish, prepared foods or leftovers should not be refrozen if defrosted. If the condition of the food is poor
or even questionable, get rid of it. It may be dangerous.
Never refreeze melted ice cream, cream pies, eclairs or similar foods. Unfrosted cakes, uncooked fruit pies, breads and
rolls can be refrozen. The investment in the foods in the freezer may be significant, but so are the benefits of serving safe
foods.
■ Foods That Do Not Freeze Well
FLAVOR CHANGE: • Pepper, cloves, imitation vanilla, garlic (especially uncooked), sage and celery seasonings may
become strong and/or bitter.
• Curry may develop a musty off-flavor.
• Onion changes flavor during freezing.
• Salt loses flavor and has the tendency to increase rancidity of any item containing fat.
• Add artificial sweeteners and salt substitutes at serving time to be on the safe side.
TEXTURE CHANGE: • Cooked egg whites become tough and rubbery.
• Soft meringues toughen and shrink.
• Mayonnaise and cooked egg or cream-based salad dressings seperate when frozen alone.
• Milk sauces or wheat-flour thickened gravies may separate or curdle.
• Half-and-half, sour cream and cottage cheese separate and may become grainy and watery when frozen alone.
Buttermilk and yogurt react similarly, but can be used for baking.
• Custard or cream fillings tend to separate and become lumpy and watery.
• Boiled or fluffy frostings made with egg whites become sticky and weep.
• Cooked pasta products lose texture and tend to taste rewarmed when frozen alone.
• Most gelatin dishes tend to weep when thawed.
• Cheese or crumb toppings become soggy.
• Fried foods, except french-fried potatoes and onion rings, lose crispness and become soggy.
• Lettuce, tomatoes, celery, cucumbers, parsley, radishes and similar high-water-content vegetables become limp and
watery.
• Potatoes might darken and have a texture change when included in frozen soups and stews. New potatoes freeze better
than older ones.
• Canned hams can become tough and watery.
• Stuffed poultry cannot be safely frozen.
Freezing is a quick and convenient way to preserve fruits and vegetables at home. Home frozen fruits and vegetables of
high quality and maximum nutritional value can be produced done correctly. Our directions are based on:
1. The chemical and physical reactions which take place during the freezing process.
2. Scientific knowledge of the effect of freezing on the tissues of fruits and vegetables.
3. Food microbiology.
Chemical changes during freezing: Fresh fruits and vegetables, when harvested, continue to undergo chemical changes
which can cause spoilage and deterioration of the product. This is why these products should be frozen as soon after
harvest as possible and at their peak degree of ripeness. Enzymes cause loss of color, flavor changes and nutrient loss.
Fresh produce contains chemical compounds called enzymes which cause the loss of color, loss of nutrients, flavor
changes, and color changes in frozen fruits and vegetables. These enzymes must be inactivated to prevent such reactions
from taking place.
Blanch vegetables to inactivate enzymes: Enzymes in vegetables are inactivated by the blanching process. Blanching is
the exposure of the vegetables to boiling water or steam for a brief period of time. The vegetable must then be rapidly
cooled in ice water to prevent it from cooking. Contrary to statements in some publications on home freezing, in most
cases blanching is absolutely essential for producing quality frozen vegetables. Blanching also helps to destroy
microorganisms on the surface of the vegetable and to make some vegetables, such as broccoli and spinach, more
compact.
Add ascorbic acid to fruit to control enzymes: The major problem associated with enzymes in fruits is the development of
brown colors and loss of vitamin C. Because fruits are usually served raw, they're not blanched like vegetables. Instead,
enzymes in frozen fruit are controlled by using chemical compounds which interfere with deteriorative chemical
reactions. The most common control chemical is ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Ascorbic acid may be used in its pure form or
in commercial mixtures with sugars.
Less effective methods of controlling enzymes: Some directions for freezing fruits also include temporary measures to
control enzyme-activated browning. Such temporary measures include soaking the fruit in dilute vinegar solutions or
coating the fruit with sugar and lemon juice. However, these latter methods don't prevent browning as effectively as
treatment with ascorbic acid.
Limit air during freezing: Another group of chemical changes that can take place in frozen products is the development of
rancid oxidative flavors through contact of the frozen product with air. This problem can be controlled by using a
wrapping material which does not permit air to pass into the product. Also, remove as much air as possible from the
freezer bag or container to reduce the amount of air in contact with the product.
Textural changes during freezing: Water makes up over 90 percent of the weight of most fruits and vegetables. This water
and other chemical substances are held within the fairly rigid cell walls which give support structure and texture to the
fruit or vegetable. Freezing fruits and vegetables actually consists of freezing the water contained in the plant cells.
Fruits and vegetables that are much softer when frozen and thawed: When the water freezes, it expands and the ice
crystals cause the cell walls to rupture. Consequently, the texture of the produce, when thawed, will be much softer than it
was when raw. This textural difference is especially noticeable in products which are usually consumed raw. For example,
when a frozen tomato is thawed, it becomes mushy and watery. This explains why celery and lettuce are not usually
frozen and is the reason for the suggestion that frozen fruits, usually consumed raw, be served before they have
completely thawed. In the partially thawed state, the effect of freezing on the fruit tissue is less noticeable.
Textural changes due to freezing are not as apparent in products which are cooked before eating because cooking also
softens cell walls. These changes are also less noticeable in high starch vegetables, such as peas, corn and lima beans.
Rate of freezing: Overloading the freezer with unfrozen products will result in a long, slow freeze and a poor quality
product.
Control texture change by freezing as quickly as possible: The extent of cell wall rupture can be controlled by freezing
produce as quickly as possible. In rapid freezing, a large number of small ice crystals are formed. These small ice crystals
produce less cell wall rupture than slow freezing which produces only a few large ice crystals. This is why some home
freezer manuals recommend that the temperature of the freezer be set at the coldest setting several hours before foods will
be placed in the freezer. Some freezer manuals tell the location of the coldest shelves in the freezer and suggest placing
unfrozen products on these shelves.
Don't overload the freezer: All freezer manuals give guidelines for the maximum number of cubic feet of unfrozen
product which can be frozen at one time. This is usually 2 to 3 pounds of vegetable to each cubic foot of freezer space per
24 hours. Overloading the freezer with unfrozen products will result in a long, slow freeze and a poor quality product.
Changes caused by fluctuating temperature: Fluctuating temperatures in the freezer can cause the migration of water
vapor from the product to the surface of the container. This defect is sometimes found in commercially frozen foods
which have been improperly handled. Store frozen fruits and vegetables at zero degrees F or lower, To maintain top
quality, frozen fruits and vegetables should be stored at zero F or lower. This temperature is attainable in separate freezer
units and in some combination refrigerator-freezers. A freezer thermometer can help you determine the actual temperature
of your freezer. If your freezer has number temperature settings, such as from 1 to 9, check the manual to see what
settings are recommended for different uses. Storing frozen foods at temperatures higher than zero F increases the rate at
which deteriorative reactions can take place and can shorten the shelf life of frozen foods. Don't attempt to save energy in
your home by raising the temperature of frozen food storage above zero F.
Moisture loss: or ice crystals evaporating from the surface area of a product, produces freezer burn - a grainy, brownish
spot where the tissues become dry and tough. This surface freeze-dried area is very likely to develop off flavors.
Packaging designed specifically for freezing foods will prevent freezer burn.
Microbial growth in the freezer: The freezing process doesn't actually destroy the microorganisms which may be present
on fruits and vegetables. While blanching destroys some microorganisms and there is a gradual decline in the number of
these microorganisms during freezer storage, sufficient populations are still present to multiply and cause spoilage of the
product when it thaws. For this reason it's necessary to carefully inspect any frozen products which have accidentally
thawed by the freezer going off or the freezer door being left open.
Nutrient value of frozen foods: Freezing, when properly done, is the method of food preservation which may potentially
preserve the greatest quantity of nutrients. To maintain top nutritional quality in frozen fruits and vegetables, it's essential
to follow directions contained in this bulletin for pretreatment of the vegetables, to store the frozen product at zero F and
to use it within suggested storage times.
Quality for Keeps: Freezing Basics: Freezing is one of the easiest and least time-consuming methods of food
preservation. Most foods retain their natural color, flavor and texture better when frozen than when other methods of food
preservation are used. In addition, the kitchen remains cool and comfortable during the process. Disadvantages of freezing
include the initial investment for equipment — it costs a great deal to buy and maintain a freezer. Also, the size of the
freezer limits the amount of storage space, and the freezing process gives some foods an undesirable texture. (opens in
new window) Growth of spoilage organisms. Freezing does not destroy spoilage organisms; it merely stops their growth
temporarily. During the freezing process, microbial growth can occur under the following circumstances:
 When freezing does not take place rapidly
 When freezer temperature is above 0 degrees F.
Keep the freezer temperature at or below 0 degrees F to prevent the growth of spoilage organisms and to minimize
changes in flavor, texture and nutritive value of food. To prevent contamination of all foods by spoilage organisms,
always keep your equipment, work surfaces and hands clean. Washing produce thoroughly before freezing removes
garden soil, a source of spoilage organisms. Freezing does not destroy Clostridium botulinum, the spoilage organism that
causes the greatest problem in canning low-acid foods, such as vegetables and animal products. However, Clostridium
botulinum will not grow and produce toxin (poison) at correct freezer temperatures (0 degrees F or below). Therefore,
freezing is a safe and easy alternative to pressure canning low-acid foods. When thawing food, remember that freezing did
not destroy any spoilage organisms that might have been present in the food. As the temperature of food rises during
thawing, growth of spoilage organisms begins. The faster the food warms up, especially on the surface, the faster the
growth of spoilage organisms occurs. If you store raw or precooked frozen foods long enough at a high enough
temperature after thawing, spores of Clostridium botulinum can grow and produce toxin. For this reason, we recommend
that food be thawed in the refrigerator where spoilage organisms will not grow as quickly.
Chemical changes during freezing: Enzymes are proteins present in plants and animals. While the plant or animal lives,
enzymes help speed up the ripening and maturing processes. Even after we harvest plants or slaughter animals, enzyme
reactions can continue and result in undesirable color, flavor and texture changes in the food. Freezing slows down, but
does not destroy, enzymes in fruits and vegetables. That is why it is important to stop enzyme activity before freezing.
The two methods you can use are blanching and adding chemical compounds such as ascorbic acid.
Enzymes in vegetables: Enzymes in vegetables are inactivated by blanching. To blanch vegetables, place them in boiling
water or steam for a brief time. Next, cool the vegetables rapidly in ice water to prevent further cooking. Although some
publications state that blanching is unnecessary, it is essential for top-quality, frozen vegetables.
Blanching also helps to destroy microorganisms on the surface of the vegetables. It makes vegetables such as broccoli and
spinach more compact, and as a result, they take up less room in the freezer. Carefully follow the recommended time for
blanching each vegetable. Overblanching results in a cooked product and a loss of flavor, color and nutrients.
Underblanching speeds up enzyme activity and is worse than no blanching at all.
Enzymes in fruits: Enzymes in fruits can cause browning and loss of vitamin C. People generally serve fruits raw, so
instead of blanching fruits to control enzyme activity, they are treated with a chemical compound. The most common
additive is ascorbic acid, or vitamin C. Ascorbic acid may be used in its pure form or in commercial mixtures of ascorbic
acid and other ingredients such as sugar. Some publications suggest using an acid solution (citric acid or lemon juice) to
control browning for a short time. These publications instruct you to place fruit in the acid solution while preparing it for
the freezer and to then place the fruit in freezer containers and either freeze it dry or cover the fruit with unsweetened fruit
juice. Acid solutions work well as holding treatments for fruit but do not prevent browning as effectively as treatment
with ascorbic acid. An alternative to holding fruit in an acid solution is to prepare a syrup (light, medium or heavy) that
has ascorbic acid added to it. After preparing fruit for the freezer, it is then added to the syrup and packaged for freezer
storage.
Rancidity in foods: Fats in meat, fish and poultry become rancid during freezer storage. This rancidity is caused by
contact with air left in the package or air that enters the package because proper storage materials were not used.
However, even with proper packaging materials, rancidity will occur over time. Off-flavors are the result of this chemical
change. Control rancidity by trimming excess fat from meat before freezing, using a wrapping material that prevents air
from reaching the product, and storing foods for the recommended length of time.
Changes in food texture during freezing: Freezing involves the change of water contained in the food from a liquid to a
solid (ice). Water expands when it freezes, and the ice crystals formed cause cell walls of food to rupture. As a result, the
texture of the product will be much softer when it thaws. These textural changes are most noticeable in fruits and
vegetables that have a high water content. For example, when frozen lettuce thaws, it turns limp and wilted. This is the
reason vegetables with a high water content, such as celery and salad greens, are not usually frozen (Table 1). It is also the
reason many frozen fruits are best served while they still contain a few ice crystals. The effect of freezing on fruit tissue is
less noticeable when fruit is still partially frozen. Textural changes due to freezing are not as apparent in products that are
cooked before eating because cooking also softens cell walls. Textural changes are also less noticeable in high-starch
vegetables, such as peas, corn and lima beans.
Table 1: Foods that do not freeze well

Foods Usual use Condition after thawing

Cabbage1, celery, cress, cucumbers1, As raw salad Limp, waterlogged, quickly develops
endive, lettuce, parsley, radishes off-colors, -odors and -flavors

Irish potatoes, baked or broiled In soups, salads, sauces or with Soft, crumbly, waterlogged, mealy
butter

Cooked macaroni, spaghetti, rice As a side dish or in casseroles When frozen alone, mushy and has
warmed-over flavor

Egg whites, cooked In salads, creamed foods, Tough, rubbery, spongy

sandwiches, sauces, gravy and
desserts

Meringue In desserts Toughens

 Icings made from egg whites Cakes, cookies Frothy, weepy

Cream or custard fillings Pies, baked goods Separates, watery, lumpy

Milk sauces For casseroles or gravies May curdle or separate

Sour cream As topping, in salads Separates, watery

Cheese or crumb toppings On casseroles Soggy

Mayonnaise, salad dressing On sandwiches (not in salads) Separates

Gelatin In salads or desserts Weeps

Fruit jelly Sandwiches May soak bread

Fried foods: potatoes and onion rings All except french fried Lose crispness, become soggy

1
Cucumbers and cabbage can be frozen as marinated products such as “freezer slaw” or “freezer pickles.” These
products do not have the same texture as regular slaw or pickles.
Rate of freezing: The amount of damage to cell walls can be controlled by freezing products as quickly as possible. In
rapid freezing, a large number of small ice crystals are formed. These small ice crystals cause less damage to cell walls
than slow freezing, which produces larger ice crystals. For best results, freeze foods at 0 degrees F or lower as soon as
they are packaged and sealed. Set the temperature control at -10 degrees F or lower about 24 hours in advance to help
food freeze rapidly. Do not overload your freezer with unfrozen food. Add only the amount that will freeze within 24
hours, which is usually 2 to 3 pounds of food per cubic foot of freezer space. Overloading results in a long, slow freeze
and a poor-quality product. Place packages in contact with refrigerated surfaces in the coldest part of the freezer. Leave a
little space between packages so that air can circulate freely. When the food is frozen, packages can be restacked close
together. To maintain top quality, store frozen foods at 0 degrees F or lower. This temperature can be maintained in
separate freezer units and in some combination refrigerator-freezers. A freezer thermometer can help you determine the
actual temperature of your freezer. Spoilage occurs more quickly and shelf life is shorter when you store frozen foods at a
temperature higher than 0 degrees F. For example, the same loss of quality in frozen beans stored at 0 degrees F for one
year will occur in three months at 10 degrees F, in three weeks at 20 degrees F and in five days at 30 degrees F. Do not
attempt to save energy in your home by raising the temperature of frozen food storage above 0 degrees F. Temperatures
that fluctuate up and down cause the ice in foods to thaw slightly and then refreeze. Each time this happens, smaller ice
crystals become larger, further damaging cells and creating a mushier product. Frequent changes in temperature also cause
water to move out of the product resulting in a less juicy product that is generally lower in quality and nutritive value. For
highest quality and nutritive value, use home-frozen foods within the recommended storage times given in Table 2. Food
will still be safe to eat after the recommended time period is past if the freezer has been kept at 0 degrees F or lower, but
the quality and nutritive value will be lower.
Table 2: Storage times for home-frozen foods at 0 degrees F

Food Storage period at 0 degrees F

Butter 6 to 9 months
Margarine 12 months

Natural Cheese 6 to 8 weeks

Processed Cheese 4 months

Cream (all kinds) 2 months

Whipped 1 month

Eggs (whole, white, yolks) 9 to 12 months

Fish
Fatty (perch, salmon, mackerel) 2 to 3 months
Lean (cod, flounder, haddock, sole) 3 to 6 months

Fruit and fruit juice (except citrus) 8 to 12 months

Citrus fruit and juice 4 to 6 months

Ice cream or sherbet 2 months

Meat
Bacon 1 month
Frankfurters and luncheon meat Not recommended
Ham 1 month
Ground beef, lamb, veal 2 to 3 months
Ground pork 1 to 2 months

Meat, roasts
Beef 6 to 12 months
Lamb, veal 6 to 9 months
Pork 3 to 6 months

Meat, steaks and chops

Beef 6 to 12 months
Lamb, veal 1 to 2 months
Pork 3 to 6 months

Milk, fresh fluid 1 month

Poultry (chicken, turkey, duck)

Whole chicken or turkey 12 months
Whole duck or goose 6 months
Cut up chicken 9 months
Cut up turkey 6 months
Giblets 3 months
 Home-prepared foods
Bread 3 months
Cake 3 months
Casseroles (meat, fish, poultry) 3 months
Cookies (baked and unbaked) 3 months
Pies (unbaked fruit) 8 months

Home frozen vegetables 10 months

Purchased vegetables 8 months

Plain yogurt 1 month

Flavored yogurt 5 months

Moisture loss (freezer burn) Moisture loss — ice crystals evaporating from the surface area of a product — produces
freezer burn. Freezer burn appears as a fuzzy, grayish-white spot on the food surface. Freezer burn is not harmful, but it
causes off-flavors and dries out and toughens food. Packaging food in moisture-vapor-proof containers or wrapping and
storing food for the recommended length of time will help prevent freezer burn. Covering fruit with syrup and cooked
meat with gravy or sauce helps prevent freezer burn in these products.
Tip It is no bargain to recycle plastic vegetable or bread bags and cottage cheese, ice cream or milk containers for freezing
foods. They are not moisture-vapor-proof, and food frozen in them will lose moisture, flavor and nutrients.
Containers for freezing: Proper packaging material protects the flavor, color, moisture content and nutritive value of
frozen foods from the dry climate of the freezer. Selection of containers depends on the type of food to be frozen, personal
preference and types that are readily available. Foods in larger containers freeze too slowly to result in a satisfactory
product. For example, do not freeze fruits and vegetables in containers larger than a half-gallon. In general, packaging
materials for the freezer must have the following characteristics: Moisture-vapor-proof, Odorless, tasteless and
greaseproof, Food grade, Durable and leak-proof, Not become brittle and crack at freezer temperatures, Protect foods from
absorption of odors, Easy to use, seal and label, Designed for compact stacking and economical use of freezer space,
Reasonable cost
There are two types of packaging materials for use in home freezing: rigid containers and flexible bags or wrap made for
freezer use. If labels of packaging material do not state that the material is for freezer use, it probably isn't.
Rigid containers made of plastic or glass are suitable for all packs and are especially good for liquid packs and fragile or
easily broken food. The straight sides on rigid containers make the frozen food much easier to get out and make stacking
foods in the freezer easier. Most rigid containers can be reused. Regular glass jars, including jars made specifically for
canning, break easily at freezer temperatures. If using glass jars, choose wide-mouth, dual-purpose jars made for freezing
and canning. These jars have been made to withstand extremes in temperatures. The wide mouth and straight sides allow
easy removal of partially thawed foods. Covers for rigid containers should fit tightly. If they do not, reinforce the seal with
freezer tape. Freezer tape is specially designed to stick at freezing temperatures. Do not use masking tape, because it will
not stick at low temperatures.
Flexible bags or wraps Bags and sheets of moisture-vapor-proof materials (labeled "freezer bags" or "freezer wrap") and
heavy-duty aluminum foil are suitable for dry-packed vegetables and fruits, meats, fish or poultry. Protective cardboard
cartons may be used to protect bags and sheets against tearing and to make stacking easier.
Packaging and labeling foods: Cool all foods and syrup before packing. Cooling speeds up freezing and helps retain the
natural color, flavor and texture of food. Pack foods in quantities that will be used for a single meal. Follow directions for
each individual food to determine which can be packed dry and which need added liquid. Some loose foods such as
blueberries may be tray-packed — that is, quick-frozen first on a tray before being packed. Pack foods tightly leaving as
little air as possible in the package. Most foods require headspace between the packed food and closure to allow for
expansion of the food as it freezes. (See directions for individual foods included in other freezing guides in the Quality for
Keeps series.) Foods that do not need headspace include loose-pack vegetables, such as asparagus and broccoli; bony
pieces of meat; tray-packed foods; and baked products.
 When food is packed in bags, press air from the bag. Press firmly, begin at the bottom of the bag and move
toward the unfilled top part of the bag to prevent air from reentering. Seal by twisting and folding back the top of
the bag in a gooseneck shape, and securing with a string, good-quality rubber band, or covered-wire twist tie.
Some bags are made specifically for heat-sealing. These bags should be used only with a heating element
specifically made to seal storage containers. Never use an iron to heat-seal these storage containers.
 Seal rigid containers carefully. Use a tight lid and keep the sealing edge free of moisture and food to ensure a
good closure. Secure loose-fitting covers with freezer tape. Meats may be packaged using either the drugstore
wrap or the butcher wrap. (See MU Extension publication GH1504, Freezing Meat, Poulty, Fish, Eggs and Dairy
Products.)
 Label each package with the name of the product, any added ingredients, packaging date, number of servings or
amount and the form of the food, such as whole, sliced, etc. Use freezer tape or self-adhesive labels and marking
pens or crayons to label packages. Also label commercially frozen foods with the storage date.
Effect of freezing on spices and seasonings: When preparing food for freezing, especially dishes that contain several
ingredients, it is more convenient to add all ingredients before placing the food in the freezer. However, some spices and
seasonings change during freezer storage. To avoid undesirable changes in a food product during freezer storage, note the
effects of freezing on these spices and seasonings:
 Pepper, cloves, garlic and synthetic vanilla tend to become strong and bitter.
 Onions change flavor during freezing.
 Celery seasoning becomes strong.
 Curry may develop a musty off-flavor.
 Salt loses flavor and has a tendency to increase rancidity of any item containing fat.
Tip Season foods lightly before freezing, and add additional seasonings when reheating or serving.
A freezer plan: You get maximum convenience and economy through carefully planning the use of your freezer. The
secret lies in an easy management plan. Plan the freezer contents. Freeze foods you need and use often. Freeze only foods
your family likes, in amounts you will use within the recommended storage period. Budget freezer space first for basic
foods such as meats, vegetables and fruits. Then, if there is room, plan to freeze baked goods, main dishes, snacks or
desserts. Keep contents organized. An orderly freezer holds many more packages than a disorderly one. Stack similar
foods together. Packages you will use first should be the easiest to get to. Use baskets, shelves or dividers that came with
the freezer to help organize the contents. Keep an inventory. You will always know what is on hand if you keep an
inventory of the foods that are in the freezer. A current inventory can help you plan meals and remind you to use old
packages of food within their recommended storage times. Keep the inventory in a handy place so food can be added and
subtracted without much trouble. Remember, the simpler it is to use, the more you will use it. You might want to use an
index card system with a separate card for each food item. This system makes it easy to add items to the inventory and to
determine the total amount of a specific food on hand (Table 3).
Table 3 Sample freezer inventory

Food Number of packages Date frozen Number of packages removed

Green beans Pints: 10 8/2015 IIIII

Carrots Quarts: 5 7/2015 III

 Corn Pints: 20 7/2015 IIIII I

Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and
trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down
decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food
commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is
important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular
structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature
−196 °C (−320 °F). Preserving food in domestic kitchens during modern times is achieved using household freezers.
Accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An initiative by a supermarket group in 2012
(backed by the UK's Waste & Resources Action Programme) promotes the freezing of food "as soon as possible up to the
product's 'use by' date". The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, provided the food had been
stored correctly up to that time.
Preservatives: Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the
temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C (15 °F), which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-
term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a
tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.
History: Natural food freezing (using winter frosts) had been in use by populations in cold climates for centuries. In
1861 Thomas Sutcliffe Mort established at Darling Harbour in Sydney, Australia, the first freezing works in the world,
which afterwards became the New South Wales Fresh Food and Ice Company. Mort financed experiments by Eugene
Dominic Nicolle, a French born engineer who had arrived in Sydney in 1853 and registered his first ice-making patent in
1861. The first trial shipment of frozen meat to London was in 1868. Although their machinery was never used in the
frozen meat trade, Mort and Nicolle developed commercially viable systems for domestic trade, although the financial
return on that investment was not a great success for Mort. By 1885 a small number of chicken and geese were being
shipped from Russia to London in insulated cases using this technique. By March 1899, the "British Refrigeration and
Allied Interests" reported that a food importing business, "Baerselman Bros", was shipping some 200,000 frozen geese
and chickens per week from three Russian depots to New Star Wharf, Lower Shadwell, London over three or four winter
months. This trade in frozen food was enabled by the introduction of Linde cold air freezing plants in three Russian depots
and the London warehouse. The Shadwell warehouse stored the frozen goods until they were shipped to markets in
London, Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester. The techniques were later expanded into the meat packing industry.
From 1929, Clarence Birdseye introduced "flash freezing" to the American public. Birdseye first became interested in
food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing
to preserve foods. The Icelandic Fisheries Commission was created in 1934 to initiate innovation in the industry, and
encouraged fishermen to start quick-freezing their catch. Íshúsfélag Ísfirðinga, one of the first frozen fish companies, was
formed in Ísafjörður, Iceland by a merger in 1937. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on
her trip to Russia. Other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were conducted by the military
near the end of World War II.
Technology The freezing technique itself, just like the frozen food market, is developing to become faster, more efficient
and more cost-effective. Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the food industry and are used in the vast
majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the
system, which withdraws heat from the food product. This heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or
water. The refrigerant itself, now a high pressure, hot liquid, is directed into an evaporator. As it passes through an
expansion valve, it is cooled and then vaporises into a gaseous state. Now a low pressure, low temperature gas again, it
can be reintroduced into the system. Cryogenic (or flash freezing) of food is a more recent development, but is used by
many leading food manufacturers all over the world. Cryogenic equipment uses very low temperature gases – usually
liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide – which are applied directly to the food product.
Packaging: Frozen food packaging must maintain its integrity throughout filling, sealing, freezing, storage,
transportation, thawing, and often cooking. As many frozen foods are cooked in a microwave oven, manufacturers have
developed packaging that can go straight from freezer to the microwave. In 1974, the first differential heating container
(DHC) was sold to the public. A DHC is a sleeve of metal designed to allow frozen foods to receive the correct amount of
heat. Various sized apertures were positioned around the sleeve. The consumer would put the frozen dinner into the sleeve
according to what needed the most heat. This ensured proper cooking. Today there are multiple options for packaging
frozen foods. Boxes, cartons, bags, pouches, Boil-in-Bags, lidded trays and pans, crystallized PET trays, and composite
and plastic cans. Scientists are continually researching new aspects of frozen food packaging. Active packaging offers a
host of new technologies that can actively sense and then neutralize the presence of bacteria or other harmful species.
Active packaging can extend shelf-life, maintain product safety, and help preserve the food over a longer period of time.
Several functions of active packaging are being researched:
 Oxygen scavengers
 Time Temperature Indicators and digital temperature data loggers
 Antimicrobials
 Carbon Dioxide controllers
 Microwave susceptors
 Moisture control: Water activity, Moisture vapor transmission rate, etc.
 Flavor enhancers
 Odor generators
 Oxygen-permeable films
 Oxygen generators
Effects on nutrients
Vitamin content of frozen foods
 Vitamin C: Usually lost in a higher concentration than any other vitamin. A study was performed on peas to
determine the cause of vitamin C loss. A vitamin loss of ten percent occurred during the blanching phase with the
rest of the loss occurring during the cooling and washing stages. The vitamin loss was not actually accredited to
the freezing process. Another experiment was performed involving peas and lima beans. Frozen and canned
vegetables were both used in the experiment. The frozen vegetables were stored at −23 °C (−10 °F) and the
canned vegetables were stored at room temperature 24 °C (75 °F). After 0, 3, 6, and 12 months of storage, the
vegetables were analyzed with and without cooking. O'Hara, the scientist performing the experiment said, "From
the view point of the vitamin content of the two vegetables when they were ready for the plate of the consumer,
there did not appear to be any marked advantages attributable to method of preservation, frozen storage, processed
in a tin, or processed in glass."
 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin): A vitamin loss of 25 percent is normal. Thiamin is easily soluble in water and is destroyed
by heat.
 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Not much research has been done to see how much freezing affects Riboflavin levels.
Studies that have been performed are inconclusive; one study found an 18 percent vitamin loss in green
vegetables, while another determined a 4 percent loss. It is commonly accepted that the loss of Riboflavin has to
do with the preparation for freezing rather than the actual freezing process itself.
 Vitamin A (Carotene): There is little loss of carotene during preparation for freezing and freezing of most
vegetables. Much of the vitamin loss is incurred during the extended storage period.
Effectiveness Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed
or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal
techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot
temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that
pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws. Foods
may be preserved for several months by freezing. Long-term frozen storage requires a constant temperature of −18 °C
(0 °F) or less.
Defrosting To be used, many cooked foods that have been previously frozen require defrosting prior to consumption.
Preferably, some frozen meats should be defrosted prior to cooking to achieve the best outcome: cooked through evenly
and of good texture. Ideally, most frozen foods should be defrosted in a refrigerator to avoid significant growth
of pathogens. However, this can take considerable time. Food is often defrosted in one of several ways:
 at room temperature; this is dangerous since the outside may be defrosted while the inside remains frozen
 in a refrigerator
 in a microwave oven
 wrapped in plastic and placed in cold water or under cold running water
People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should
be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by
the freezing process.
Quality: The speed of the freezing has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food
product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to
smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which
will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why
there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-
ventilated mechanical freezing or cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen.
Reaction: According to a study, an American consumes on average 71 frozen foods a year, most of which are pre-cooked
frozen meals.
Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows preservation of taste,
texture, and nutritional value in foods better than any other method. The freezing process is a combination of the
beneficial effects of low temperatures at which microorganisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular
metabolic reactions are delayed (Delgado and Sun, 2000).
1.1 The importance of freezing as a preservation method Freezing preservation retains the quality of agricultural
products over long storage periods. As a method of long-term preservation for fruits and vegetables, freezing is generally
regarded as superior to canning and dehydration, with respect to retention in sensory attributes and nutritive properties
(Fennema, 1977). The safety and nutrition quality of frozen products are emphasized when high quality raw materials are
used, good manufacturing practices are employed in the preservation process, and the products are kept in accordance
with specified temperatures.
The need for freezing and frozen storage Freezing has been successfully employed for the long-term preservation of
many foods, providing a significantly extended shelf life. The process involves lowering the product temperature
generally to -18 °C or below (Fennema et al., 1973). The physical state of food material is changed when energy is
removed by cooling below freezing temperature. The extreme cold simply retards the growth of microorganisms and
slows down the chemical changes that affect quality or cause food to spoil (George, 1993). Competing with new
technologies of minimal processing of foods, industrial freezing is the most satisfactory method for preserving quality
during long storage periods (Arthey, 1993). When compared in terms of energy use, cost, and product quality, freezing
requires the shortest processing time. Any other conventional method of preservation focused on fruits and vegetables,
including dehydration and canning, requires less energy when compared with energy consumption in the freezing process
and storage. However, when the overall cost is estimated, freezing costs can be kept as low (or lower) as any other method
of food preservation (Harris and Kramer, 1975).
Current status of frozen food industry in U.S. and other countries The frozen food market is one of the largest and
most dynamic sectors of the food industry. In spite of considerable competition between the frozen food industry and
other sectors, extensive quantities of frozen foods are being consumed all over the world. The industry has recently grown
to a value of over US$ 75 billion in the U.S. and Europe combined. This number has reached US$ 27.3 billion in 2001 for
total retail sales of frozen foods in the U.S. alone (AFFI, 2003). In Europe, based on U.S. currency, frozen food
consumption also reached 11.1 million tons in 13 countries in the year 2000 (Quick Frozen Foods International, 2000).
Table 1 represents the division of frozen food industry in terms of annual sales in 2001.
Advantages of freezing technology in developing countries Developed countries, mostly the U.S., dominate the
international trade of fruits and vegetables. The U.S. is ranked number one as both importer and exporter, accounting for
the highest percent of fresh produce in world trade. However, many developing countries still lead in the export of fresh
exotic fruits and vegetables to developed countries (Mallett, 1993). For developing countries, the application of freezing
preservation is favorable with several main considerations. From a technical point of view, the freezing process is one of
the most convenient and easiest of food preservation methods, compared with other commercial preservation techniques.
The availability of different types of equipment for several different food products results in a flexible process in which
degradation of initial food quality is minimal with proper application procedures. As mentioned earlier, the high capital
investment of the freezing industry usually plays an important role in terms of economic feasibility of the process in
developing countries. As for cost distribution, the freezing process and storage in terms of energy consumption constitute
approximately 10 percent of the total cost (Person and Lohndal, 1993). Depending on the government regulations,
especially in developing countries, energy cost for producers can be subsidized by means of lowering the unit price or
reducing the tax percentage in order to enhance production. Therefore, in determining the economical convenience of the
process, the cost related to energy consumption (according to energy tariffs) should be considered. Electricity prices for
some countries are given in Table 2.
Table 1. Frozen food industry in terms of annual sales in 2001
(Source: Information Resources)

Food items Sales US$ % Change

(million) vs. 2000

Total Frozen Food Sales 26 600 6.1

Baked Goods 1 400 9.0

Breakfast Foods 1 050 4.1

Novelties 1 900 10.5

Ice Cream 4 500 5.7

Frozen Dessert/Fruit/Toppings 786 5.4

Juices/Drinks 827 -9.7

Vegetables 2 900 4.3

Increasing consumer demand in developing countries due to modernization The proportion of fresh food preserved
by freezing is highly related to the degree of economic development in a society. As countries become wealthier, their
demand for high-valued commodities increases, primarily due to the effect of income on the consumption of high-valued
commodities in developing countries. The commodities preserved by freezing are usually the most perishable ones, which
also have the highest price. Therefore, the demand for these commodities is less in developing areas. Besides, the need for
adequate technology for freezing process is the major drawback of developing countries in competing with industrialized
countries. The frozen food industry requires accompanying developments and facilities for transporting, storing, and
marketing their products from the processing plant to the consumer (Mallett, 1993). Thus, a large amount of capital
investment is needed for these types of facilities. For developing countries, especially in rural or semi-rural areas, the
frozen food industry has therefore not been developed significantly compared to other countries. In recent years, due to
the changing consumer profile, the frozen food industry has changed significantly. The major trend in consumer behavior
documented over the last half century has been the increase in the number of working women and the decline in the
family size. These two factors resulted in a reduction in time spent preparing food. The entry of more women into the
workforce also led to improvements in kitchen appliances and increased the variability of ready-to-eat or frozen foods
available in the market. Besides, the increased usage of microwave ovens, affecting food habits in general and the frozen
food market in particular, as well as allowing rapid preparation of meals and greater flexibility in meal preparation. The
frozen food industry is now only limited by imagination, an output of which increases continuously to supply the
increasing demand for frozen products and variability.
Table 2. Unit electricity prices for industry1 (U.S. Dollars per Kilowatt-hour)
Source: United States - Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, July 2003.

Country 1999 2000 2001 2002

Argentina n.a. 0.075 0.069 n.a.

Belgium 0.056 0.048 n.a. n.a.

Bolivia n.a. 0.062 0.069 n.a.

Chile n.a. 0.052 0.056 n.a.

Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) 0.058 0.061 0.056 n.a.

Colombia n.a. 0.052 0.042 n.a.

Costa Rica n.a. 0.068 0.076 n.a.

Cuba n.a. 0.080 0.078 n.a.

Ecuador n.a. 0.036 0.061 n.a.

El Salvador n.a. 0.111 0.110 n.a.

Finland 0.046 0.039 0.038 0.043

Germany 0.057 0.041 0.044 n.a.

Greece 0.050 0.042 0.043 0.046

Guyana n.a. 0.082 0.080 n.a.

Hungary 0.055 0.049 0.051 0.060

India 0.081 0.080 n.a. n.a.

Ireland 0.057 0.049 0.060 0.075

Italy 0.086 0.089 n.a. n.a.

Korea (Korea, South) 0.056 0.062 0.057 n.a.

 Mexico 0.042 0.051 0.053 n.a.

Netherlands 0.061 0.057 0.059 n.a.

New Zealand 0.030 0.030 0.028 0.033

Nicaragua n.a. 0.117 0.115 n.a.

Paraguay n.a. 0.032 0.036 n.a.

Peru n.a. 0.056 0.057 n.a.

Poland 0.037 0.037 0.045 0.049

Portugal 0.078 0.067 0.066 0.068

Russia 0.012 0.011 n.a. n.a.

South Africa 0.017 0.017 0.013 n.a.

Spain 0.049 0.043 0.041 n.a.

Switzerland 0.090 0.069 0.069 0.073

Turkey 0.079 0.080 0.079 0.094

United Kingdom 0.064 0.055 0.048 n.a.

United States 2 0.044 0.046 0.050 0.048

Uruguay n.a. 0.064 0.070 n.a.

n.a. = Not Available.

1
Energy end-use prices including taxes converted using exchange rates.
2
Electricity prices in the United States, including income taxes, environmental charges, and other charges.
Market share of frozen fruits and vegetables Today in modern society, frozen fruits and vegetables constitute a large
and important food group among other frozen food products (Arthey, 1993). The historical development of commercial
freezing systems designed for special food commodities helped shape the frozen food market. Technological innovations
as early as 1869 led to the commercial development and marketing of some frozen foods. Early products saw limited
distribution through retail establishments due to insufficient supply of mechanical refrigeration. Retail distribution of
frozen foods gained importance with the development of commercially frozen vegetables in 1929. The frozen vegetable
industry mostly grew after the development of scientific methods for blanching and processing in the 1940s. Only after
the achievement of success in stopping enzymatic degradation, did frozen vegetables gain a strong retail and institutional
appeal. Today, market studies indicate that considering overall consumption of frozen foods, frozen vegetables constitute
a very significant proportion of world frozen-food categories (excluding ice cream) in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, and the USA. The division of frozen vegetables in terms
of annual sales in 2001 is shown in Table 3. Commercialization history of frozen fruits is older than frozen vegetables.
The commercial freezing of small fruits and berries began in the eastern part of the U.S. in about 1905 (Desrosier and
Tressler, 1977). The main advantage of freezing preservation of fruits is the extended usage of frozen fruits during off-
season. Additionally, frozen fruits can be transported to remote markets that could not be accessed with fresh fruit. Also,
freezing preservation makes year-round further processing of fruit products possible, such as jams, juice, and syrups from
frozen whole fruit, slices, or pulps. In summary, the preservation of fruits by freezing has clearly become one the most
important preservation methods.
Future trends in freezing technology The frozen food industry is highly based in modern science and technology.
Starting with the first historical development in freezing preservation of foods, today, a combination of several factors
influences the commercialization and usage of freezing technology. The future growth of frozen foods will mostly be
affected by economical and technological factors. Growth in population, personal incomes, relative cost of other forms of
foods, changes in tastes and preferences, and technological advances in freezing methods are some of the factors
concerned with the future of freezing technology. Population growth and increasing demand for food has generated the
need for commercial production of food commodities in large-scale operations. Thus, availability of proper equipment
suitable for continuous processing would be valuable for freezing preservation methods. In addition depending on
personal incomes, relative cost of frozen products is one of the most important of economical factors. Producing the
highest quality at the lowest cost possible is highly dependent on the technology used. As a result, developments in
freezing technology in recent years have mostly been characterized by the improvements in mechanical handling and
process control to increase freezing rate and reduce cost. Today an increasing demand for frozen foods already exits and
further expansion of the industry is primarily dependent on the ability of food processors to develop higher qualities in
both process techniques and products. Improvements can only be achieved by focusing on new technologies and
investigating poorly understood factors that influence the quality of frozen food products. Improvements in new and
convenient forms of foods, as well as more information on relative cost and nutritive values of frozen foods, will
contribute toward continued growth of the industry. Table 3. Frozen vegetables in terms of annual sales in 2001
(Source: Information Resources)

Vegetables Sales % Change

US$ (million) vs. 2000

Broccoli 184 4.4

Com/Corn on the Cob 312 3.5

Green Beans 115 6.0

Mixed Vegetables 450 7.2

Peas 207 3.9

Potatoes 1 070 4.4

1.2 General recommendations on the freezing process Freezing is a widely used method of food preservation based on
several advantages in terms of retention of food quality and ease of process. Beginning with the earliest history of
freezing, the technology has been highly affected over the years by the developments and improvements in freezing
techniques. In order to understand and handle the concepts associated with freezing of foods, it is necessary to examine
the fundamental factors governing the freezing process.
1.2.1 Freezing technology Freezing has long been used as a method of preservation, and history reveals it was mostly
shaped by the technological developments in the process. A small quantity of ice produced without using a "natural cold"
in 1755 was regarded as the first milestone in the freezing process. Firstly, ice-salt systems were used to preserve fish and
later on, by the late 1800’s, freezing was introduced into large-scale operations as a method of commercial preservation.
Meat, fish, and butter, the main products preserved in this early example, were frozen in storage chambers and handled as
bulk commodities. In the following years, scientists and researchers continuously worked to achieve success with
commercial freezing trials on several food commodities. Among these commodities, fruits were one of the most important
since freezing during the peak growing season had the advantage of preserving fruit for later processing into jams, jellies,
ice cream, pies, and other bakery foods. Although commercial freezing of small fruits and berries first began around 1905
in the eastern part of the United States, the commercial freezing of vegetables is much more recent. Starting from 1917,
only private firms conducted trials on freezing vegetables, but achieving good quality in frozen vegetables was not
possible without pre-treatments due to the enzymatic deterioration. In 1929, the necessity of blanching to inactivate
enzymes before freezing was concluded by several researchers to avoid deterioration and off-flavours caused by
enzymatic degradation.
The modern freezing industry began in 1928 with the development of double-belt contact freezers by a technologist
named Clarence Birdseye. After the revolution in the quick freezing process and equipment, the industry became more
flexible, especially with the usage of multi-plate freezers. The earlier methods achieved successful freezing of fish and
poultry, however with the new quick freezing system, packaged foods could be frozen between two metal belts as they
moved through a freezing tunnel. This improvement was a great advantage in the commercial large-scale freezing of fruits
and vegetables. Furthermore, quick-freezing of consumer-size packages helped frozen vegetables to be accepted rapidly in
late 1930s.
Today, freezing is the only large-scale method that bridges the seasons, as well as variations in supply and demand of raw
materials such as meat, fish, butter, fruits, and vegetables. Besides, it makes possible movement of large quantities of food
over geographical distances (Persson and Londahl, 1993). It is important to control the freezing process, including the pre-
freezing preparation and post-freezing storage of the product, in order to achieve high-quality products (George, 1993).
Therefore, the theory of the freezing process and the parameters involved should be understood clearly.
1.2.2 Freezing process The freezing process mainly consists of thermodynamic and kinetic factors, which can dominate
each other at a particular stage in the freezing process (Franks, 1985). Major thermal events are accompanied by reduction
in heat content of the material during the freezing process as is shown in Figure 1. The material to be frozen first cools
down to the temperature at which nucleation starts. Before ice can form, a nucleus, or a seed, is required upon which the
crystal can grow; the process of producing this seed is defined as nucleation. Once the first crystal appears in the solution,
a phase change occurs from liquid to solid with further crystal growth. Therefore, nucleation serves as the initial process
of freezing, and can be considered as the critical step that results in a complete phase change (Sahagian and Goff, 1996).
Freezing point of foods Freezing point is defined as the temperature at which the first ice crystal appears and the liquid at
that temperature is in equilibrium with the solid. If the freezing point of pure water is considered, this temperature will
correspond to 0 °C (273°K). However, when food systems are frozen, the process becomes more complex due to the
existence of both free and bound water. Bound water does not freeze even at very low temperatures. Unfreezable water
contains soluble solids, which cause a decrease in the freezing point of water lower than 0 °C. During the freezing
process, the concentration of soluble solids increases in the unfrozen water, resulting in a variation in freezing
temperature. Therefore, the temperature at which the first ice crystal appears is commonly regarded as the initial freezing
temperature. There are empirical equations in literature that can calculate the initial freezing temperature of certain foods
as a function of their moisture content (Levy, 1979).
There are several methods of food freezing, and depending on the method used, the quality of the frozen food may vary.
However, regardless of the method chosen, the main principle behind all freezing processes is the same in terms of
process parameters. The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) has provided definitions to establish a basis for the
freezing process. According to their definition, the freezing process is basically divided into three stages based on major
temperature changes in a particular location in the product, as shown in Figures 2 and 3 for pure water and food
respectively.
Beginning with the prefreezing stage, the food is subjected to the freezing process until the appearance of the first crystal.
If the material frozen is pure water, the freezing temperature will be 0 °C and, up to this temperature, there will be a
subcooling until the ice formation begins. In the case of foods during this stage, the temperature decreases to below
freezing temperature and, with the formation of the first ice crystal, increases to freezing temperature. The second stage is
the freezing period; a phase change occurs, transforming water into ice. For pure water, temperature at this stage is
constant; however, it decreases slightly in foods, due to the increasing concentration of solutes in the unfrozen water
portion. The last stage starts when the product temperature reaches the point where most freezable water has been
converted to ice, and ends when the temperature is reduced to storage temperature (Persson and Lohndal, 1993).
The freezing time and freezing rate are the most important parameters in designing freezing systems. The quality of the
frozen product is mostly affected by the rate of freezing, while time of freezing is calculated according to the rate of
freezing. For industrial applications, they are the most essential parameters in the process when comparing different types
of freezing systems and equipment.
Table 5. Fruit freezing guide
(Kendall, Colorado State University, Cooperative Extension, 2002)

Fruit Preparation Type of Pack

Apples Wash, peel, and slice into antidarkening Pack in 30-40% syrup, adding 1/2 teaspoon
solution - 3 tablespoons lemon juice per crystalline ascorbic acid per quart of syrup.
quart of water Pack dry or with up to 1/2 cup sugar per quart of
apple slices.

Apricots Wash, halve, and pit. Pack in 40% syrup, adding 3/4 teaspoon
Peel and slice if desired. crystalline ascorbic acid per quart of syrup.
If apricots are not peeled, heat in boiling
water for 1/2 minute to keep skins from
toughening during freezing. Cool in cold
water, drain.

Avocados Peel soft, ripe avocados. Add 1/8 teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to
Cut in half, remove pit, mash pulp. each quart of puree. Package in recipe-size
amounts.

Berries Select firm, fully ripe berries. Use 30% syrup pack, dry unsweetened pack, dry
Sort, wash, and drain. sugar pack, (3/4 cup sugar per quart of berries),
or tray pack.

Cherries Select well-colored, tree-ripened cherries. Pack in 30-40% syrup. Add 1/2 teaspoon
(sour or sweet) Stem, sort, and wash thoroughly. ascorbic acid per quart of syrup. For pies and
Drain and pit. other cooked products, pack in dry sugar using
3/4-cup sugar per quart of fruit.

Citrus fruits, Select firm fruit, free of soft spots. Wash Pack in 40% syrup or in fruit juice. Add 1/2
(sections or and peel. teaspoon ascorbic acid per quart of syrup or
slices) juice.

Grapes Select firm, ripe grapes. Wash and Pack in 20% syrup or pack without sugar. Use
remove stems. Leave seedless grapes dry pack for halved grapes and tray pack for
whole. whole grapes.
Cut grapes with seeds in half and remove
seeds.

Melons Select firm-fleshed, well-colored, ripe Pack in 30% syrup or pack dry using no sugar.
(cantaloupe, melons. Wash rinds well. Pulp also may be crushed (except watermelon),
watermelon) Slice or cut into chunks. adding 1 tablespoon sugar per quart. Freeze in
recipe-size containers.

Crop cultivar, production, and maturity The choice of the right cultivar and maturity before crop is harvested are the
two most important factors affecting raw material quality. Raw material characteristics are usually related to the vegetable
cultivar, crop production, crop maturity, harvesting practices, crop storage, transport, and factory reception. The choice of
crop cultivars is mostly based on their suitability for frozen preservation in terms of factory yield and product quality.
Some of the characteristics used as selection criteria are as follows (Cano, 1996):
 Suitability for mechanical harvesting
  Uniform maturity
 Exceptional flavour and uniform colour and desirable texture
 Resistance to diseases
 High yield
Although cultivar selection is a major factor affecting the quality of the final product, many practices in the field and
factors during growth of crop can also have a significant effect on quality. Those practices include site selection for
growth, nutrition of crop, and use of agricultural chemicals to control pests or diseases. The maturity assessment for
harvesting is one of the most difficult parts of the production. In addition to conventional methods, new instruments and
tests have been developed to predict the maturity of crops that help determining the optimum harvest time, although the
maturity assessment differs according to crop variety (Hui et al., 2004).
Harvesting At optimum maturity, physiological changes in several vegetables take place very rapidly. Thus, the
determination of optimum harvesting time is critical (Arthey, 1993). Some vegetables such as green peas and sweet corn
only have a short period during which they are of prime quality. If harvesting is delayed beyond this point, quality
deteriorates and the crop may quickly become unacceptable (Lee, 1989). Most of the vegetables are subjected to bruising
during harvesting.
Pre-process handling Vegetables at peak flavour and texture are used for freezing. Postharvest delays in handling
vegetables are known to produce deterioration in flavour, texture, colour, and nutrients (Lee, 1989). Therefore, the delays
between harvest and processing should be reduced to retain fresh quality prior to freezing. Cooling vegetables by cold
water, air blasting, or ice will often reduce the rate of post-harvest losses sufficiently, providing extra hours of high
quality retention for transporting raw material to considerable distances from the field to the processing plant (Deitrich et
al., 1977).
Blanching is the exposure of the vegetables to boiling water or steam for a brief period of time to inactivate enzymes.
Practically every vegetable (except herbs and green peppers) needs to be blanched and promptly cooled prior to freezing,
since heating slows or stops the enzyme action, which causes vegetables to grow and mature. After maturation, however,
enzymes can cause loss in quality, flavour, colour, texture, and nutrients. If vegetables are not heated sufficiently, the
enzymes will continue to be active during frozen storage and may cause the vegetables to toughen or develop off-flavours
and colours. Blanching also causes wilting or softening of vegetables, making them easier to pack. It destroys some
bacteria and helps remove any surface dirt (Desrosier and Tressler, 1977). Blanching in hot water at 70 to 105 °C has been
associated with the destruction of enzyme activity. Blanching is usually carried out between 75 and 95 °C for 1 to 10
minutes, depending on the size of individual vegetable pieces (Holdsworth, 1983). Blanched vegetables should be
promptly cooled down to control and minimize the degradation of soluble and heat-labile nutrients (Deitrich et al., 1977).
The enzymes used as indicators of effectiveness of the blanching treatment are peroxidase, catalase, and more recently
lipoxygenase. Peroxidase inactivation is commonly used in vegetable processing, since peroxidase is easily detected and
is the most heat stable of these enzymes (Arthey, 1993). Vegetables can be blanched in hot water, steam, and in the
microwave. Hot water blanching is the most common way of processing vegetables. Blanching times recommended for
various vegetables are given in Table 6, which indicates that the operation time can vary depending on the intended
product use. For water blanching, vegetables are put in a basket and then placed in a kettle of boiling water covered with a
lid. Timing begins immediately (Archuleta, 2003). Steam blanching takes longer than the water method, but helps retain
water-soluble nutrients such as water-soluble vitamins. For steam blanching, a single layer of vegetables is placed on a
rack or in a basket at 3-5 cm above water boiling in a kettle. A tightly fitted lid is placed on the kettle and timing is
started. Microwave blanching is usually recommended for small quantities of vegetables prior to freezing. Due to the non-
uniform heating disadvantage of microwaves, research is still being conducted to obtain better results with microwave
blanching.
Table 6. Vegetable freezing guide (Archuleta, 2003)

Vegetable Preparation Blanch/Freeze

Asparagus Wash and sort by size. Water blanch: 2 min
Snap off tough ends.
Cut stalks into 5-cm lengths. Steam blanch: 3 min

Beans Wash and trim the ends. Water blanch: Steam blanch:
Cut if desired.
Whole: 3 min. Whole: 4 min.

Cut: 2min. Cut: 3min.

Beets Wash and remove the tops leaving 2.5 cm of Cook until tender: 25-30 min
stem and root. Cool promptly, peel, trim.
Cut into slices or cubes and pack.

Broccoli Wash and cut into pieces. Water blanch: 3 min.

Steam blanch: 3 min.

Cabbage Wash and cut into wedges. Water blanch: 3 min.

Steam blanch: 4 min.

Carrots Wash, peel and trim. Water blanch: 5 min.

Cut if desired.

Cauliflower Discard leaves; steam and wash. Water blanch: Steam blanch:
Break into flowerets.
Whole: 5 min. Whole: 7 min

Corn Remove husks and silks. Water blanch: Steam blanch:

Trim ends and wash.
Whole: 5 min. Whole: 7 min

Greens Select young tender greens. Water blanch: 2 min.

Wash and trim the leaves.
Steam blanch: 3 min.

Herbs Wash. No heat treatment is needed.

Mushrooms Wipe and damp with paper towel. May be frozen without heat treatment.
Trim hard tip of stems.
Sort and cut large mushrooms.

Peas Shell garden peas. Water blanch: Steam blanch:

1-1/2 min. 1-1/2 min.

Peppers Wash, remove stems and seeds. Freeze whole or cut as desired. No heat
treatment is needed.
 Potatoes Peel, cut or grate as desired. Water blanch:

Whole: 5 min.

Pieces: 2-3 min.

Packaging There are several factors to consider in packaging frozen vegetables, which include protection from
atmospheric oxygen, prevention of moisture loss, retention of flavour, and rate of heat transfer through the package
(Arthey, 1996). There are two basic packing methods recommended for frozen vegetables: dry pack and tray pack. In the
dry pack method, the blanched and drained vegetables are put into meal-sized freezer bags and packed tightly to cut down
on the amount of air in the package. Proper headspace (approximately 2 cm) is left at the top of rigid containers before
closing. For freezer bags, the headspace is larger. Provision for headspace is not necessary for foods such as broccoli,
asparagus, and brussels sprouts, as they do not pack tightly in containers (Kendall, 2002). In the tray pack method, chilled,
well-drained vegetables are placed in a single layer on shallow trays or pans. Trays are placed in a freezer until the
vegetables become firm, then removed. Vegetables are filled into containers. Tray-packed foods do not freeze in a block
but remain loosely distributed so that the amount needed can be poured from the container and the package reclosed
(Kendall, 2002). The technical approach of chapter 1 focuses mainly on the large scale freezing industry. However, it is
important to highlight that all preliminary steps before freezing food products are quite similar whether on a large or small
scale. Furthermore, chapter 3 focuses more on the more suitable approach for small food freezing industry.
Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical,
chemical, or biological needs. It may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale.
History Packaging of food products have seen a vast transformation in technology usage and application from the stone
age to the industrial revolution
7000 BC: The adoption of pottery and glass which saw industrialization around 1500 BC [1]
1800: Nicolas Appert in response to extending shelf life of food for the French Army employed the use of glass bottles in
thermal food treatment which was later replaced by metal cans[2]
1870: The use of paper board was launched and corrugated materials patented[3]
1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats[4]
1890s: Crown cap for glass bottles was patented by William Painter [5]
1940s: Aerosol was first used by the marines during the world war II in pesticides application[6]
1960s: Development of the two-piece drawn and wall-ironed metal cans in the USA, the ring- pull opener and the Tetra
Brik Aseptic carton package[7]
1970s: 1970 Bar code system was introduced in the retail and manufacturing industry. PET plastic blow-mold bottle
technology widely used in the beverage industry was introduced[6]
1990s: The application of digital printing on food packages became widely adopted
Plastic packaging saw its inaugural use during the world war II even though materials employed in its manufacturing such
as cellulose nitrate, styrene and vinyl chloride were discovered in the 1800’s
Functions: Packaging and package labeling have several objectives
 Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from, among , shock, vibration,
compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.
 Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical
factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified
 atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean,
fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.
 Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one package to allow efficient
handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
 Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the
package or product. Some types of information are required by governments.
 Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the
product. Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consider the
contents. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several
decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many
cases) the point of sale display. The colour of the package plays a significant role in evoking emotions that
persuade the consumer to make the purchase.[11]
 Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be made
with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate
tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage; some package constructions
are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals to
help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such
as dye packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit
points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention.
 Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display,
sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
 Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities
(such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the
control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to
fill themselves.
Types: The above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such as:

Packaging Type

Aseptic processing Primary Liquid whole eggs or dairy products

Trays Primary Portion of fish or meat

Bags Primary Potato chips, apples, rice

Boxes Secondary Corrugated box of primary packages: box of cereal cartons, frozen pizzas

Cans Primary Can of tomato soup

Cartons, coated
Primary Carton of eggs, milk or juice cartons
paper

Flexible packaging Primary Bagged salad

A series of boxes on a single pallet used to transport from the manufacturing plant to
Pallets Tertiary
a distribution center

Wrappers Tertiary Used to wrap the boxes on the pallet for transport
Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary packaging combines the
primary packages into one box being made. Tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet.
A choice of packaging machinery requires consideration of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker
safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace,
flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food,
pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, and ergonomics, at a minimum. Packaging machines may be
of the following general types:
 Autocoding label and date verification
 Blister-, skin- and vacuum-packaging machines
 Capping, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines
 Cartoning machines
 Case and tray forming, packing, unpacking, closing and sealing Machines
 Check weighing machines
 Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines
 Conveying and accumulating machines
 Feeding, orienting, and placing machines
 Filling machines for liquid and powdered products
 Package filling and closing Machines
 Form, fill and seal machines
 Inspecting, detecting and checkweighing machines
 Palletizing, depalletizing, and pallet unitizing machines
 Labeling, marking, and other product identification machines
 Wrapping machines
 Converting machines
Reducing food packaging: Reduced packaging and sustainable packaging are becoming more frequent. The motivations
can be government regulations, consumer pressure, retailer pressure, and cost control. Reduced packaging often saves
packaging costs. In the UK, a Local Government Association survey produced by the British Market Research Bureau
compared a range of outlets to buy 29 common food items and found that small local retailers and market
traders "produced less packaging and more that could be recycled than the larger supermarkets."
Recycling of food packaging After use, organic matter that is still in the food packaging needs to be separated from the
packaging. This may also require rinsing of the food packaging. Food packaging is created through the use of a wide
variety of plastics and metals, papers, and glass materials. Recycling these products differs from the act of literally reusing
them in the manner that the recycling process has its own algorithm which includes collecting, sourcing, processing,
manufacturing and marketing these products. According to the Environmental Protection Agency of the United
States the recycling rate has been steadily on the rise with data reporting that in 2005 40% of the food packaging and
containers that were created were recycled and not just thrown away.
Trends in food packaging Numerous reports industry associations agree that use of smart indicators will increase. There
are a number of different indicators with different benefits for food producers, consumers and retailers.
  Temperature recorders are used to monitor products shipped in a cold chain and to help validate the cold chain.
Digital temperature data loggers measure and record the temperature history of food shipments. They sometimes
have temperatures displayed on the indicator or have other output (lights, etc.): The data from a shipment can be
downloaded (cable, RFID, etc.) to a computer for further analysis. These help identify if there has been
temperature abuse of products and can help determine the remaining shelf life. They can also help determine the
time of temperature extremes during shipment so corrective measures can be taken.
o Time temperature indicators integrate the time and temperature experienced by the indicator and adjacent
foods. Some use chemical reactions that result in a color change while others use the migration of a dye
through a filter media. To the degree that these physical changes in the indicator match the degradation
rate of the food, the indicator can help indicate probable food degradation.
 Radio Frequency Identification is applied to food packages for supply chain control and has shown a significant
benefit in allowing food producers and retailers create full real time visibility of their supply chain.
 Plastic packaging being used is usually non-biodegradable due to possible interactions with the food. Also,
biodegradable polymers often require special composting conditions to properly degrade. Normal
sealed landfill conditions do not promote biodegradation. Biodegradable plastics includes biodegradable films and
coatings synthesized from organic materials and microbial polymers. Some package materials are edible. For
example, pharmaceuticals are sometimes in capsules made of gelatin, starch, potato or other materials.
Newer bioplastics, films and products are being developed.[17]
 Barcodes have been used for decades in packaging many products. 2D barcodes used in Autocoding are
increasingly applied to food packaging to ensure products are correctly packaged and date coded.
 The ability of a package to fully empty or dispense a viscous food is somewhat dependent on the surface
energy of the inner walls of the container. The use of superhydrophobic surfaces is useful but can be further
improved by using new lubricant-impregnated surfaces.[18]
Food safety and public health It is critical to maintain food safety during processing , packaging,
storage, logistics (including cold chain), sale, and use. Conformance to applicable regulations is mandatory. Some are
country specific such as the US Food and Drug Administration and the US Department of Agriculture; others are regional
such as the European Food Safety Authority. Certification programs such as the Global Food Safety Initiative are
sometimes used. Food packaging considerations may include: use of hazard analysis and critical control
points, verification and validation protocols, Good manufacturing practices, use of an effective quality management
system, track and trace systems, and requirements for label content. Special food contact materials are used when the
package is in direct contact with the food product. Depending on the packaging operation and the food, packaging
machinery often needs specified daily wash-down and cleaning procedures. Health risks of materials and chemicals used
in food packaging need to be carefully controlled. Carcinogens, toxic chemicals, mutagens etc. need to be eliminated from
food contact and potential migration into foods.
Manufacturing Packaging lines may have a variety of equipment types: integration of automated systems can be a
challenge. All aspects of food production, including packaging, are tightly controlled and have regulatory requirements.
Uniformity, cleanliness and other requirements are needed to maintain Good Manufacturing Practices. Product safety
management is vital. A complete Quality Management System must be in place. Hazard analysis and critical control
points is one methodology which has been proven useful. Verification and validation involves collecting documentary
evidence of all aspects of compliance. Quality assurance extends beyond the packaging operations through distribution
and cold chain management.
Interactions between foods and packaging can be detrimental to quality and/or safety. Changes in product flavour due to
aroma sorption and the transfer of undesirable flavours from packaging to foods are important mechanisms of
deterioration when foods are packaged in polymer‐based materials. Careful consideration must be given to those factors
affecting such interactions when selecting packaging materials in order to maximize product quality, safety, and shelf‐life
while minimizing undesirable changes. Product considerations include sensitivity to flavour and related deteriorations,
colour changes, vitamin loss, microbial activity, and amount of flavour available. Storage considerations include
temperature, time, and processing method. Polymer considerations include type of polymer and processing method,
volume or mass of polymer to product ratio, and whether the interaction is Fickian or non‐Fickian. Methodology to
determine the extent of such interactions must be developed. Direct interactions between food and packaging are not
necessarily detrimental. The same principles governing undesirable interactions can be used to affect desirable outcomes.
Examples include films which directly intercept or absorb oxygen, inhibit microorganisms, remove undesirable flavours
by sorption, or indicate safety and product shelf‐life.
This review paper discusses opportunities for intelligent packaging for monitoring directly or indirectly quality attributes
of perishable packaged foods. The possible roles of intelligent packaging as a tool in supply chain management are
discussed as well as the barriers to implement this kind of technology in commercial applications. Cases on pasteurized
milk and fresh cod fillets illustrate the application of different intelligent packaging concepts to monitor and estimate
quality attributes. Conditions influencing quality (e.g., temperature–time) can be monitored to predict the quality of
perishable products when the initial quality is known and rather constant (e.g., pasteurized milk). Products with a highly
variable initial quality (e.g., fresh fish) require sensors monitoring compounds correlated with quality.
Food Additives Substances that are added to food to maintain or improve the safety, freshness, taste, texture, or
appearance of food are known as food additives. Some food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation –
such as salt (in meats such as bacon or dried fish), sugar (in marmalade), or sulfur dioxide (in wine). Many different food
additives have been developed over time to meet the needs of food production, as making food on a large scale is very
different from making them on a small scale at home. Additives are needed to ensure processed food remains safe and in
good condition throughout its journey from factories or industrial kitchens, during transportation to warehouses and shops,
and finally to consumers. The use of food additives is only justified when their use has a technological need, does not
mislead consumers, and serves a well-defined technological function, such as to preserve the nutritional quality of the
food or enhance the stability of the food. Food additives can be derived from plants, animals, or minerals, or they can be
synthetic. They are added intentionally to food to perform certain technological purposes which consumers often take for
granted. There are several thousand food additives used, all of which are designed to do a specific job in making food
safer or more appealing. WHO, together with FAO, groups food additives into 3 broad categories based on their function.
Flavouring agents which are added to food to improve aroma or taste – make up the greatest number of additives used in
foods. There are hundreds of varieties of flavourings used in a wide variety of foods, from confectionery and soft drinks to
cereal, cake, and yoghurt. Natural flavouring agents include nut, fruit and spice blends, as well as those derived from
vegetables and wine. In addition, there are flavourings that imitate natural flavours.
Enzyme preparations are a type of additive that may or may not end up in the final food product. Enzymes are naturally-
occurring proteins that boost biochemical reactions by breaking down larger molecules into their smaller building blocks.
They can be obtained by extraction from plants or animal products or from micro-organisms such as bacteria and are used
as alternatives to chemical-based technology. They are mainly used in baking (to improve the dough), for manufacturing
fruit juices (to increase yields), in wine making and brewing (to improve fermentation), as well as in cheese
manufacturing (to improve curd formation).
Other additives Other food additives are used for a variety of reasons, such as preservation, colouring, and sweetening.
They are added when food is prepared, packaged, transported, or stored, and they eventually become a component of the
food. Preservatives can slow decomposition caused by mould, air, bacteria, or yeast. In addition to maintaining the quality
of the food, preservatives help control contamination that can cause foodborne illness, including life-threatening botulism.
Colouring is added to food to replace colours lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Non-sugar
sweeteners are often used as an alternative to sugar because they contribute fewer or no calories when added to food.
WHO response
Evaluating the health risk of food additives WHO, in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), is responsible for assessing the risks to human health from food additives. Risk assessment of food
additives are conducted by an independent, international expert scientific group – the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee
on Food Additives (JECFA). Only food additives that have undergone a JECFA safety assessment, and are found not to
present an appreciable health risk to consumers, can be used. This applies whether food additives come from a natural
source or they are synthetic. National authorities, either based on the JECFA assessment or a national assessment, can
then authorize the use of food additives at specified levels for specific foods.
JECFA evaluations are based on scientific reviews of all available biochemical, toxicological, and other relevant data on a
given additive – mandatory tests in animals, research studies and observations in humans are considered. The
toxicological tests required by JECFA include acute, short-term, and long-term studies that determine how the food
additive is absorbed, distributed, and excreted, and possible harmful effects of the additive or its by-products at certain
exposure levels. The starting point for determining whether a food additive can be used without having harmful effects is
to establish the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The ADI is an estimate of the amount of an additive in food or drinking
water that can be safely consumed daily over a lifetime without adverse health effects.
International standards for the safe use of food additives The safety assessments completed by JECFA are used by the
joint intergovernmental food standard-setting body of FAO and WHO, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, to establish
levels for maximum use of additives in food and drinks. Codex standards are the reference for national standards for
consumer protection, and for the international trade in food, so that consumers everywhere can be confident that the food
they eat meets the agreed standards for safety and quality, no matter where it was produced. Once a food additive has been
found to be safe for use by JECFA and maximum use levels have been established in the Codex General Standard for
Food Additives, national food regulations need to be implemented permitting the actual use of a food additive.
How do I know which additives are in my food? The Codex Alimentarius Commission also establishes standards and
guidelines on food labelling. These standards are implemented in most countries, and food manufacturers are obliged to
indicate which additives are in their products. In the European Union, for example, there is legislation governing labelling
of food additives according to a set of pre-defined “E-numbers”. People who have allergies or sensitivities to certain food
additives should check labels carefully. WHO encourages national authorities to monitor and ensure that food additives in
food and drinks produced in their countries comply with permitted uses, conditions and legislation. National authorities
should oversee the food business, which carries the primary responsibility for ensuring that the use of a food additive is
safe and complies with legislation.
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. Some
additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon,
preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as with wines. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the
twentieth century, many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also
include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the manufacturing process,
through packaging, or during storage or transport.
Numbering To regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number called an "E
number", which is used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved
for use. E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is
approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as
additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkannin, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number,
although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of
labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as
in Europe, but without the prefix "E". The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as
"generally recognized as safe" (GRAS); they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA
regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations.
 See list of food additives for a complete list of all the names.
Categories Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives
exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.
Acidulents confer sour or acid taste. Common acidulents include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric
acid, and lactic acid.
Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to affect activity of enzymes.
Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming and foaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do the
reverse.
Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food by oxygen.
Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its taste.
Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more attractive.
Fortifying agents Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional value
Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.
Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and
homogenized milk.
Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created
artificially.
Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example is monosodium glutamate. Some flavor
enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.
Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.
Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.
Humectants prevent foods from drying out.
Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing
shelf life.
Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.
Stabilizers thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While
they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories)
low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.
Thickeners Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without
substantially modifying its other properties.
Packaging Bisphenols, phthalates, and perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs) are indirect additives used in manufacturing or
packaging. In July 2018 the American Academy of Pediatrics called for more careful study of those three substances,
along with nitrates and food coloring, as they might harm children during development.
Safety and regulation With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely
used. Many countries regulate their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to
the 1920s, but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies.
During World War II, the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally
banned in the 1950s. Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary
principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States,
this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938,
stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the
United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause
cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards
supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney
clause. However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.
Hyperactivity Periodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity, however
"no clear evidence of ADHD was provided". In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official
shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated. In the EU it can take 10
years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years
for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide
approval for use in every country in the European Union. Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the
whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in the
UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random
testing of food products. There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food
additives. Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For
example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney
clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.
Micronutrients A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient
value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not
retain such high levels. Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor
qualities, and reduce spoilage.
Standardization of its derived products ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards
are covered by ICS 67.220.
The term food additive means any substance the intended use of which results, or may reasonably be expected to result,
directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food [FD&C Act
§201(s)]. Food additives require FDA premarket approval based on safety data submitted to FDA in a food additive
petition. FDA issues food additive regulations specifying conditions of use (i.e. technical functions, categories of food,
and maximum levels of use) under which a food additive has been demonstrated to be safe. Dietary ingredients of dietary
supplements are not food additives and not subject to the standard of safety required of food additives. Also excluded
from the food additive definition are food ingredients whose use in foods is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by
qualified experts under the conditions of their intended use. The use of any substance in a food that is not an approved
food additive or a GRAS use causes the food to be adulterated and it cannot be legally marketed in the U.S.
Food additive, any of various chemical substances added to foods to produce specific desirable effects. Additives such
as salt, spices, and sulfites have been used since ancient times to preserve foods and make them more palatable. With the
increased processing of foods in the 20th century, there came a need for both the greater use of and new types of food
additives. Many modern products, such as low-calorie, snack, and ready-to-eat convenience foods, would not be possible
without food additives.
There are four general categories of food additives: nutritional additives, processing agents, preservatives, and sensory
agents. These are not strict classifications, as many additives fall into more than one category. For more information on
additives, see emulsifier; food colouring; nutritional supplement; and preservative.
Nutritional Additives are used for the purpose of restoring nutrients lost or degraded during production, fortifying or
enriching certain foods in order to correct dietary deficiencies, or adding nutrients to food substitutes. The fortification of
foods began in 1924 when iodine was added to table salt for the prevention of goitre. Vitamins are commonly added to
many foods in order to enrich their nutritional value. For example, vitamins A and D are added
to dairy and cereal products, several of the B vitamins are added to flour, cereals, baked goods, and pasta, and vitamin C is
added to fruit beverages, cereals, dairy products, and confectioneries. Other nutritional additives include the essential fatty
acid linoleic acid, minerals such as calcium and iron, and dietary fibre.
Processing Agents A number of agents are added to foods in order to aid in processing or to maintain the desired
consistency of the product.
 function typical chemical agent typical product

anticaking sodium aluminosilicate salt

bleaching benzoyl peroxide flour

chelating ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) dressings, mayonnaise, sauces, dried bananas

clarifying bentonite, proteins fruit juices, wines

conditioning potassium bromate flour

emulsifying lecithin ice cream, mayonnaise, bakery products

leavening yeast, baking powder, baking soda bakery products

moisture control
glycerol marshmallows, soft candies, chewing gum
(humectants)

pH control citric acid, lactic acid certain cheeses, confections, jams and jellies

stabilizing and pectin, gelatin, carrageenan, gums (arabic, dressings, frozen desserts, confections,
thickening guar, locust bean) pudding mixes, jams and jellies

Processing additives and their uses

Emulsifiers are used to maintain a uniform dispersion of one liquid in another, such as oil in water. The basic structure of
an emulsifying agent includes a hydrophobic portion, usually a long-chain fatty acid, and a hydrophilic portion that may
be either charged or uncharged. The hydrophobic portion of the emulsifier dissolves in the oil phase, and the hydrophilic
portion dissolves in the aqueous phase, forming a dispersion of small oil droplets. Emulsifiers thus form and stabilize oil-
in-water emulsions (e.g., mayonnaise), uniformly disperse oil-soluble flavour compounds throughout a product, prevent
large ice crystal formation in frozen products (e.g., ice cream), and improve the volume, uniformity, and fineness of baked
products.
Stabilizers and thickeners have many functions in foods. Most stabilizing and thickening agents are polysaccharides, such
as starches or gums, or proteins, such as gelatin. The primary function of these compounds is to act as thickening or
gelling agents that increase the viscosity of the final product. These agents stabilize emulsions, either by adsorbing to the
outer surface of oil droplets or by increasing the viscosity of the water phase. Thus, they prevent the coalescence of the oil
droplets, promoting the separation of the oil phase from the aqueous phase (i.e., creaming). The formation and
stabilization of foam in a food product occurs by a similar mechanism, except that the oil phase is replaced by a gas phase.
The compounds also act to inhibit the formation of ice or sugar crystals in foods and can be used to encapsulate flavour
compounds.
Chelating, or sequestering, agents protect food products from many enzymatic reactions that promote deterioration during
processing and storage. These agents bind to many of the minerals that are present in food (e.g., calcium and magnesium)
and are required as cofactors for the activity of certain enzymes.
Preservatives Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxidants and antimicrobials. Antioxidants
are compounds that delay or prevent the deterioration of foods by oxidative mechanisms. Antimicrobial agents inhibit the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in food.

chemical agent mechanism of action

Antioxidants

ascorbic acid oxygen scavenger

butylated hydroxyanisole
free radical scavenger
(BHA)

butylated hydroxytoluene
free radical scavenger
(BHT)

citric acid enzyme inhibitor/metal chelator

Sulfites enzyme inhibitor/oxygen scavenger

tertiary butylhydroquinone
free radical scavenger
(TBHQ)

Tocopherols free radical scavenger

Antimicrobials

acetic acid disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, yeasts, some molds)

benzoic acid disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes (molds, yeasts, some bacteria)

Natamycin binds sterol groups in fungal cell membrane (molds, yeasts)

disrupts cell membrane function (gram-positive bacteria, lactic acid-producing

Nisin
bacteria)

inhibits enzymes/disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, primarily Clostridium

nitrates, nitrites
botulinum)

propionic acid disrupts cell membrane function (molds, some bacteria)

disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes/inhibits bacterial spore

sorbic acid
germination (yeasts, molds, some bacteria)
 chemical agent mechanism of action

Antioxidants

sulfites and sulfur dioxide inhibits enzymes/forms addition compounds (bacteria, yeasts, molds)

Food preservatives

Antioxidants The oxidation of food products involves the addition of an oxygen atom to or the removal of
a hydrogen atom from the different chemical molecules found in food. Two principal types of oxidation that contribute to
food deterioration are autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (i.e., those containing one or more double bonds between
the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain) and enzyme-catalyzed oxidation. The autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
involves a reaction between the carbon-carbon double bonds and molecular oxygen (O2). The products of autoxidation,
called free radicals, are highly reactive, producing compounds that cause the off-flavours and off-odours characteristic of
oxidative rancidity. Antioxidants that react with the free radicals (called free radical scavengers) can slow the rate of
autoxidation. These antioxidants include the naturally occurring tocopherols (vitamin E derivatives) and
the synthetic compounds butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and tertiary
butylhydroquinone (TBHQ). Specific enzymes may also carry out the oxidation of many food molecules. The products of
these oxidation reactions may lead to quality changes in the food. For example, enzymes called phenolases catalyze the
oxidation of certain molecules (e.g., the amino acid tyrosine) when fruits and vegetables, such as apples, bananas,
and potatoes, are cut or bruised. The product of these oxidation reactions, collectively known as enzymatic browning, is a
dark pigment called melanin. Antioxidants that inhibit enzyme-catalyzed oxidation include agents that bind free oxygen
(i.e., reducing agents), such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and agents that inactivate the enzymes, such as citric acid and
sulfites.
Antimicrobials are most often used with other preservation techniques, such as refrigeration, in order to inhibit the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Sodium chloride (NaCl), or common salt, is probably the oldest
known antimicrobial agent. Organic acids, including acetic, benzoic, propionic, and sorbic acids, are used against
microorganisms in products with a low pH. Nitrates and nitrites are used to inhibit the bacterium Clostridium botulinum in
cured meat products (e.g., ham and bacon). Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are used to control the growth of spoilage
microorganisms in dried fruits, fruit juices, and wines. Nisin and natamycin are preservatives produced by
microorganisms. Nisin inhibits the growth of some bacteria, while natamycin is active against molds and yeasts.
Sensory Agents
Colorants Colour is an extremely important sensory characteristic of foods; it directly influences the perception of both
the flavour and quality of a product. The processing of food can cause degradation or loss of natural pigments in the raw
materials. In addition, some formulated products, such as soft drinks, confections, ice cream, and snack foods, require the
addition of colouring agents. Colorants are often necessary to produce a uniform product from raw materials that vary in
colour intensity. Colorants used as food additives are classified as natural or synthetic. Natural colorants are derived
from plant, animal, and mineral sources, while synthetic colorants are primarily petroleum-based chemical compounds.
Natural colorants Most natural colorants are extracts derived from plant tissues. The use of these extracts in
the food industry has certain problems associated with it, including the lack of consistent colour intensities, instability
upon exposure to light and heat, variability of supply, reactivity with other food components, and addition of secondary
flavours and odours. In addition, many are insoluble in water and therefore must be added with an emulsifier in order to
achieve an even distribution throughout the food product.
 chemical
colour plant source pigment products
class

*Plus other similar compounds.

**Many carotenoids used as food colorants are chemically synthesized.

anthocyanins strawberry (Fragaria pelargonidin 3- beverages, confections,

red
species) glucoside* preserves, fruit products

malvidin 3-
blue grape (Vitis species) beverages
glucoside*

betacyanins red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) betanin dairy products, desserts, icings

carotenoids** yellow/orange annatto (Bixa orellana) bixin dairy products, margarine

yellow saffron (Crocus sativus) crocin rice dishes, bakery products

paprika (Capsicum
red/orange capsanthin soups, sauces
annuum)

orange carrot (Daucus carota) beta-carotene bakery products, confections

mushroom (Cantharellus
red canthaxanthin sauces, soups, dressings
cinnabarinus)

phenolics orange/yellow turmeric (Cuycuma longa) curcumin dairy products, confections

Natural food colorants

Synthetic colorants Synthetic colorants are water-soluble and are available commercially as powders, pastes, granules, or
solutions. Special preparations called lakes are formulated by treating the colorants with aluminum hydroxide. They
contain approximately 10 to 40 percent of the synthetic dye and are insoluble in water and organic solvents. Lakes are
ideal for use in dry and oil-based products. The stability of synthetic colorants is affected by light, heat, pH, and reducing
agents. A number of dyes have been chemically synthesized and approved for usage in various countries. These colorants
are designated according to special numbering systems specific to individual countries. For example, the United States
uses FD&C numbers (chemicals approved for use in foods, drugs, and cosmetics), and the European Union (EU) uses E
numbers.
 designation

European
common name United States products
Union

gelatin, puddings, dairy products, confections,

allura red AC FD&C red no. 40 …
beverages

brilliant blue
FD&C blue no. 1 E133 beverages, confections, icings, syrups, dairy products
FCF

erythrosine FD&C red no. 3 E127 maraschino cherries

fast green FCF FD&C green no. 3 … beverages, puddings, ice cream, sherbet, confections

indigo carmine FD&C blue no. 2 E132 confections, ice cream, bakery products

sunset yellow FD&C yellow no.

E110 bakery products, ice cream, sauces, cereals, beverages
FCF 6

FD&C yellow no.

tartrazine E102 beverages, cereals, bakery products, ice cream, sauces
5

Synthetic food colorants

All synthetic colorants have undergone extensive toxicological analysis. Brilliant Blue FCF, Indigo Carmine, Fast Green
FCF, and Erythrosine are poorly absorbed and show little toxicity. Extremely high concentrations (greater than 10
percent) of Allura Red AC cause psychotoxicity, and Tartrazine induces hypersensitive reactions in some persons.
Synthetic colorants are not universally approved in all countries.
Flavourings The flavour of food results from the stimulation of the chemical senses of taste and smell by specific food
molecules. Taste reception is carried out in specialized cells located in the taste buds. The five basic taste sensations—
sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami—are detected in regions of the tongue, mouth, and throat. Taste cells are specific for
certain flavour molecules (e.g., sweeteners). In addition to the basic tastes, the flavouring molecules in food stimulate
specific olfactory (smell) cells in the nasal cavity. These cells can detect more than 10,000 different stimuli, thus fine-
tuning the flavour sensation of a food. A flavour additive is a single chemical or blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic
origin that provides all or part of the flavour impact of a particular food. These chemicals are added in order to replace
flavour lost in processing and to develop new products. Flavourings are the largest group of food additives, with more
than 1,200 compounds available for commercial use. Natural flavourings are derived or extracted from plants, spices,
herbs, animals, or microbial fermentations. Artificial flavourings are mixtures of synthetic compounds that may be
chemically identical to natural flavourings. Artificial flavourings are often used in food products because of the high cost,
lack of availability, or insufficient potency of natural flavourings. Flavour enhancers are compounds that are added to a
food in order to supplement or enhance its own natural flavour. The concept of flavour enhancement originated in Asia,
where cooks added seaweed to soup stocks in order to provide a richer flavour to certain foods. The flavour-enhancing
component of seaweed was identified as the amino acid L-glutamate, and monosodium glutamate (MSG) became the first
flavour enhancer to be used commercially. The rich flavour associated with L-glutamate was called umami.
Other compounds that are used as flavour enhancers include the 5′-ribonucleotides, inosine monophosphate (IMP),
guanosine monophosphate (GMP), yeast extract, and hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Flavour enhancers may be used in
soups, broths, sauces, gravies, flavouring and spice blends, canned and frozen vegetables, and meats.
Sweeteners Sucrose, or table sugar, is the standard on which the relative sweetness of all other sweeteners is based.
Because sucrose provides energy in the form of carbohydrates, it is considered a nutritive sweetener. Other nutritive
sweeteners include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, high-fructose corn syrup, and sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, mannitol,
and xylitol).
Efforts to chemically synthesize sweeteners began in the late 1800s with the discovery of saccharin. Since then, a number
of synthetic compounds have been developed that provide few or no calories or nutrients in the diet and are
called nonnutritive sweeteners. These sweeteners have significantly greater sweetening power than sucrose, and therefore
a relatively low concentration may be used in food products. In addition to saccharin, the most commonly used
nonnutritive sweeteners are cyclamates, aspartame, and acesulfame K.
The sensation of sweetness is transmitted through specific protein molecules, called receptors, located on the surface of
specialized taste cells. All sweeteners function by binding to these receptors on the outside of the cells. The increased
sweetness of the nonnutritive sweeteners relative to sucrose may be due to either tighter or longer binding of these
synthetic compounds to the receptors.
Nonnutritive sweeteners are primarily used for the production of low-calorie products including baked goods,
confectioneries, dairy products, desserts, preserves, soft drinks, and tabletop sweeteners. They are also used as
a carbohydrate replacement for persons with diabetes mellitus and in chewing gum and candies to minimize the risk
of dental caries (i.e., tooth decay). Unlike nutritive sweeteners, nonnutritive sweeteners do not provide viscosity or texture
to products, so bulking agents such as polydextrose are often required for manufacture.
Toxicological Testing And Health Concerns Food additives and their metabolites are subjected to
rigorous toxicological analysis prior to their approval for use in the industry. Feeding studies are carried out using animal
species (e.g., rats, mice, dogs) in order to determine the possible acute, short-term, and long-term toxic effects of these
chemicals. These studies monitor the effects of the compounds on the behaviour, growth,
mortality, blood chemistry, organs, reproduction, offspring, and tumour development in the test animals over a 90-day to
two-year period. The lowest level of additive producing no toxicological effects is called the no-effect level (NOEL). The
NOEL is generally divided by 100 to determine a maximum acceptable daily intake (ADI). Toxicological analysis of the
nonnutritive sweeteners has produced variable results. High concentrations of saccharin and cyclamates in the diets of rats
have been shown to induce the development of bladder tumours in the animals. Because of these results, the use of
cyclamates has been banned in several countries, including the United States, and the use of saccharin must include a
qualifying statement regarding its potential health risks. However, no evidence of human bladder cancer has been reported
with the consumption of these sweeteners. Both aspartame and acesulfame K have been deemed to be relatively safe, with
no evidence of carcinogenic potential in animal studies.
1. Preamble: Food additives are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give
favorable attributes to the food we eat. Very simply, it is a substance which is added to food to enhance its flavor,
appearance, or other favorable quality. In fact, the food protection committee of the US national research council defined
food additives as “A substance or a mixture of substances other than a basic food stuff that is present in a food as a result
of an aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging”. According to US FDA (Food and Drug Administration),
a food additive is “any substance, the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result–directly or
indirectly–in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food”. Although the term ‘food
additives’ has been used frequently at present, its utilization has been practiced since ancient times; and probably dating
back to much earlier than the hunter-gatherer era. Even though food additives confer much benefit to all sectors, such
as the manufacturers, retailers, and customers, utilization of food additives must be carried out extremely cautiously.
Additives, for the most part, are synthetic chemicals. Present day consumers are turning to natural ingredients and bio-
based additives due to adverse effects caused by some chemicals. Therefore, plant-derived substances are gaining a foot
hold as preservatives, colorants, flavors, and even as antibacterial agents.
1.1. E numbers (international numbering system) of food additives Almost all safe-to-use food additives are given ‘E
numbers’ by the European Food Safety Authority. In order to get to this status, the food additive must pass all the safety
checks. Following are the general categories of food additives and their E numbers. However, when one food additive has
more than one function, it is given only one E number. Chemical compounds and other species are constantly added
to the list of safe-to-use food additives as the food additives pass the safety checks. An up to date list of food additives
and their E numbers could be obtained from official UK food standards agency web
site https://www.food.gov.uk/science/additives/enumberlist#toc-1. The general list of E numbers of food additives is
given in Table 1 [5].

Block of numbers Food additives

E100-E199 Colors

E200-E299 Preservatives

E300-E399 Antioxidants and acidity regulators

E400-E499 Thickeners, stabilizers and emulsifiers

E500-E599 Anticaking agents

E600-E699 Flavor enhancers

E700-E799 Antibiotics

E900-E999 Glazing agents and sweeteners

E1000-E1599 Additional chemicals

Table 1.
E numbers of food additives.

Chemical Odor

Diacetyl, acetylpropionyl, acetoin Buttery

Isoamyl acetate Banana

Benzaldehyde Bitter almond, cherry

Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamon

Ethyl propionate Fruity

Methyl anthranilate Grape

Limonene Orange

Ethyl decadienoate Pear

Allyl hexanoate Pineapple

Ethyl maltol Sugar, cotton candy

Ethylvanillin Vanilla

Methyl salicylate Wintergreen

Table 2.
Artificial flavoring agents and their flavors.
This table was obtained from: Wikipedia [38].

Acid Description

This amino acid’s sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG), is one of the most
Glutamic acid
commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts are also
salts
commonly used.

Glycine salts Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers.

Guanylic acid
Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers.
salts

Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP, due to high costs of production,
Inosinic acid salts
typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers.

5’-Ribonucleotide Nucleotide salts typically combined with other amino acids and nucleotide salts as flavor
salts enhancers.

Table 3.
Artificial flavor enhancers.
2. Colors According to the US FDA, “A color additive is any dye, pigment, or substance, which when added or applied
to a food, drug or cosmetic, or to the human body, is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances)
of imparting color”. Food colors are used as food additives mainly to yield better sensory effects, specifically appearance
contentment. The reasons for adding colors to food are manifold. First, color may be lost due to the processing and storage
conditions of food, and thus food colors are added to compensate such loss of color. Second, food items with natural
colors may show a variation of color, and thus food colors are added to correct such variations in color. Third, food colors
may be added to further improve the natural color of the food. Fourth, food colors are added to give color to food items
with no color. There are two types of food colors, certified colors and colors exempt from certification. The certified
colors are synthetic compounds. They are usually more effective than natural compounds and they do not introduce off-
flavors to the foods. Colors derived from natural sources are exempt from certification. These compounds are more
expensive than synthetic compounds. Yet, the colors exempt from certification may give off-flavors to the foods.
Health effects of food colorants are a major concern among the consumers and regulatory bodies; and thus, carrying out
toxicity studies determining health effects are considered very significant today. A recent study revealed that Allura Red
AC lacks genotoxicity after the European Food Safety Authority showed its concern on this matter. In addition to toxicity
studies, remedies for the adverse effects of food colorants are being evaluated. For example, Rafati et al. demonstrated
that the negative effects caused by tartrazine in mice could be mitigated by the simultaneous administration of vitamin E.
Although food colors are added to enhance organoleptic appeal of the foods, naturally occurring food colors such
as curcumin and riboflavin possess other beneficial health effects. In fact, curcumin exhibits numerous bioactivities such
as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer. Riboflavin, also, acts as an antioxidant, and it is linked to several health
benefits. Numerous strategies have been explored to increase the stability of natural colorants due to beneficial health
effects or general lack of toxicity of these compounds. As expected, novel sources of natural colorants are being explored
due to the positive attributes of natural colorants. In addition, encapsulation techniques and other innovative methods are
being explored in order to improve numerous properties of food colorants as opposed to directly add food colorants
in food.
The list of colors usually used in food manufacturing is stated below List of colors: Curcumin, Riboflavin, Riboflavin-
5’-phosphate, Tartrazine, Quinoline yellow, Sunset Yellow FCF, Orange Yellow S, Cochineal, Carminic acid, Carmines,
Azorubine, Carmoisine, Amaranth, Ponceau 4R, Cochineal Red A, Erythrosine, Allura Red AC, Patent Blue V,
lndigotine, Indigo Carmine, Brilliant Blue FCF, Chlorophylls and chlorophyllins, Copper complexes of chlorophyll
and chlorophyllins, Green S, Plain caramel, Caustic sulphite caramel, Ammonia caramel, Sulphite ammonia caramel,
Brilliant Black BN, Black PN, Vegetable carbon, Brown FK, Brown HT, Carotenes, Annatto, Bixin, Norbixin, Paprika
extract, Capsanthin, Capsorubin, Lycopene, Beta-apo-8’-carotenal (C30), Ethyl ester of beta-apo-8’-carotenoic acid
(C30), Lutein, Canthaxanthin, Beetroot Red, Betanin, Anthocyanins, Litholrubine BK.
3. Preservatives Food preservatives have become an indispensible part of the food industry today. In simple terms, a food
preservative is any substance that hinders food deterioration caused by microbes, enzymes, or any other chemical reaction.
Millions of people suffer from hunger as a result of lack of enough food and thus, the advantages of using food
preservatives in food processing are plenteous. Food preservatives along with other food additives are under strict control
by numerous governing bodies. A short account of the governing system is given under Section 11.
Most artificial food preservatives impart negative health effects at high doses. For instance, in vitro studies have revealed
that sodium benzoate and potassium benzoate exhibit genotoxic effects. However, this issue can be dealt with by adhering
to the acceptable daily intake (ADI) values of food additives (please refer Section 11). Interestingly, despite showing
adverse effects at toxic levels, some artificial food preservatives show favorable health effects at nontoxic levels.
Natural preservatives are an appealing alternative to artificial preservatives, especially with respect to health effects.
A novel trend is to explore and utilize essential oils such as clove essential oil and eugenol extracted from cloves,
limonene extracted from citrus fruits, and essential oil extracted from cinnamon as food preservatives of numerous food
items including fresh cut produce, juices, and fish. As expected, encapsulated natural food preservatives including thyme
essential oil and curcumin have shown favorable properties such as sustained release and enhanced antioxidant
and antimicrobial properties. In addition to natural products, fermented milk products have shown promise as food
preservatives. The reasons for utilizing natural products and nonsynthetic products as food preservatives include imparting
health benefits to the consumers and gaining “clean label” advantage.
Numerous approaches are being taken to find novel food preservatives with ameliorated properties. For instance, peptides
have been used successfully as potential food preservatives. Once a peptide food preservative is identified, mass
production may be carried out using biotechnology. Combinations of food preservatives have also been studied
to discover the combined effect and the possibility of substituting synthetic food preservatives by such combinations.
For example, Cuminum cyminum L. essential oil and nisin have shown their ability to function as a hurdle against
microbes.
Some food preservatives used in food manufacturing are listed below List of preservatives: Sorbic acid, Potassium
sorbate, Calcium sorbate, Benzoic acid, Sodium benzoate, Potassium benzoate, Calcium benzoate, Ethyl p-
hydroxybenzoate, Sodium ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate, Sodium methyl p-hydroxybenzoate, Sulfur dioxide, Sodium sulphite,
Sodium hydrogen sulphite, Sodium metabisulphite, Potassium metabisulphite, Calcium sulphite, Calcium hydrogen
sulphite, Potassium hydrogen sulphite, Biphenyl; diphenyl, Nisin, Natamycin, Hexamethylene tetramine, Dimethyl
dicarbonate, Potassium nitrite, Sodium nitrite, Sodium nitrate, Potassium nitrate, Propionic acid, Sodium propionate,
Calcium propionate, Potassium propionate, Boric acid, Sodium tetraborate; borax.
4. Antioxidants and acidity regulators Antioxidants play a pivotal role in the food industry, combating oxidative stress
on oxygen-sensitive species. The antioxidants used in the food industry are either hydrophilic, lipophilic, or amphiphilic,
protecting various types of ingredients. Certain antioxidants function also as acidity regulators. Examples include ascorbic
acid and citric acid. Acidity regulators are also an essential group of food additives as lowering the pH of the food usually
assists to retard microbial attack.
4.1. Antioxidants Although antioxidants are deemed to confer numerous health benefits to the humans, synthetic
antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) have shown negative health
effects. On the contrary, some reports have shown chemoprevention properties of those synthetic carcinogenic
antioxidants. Again, the issue of toxicity is dealt with by adhering strictly into the ADI published by the governing bodies
worldwide including the US FDA. Although the results of synthetic antioxidants are inconsistent, numerous natural
antioxidants have the ability to function as nontoxic anticarcinogenic compounds. Examples include ferulic acid, caffeic
acid, curcumin, vitamin E, polyphenolic catechins, and carnosol. As with other food additives, the trend is to utilize
and seek for natural food antioxidants. Both pure antioxidants and plant extracts are used and explored these days.
Moreover, encapsulation of pure antioxidants and plant extracts showing antioxidant properties is carried out to obtain
improved attributes such as improved stability and sustained release of those bioactive compounds. The liposomal
encapsulation of the Schumacheria castaneifolia methanol extract with antioxidant properties, which may be suitable
for applications in the food sector, with high encapsulation efficiencies is an excellent example of encapsulating plant
extracts.
A list of antioxidants used in food manufacturing is stated below List of antioxidants: Ascorbic acid, Sodium
ascorbate, Calcium ascorbate, Fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid, Tocopherols, Alpha-tocopherol, Gamma-tocopherol,
Delta-tocopherol, Propyl gallate, Octyl gallate, Dodecyl gallate, Erythorbic acid, Sodium erythorbate, Tertiary-butyl
hydroquinone (TBHQ), Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), Extracts of rosemary, 4-
Hexylresorcinol.
4.2. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators such as citric acid, tartaric acid, and phosphoric acid are numbered together
with antioxidants in the E numbering system. This approach is very logical as certain acidity regulators, such as citric
acid, exhibit antioxidant properties. In fact, citric acid has imparted favorable effects on food, functioning as an acidity
regulator and antioxidant simultaneously. What’s more, food acidity regulators have shown advantageous combined
effects with other food additives on food. Antibrowning effect of citric acid together with ascorbic acid and nitrogen
on banana smoothies is an example.
The list of acidity regulators commonly used in food manufacturing is stated below List of acidity regulators: Sodium
lactate, Potassium lactate, Calcium lactate, Citric acid, Sodium citrates, Potassium citrates, Calcium citrates, Tartaric acid
(L-(+)), Sodium tartrates, Potassium tartrates, Sodium potassium tartrate, Phosphoric acid, Sodium phosphates, Potassium
phosphates, Calcium phosphates, Magnesium phosphates, Sodium malates, Potassium malate, Calcium malates,
Metatartaric acid, Calcium tartrate, Adipic acid, Sodium adipate, Potassium adipate, Succinic acid, Triammonium citrate,
Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate; calcium disodium EDTA.
5. Thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and gelling agents Thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and gelling agents have
become an integral part in the current food manufacturing industry. Thickeners increase the volume, change the viscosity,
and increase the processability of the food items. Stabilizers, as the name implies, stabilize the food products; sometimes
through the utilization of fillers. Emulsifiers assist in the miscibility of otherwise immiscible substances possible.
For instance water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions used in the food industry are made utilizing emulsifiers. Gelling agents
mainly contribute to the viscosity and sensory properties of the food products. In sum, all thickeners, stabilizers,
emulsifiers and gelling agents contribute to the stability and palatability of the food product. This category of food
additives also consist of natural and synthetic compounds. In fact, lecithin that assists in emulsification and stabilization
for most food products is mostly extracted from soy bean, and thus it is a natural additive. However, numerous studies are
being conducted evaluating the positive effects of synthetic lecithin. Alginate functioning as both a thickener and gelling
agent is another natural food additive in this group. Apart from the natural compounds, synthetic emulsifiers such
as polysorbates constitute an important component of this group. Although considered food grade, several health concerns
have arisen regarding such artificial emulsifiers.
A list of thickeners-stabilizers-emulsifiers-gelling agents used in food manufacturing is listed in Tables 2 and 3 [5].
List of thickeners-stabilizers-emulsifiers-gelling agents: Lecithins, Alginic acid, Sodium alginate, Potassium alginate,
Ammonium alginate, Calcium alginate, Propane-1-2-diol alginate, Agar, Carrageenan, Processed eucheuma seaweed,
Locust bean gum; carob gum, Guar gum, Tragacanth, Acacia gum; gum Arabic, Xanthan gum, Karaya gum, Tara gum,
Gellan gum, Konjac, Soybean hemicellulose, Cassia gum, Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate; Polysorbate 20,
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate; Polysorbate 80, Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monopalmitate; Polysorbate 40,
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate; Polysorbate 60, Polyoxyethylene sorbitan tristearate; Polysorbate 65, Pectins,
Ammonium phosphatides, Sucrose acetate isobutyrate, Glycerol esters of wood rosins, Cellulose, Methyl cellulose, Ethyl
cellulose, Hydroxypropyl cellulose, Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, Ethyl methyl cellulose, Carboxy methyl cellulose,
Crosslinked sodium carboxy methyl cellulose.
6. Anticaking agents As the name implies, the role of anticaking agents is to prevent lumping or caking in food. These
agents are added mostly for powders or granulated material. Among the numerous advantages of using anticaking agents
include: sustenance of sensory attributes, easiness of packaging, efficient transportation, and simplicity to yield high
quality products for consumption. Depending on the food product involved, either water-soluble or organic solvent-
soluble anticaking agents are used.
Anticaking agents frequently used in food manufacturing are stated below List of anticaking agents: Calcium
Aluminum Silicate, Calcium Phosphate tribasic, Calcium Sili-cate, Calcium Stearate, Cellulose, Magnesium Carbonate,
Magnesium Oxide, Magnesium Silicate, Magnesium Stearate, Microcrystalline Cellulose, Propylene Glycol, Potassium
Ferrocyanide, Trihydrate, Silicon Dioxide, Sodium Aluminum Silicate, Sodium Ferrocyanide, decahydrate.
7. Flavors and flavor enhancers Flavors and flavor enhancers are of extreme importance in the food industry as it is
what makes the food sensational. Flavor is perceived by the taste and smell via chemical senses. Also, the chemical
irritants perceived in the mouth and throat, temperature and texture are factors affecting the flavor of a food. Nowadays,
both natural and artificial substances are used as food flavors . The basic universally recognized flavors include: sweet,
sour, tangy, bitter, umami, hot, that can be perceived through the tongue. On the other hand, the number of sensations that
can be perceived through the nose (smell) is limitless. As a result, the food industry is ever growing utilizing different
combinations of taste and smell. What’s more, there is another group of chemical substances that do not impart any flavor
in to the food product but enhance the existing flavor in the food. These flavor enhances are highly valued in the food
industry as these substances contribute significantly into cost reduction in food manufacturing. Flavors and flavor
enhancers frequently used in food manufacturing are stated. Flavors and flavor enhances also are evaluated for their health
effects by numerous scientists worldwide. Further, extraction of numerous novel natural flavors is being carried out
around the globe as a result of the higher inclination of the customers to such natural compounds. There has been much
criticism on the health effects of glutamate—a much consumed flavor enhancer. However, mixed results have been
published and there is no evidence to prove that glutamate possesses negative health effects, according to a recent report.
Like almost all other food additives, encapsulation, for instance microencapsulation and emulsification, is used as means
of enhancing the properties of food flavors.
8. Antibiotics are being used in the food industry today to increase the shelf life of numerous food items, especially
perishable food items including milk. Although not directly added during food processing, nonvegetarian food may
contain a certain amount of antibiotics since antibiotics are frequently used in animal production. However, any antibiotic
used for human therapeutic purposes or for animal feed additive are banned for use in the food industry. Tetracycline is
a classic example. Maximum permissible amounts of such antibiotic residues have been declared and much emphasis is
given to regular monitoring of antibiotic residues in food. Moreover, the antibiotics used in the food industry show slower
activity than those used for therapeutic purposes.
Antibiotics frequently used in food manufacturing are stated below. List of antibiotics: Nisin, Natamycin, Subtilin,
Tylosin Phytoncides. Phytoncides are antibiotics obtained from plants. Examples include: mustard oil, thyme,
cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, etc. Antibiotics permitted as food additives are being experimented heavily, especially
to engineer more potent variants. Further, encapsulation has become a common technique to enhance the desirable
properties of antibiotics. For instance, coated liposomes encapsulating nisin has shown improved sustained release
properties beneficial for applications in the food sector.
9. Glazing agents and sweeteners Glazing agents may be either natural or synthetic. They are used mainly
for preservation of food items by forming a thin coat around it. A list of glazing agents frequently used in food industry is
stated below. List of glazing agents: Stearic acid, Beeswax, Candelilla wax, Carnauba wax, Shellac, Microcrystalline wax,
Crystalline wax, Lanolin, Oxidized polyethylene wax, Esters of colophonium, Paraffin.
The most commonly used sweetener used in the food industry is sucrose as it is readily available. Thus, the performance
of other sweeteners is frequently measured against that of sucrose. Glucose is also frequently used in the food industry,
especially in the manufacturing of confectionaries. However, substitutes for common sugars, natural or artificial, are
in high demand due to the prevalence of diabetes mellitus among a significant proportion of people worldwide. Other
requirements for sugar substitutes include weight loss, dental care, and reactive hypoglycemia. In addition, using sugar
substitutes is cost effective since the sugar substitutes are many times (sometimes more than 100 or even 1000 times)
sweeter than sucrose. A list of sweeteners frequently used in food manufacturing is stated below. List of sweeteners:
Sorbitol, Sorbitol syrup, Mannitol, Acesulfame K, Aspartame, Cyclamic acid and its Na and Ca salts, lsomalt, Saccharin
and its Na - K and Ca salts, Sucralose, Thaumatin, Neohesperidine DC, Steviol glycoside, Neotame (as a flavor enhancer),
Salt of aspartame-acesulfame, Maltitol, Maltitol syrup, Lactitol, Xylitol, Erythritol.
10. Additional chemicals The European Food Safety Authority has grouped some food additives as ‘additional
chemicals’ as those chemicals cannot be grouped together with other food additives. As indicated in Table 1, these
chemicals are numbered from E1000 to E1599. Even though these chemicals may function as other food additives, they
have different properties and thus treated differently. For instance, invertase having the number E1103 functions
as emulsifiers-stabilizers-thickeners-gelling agents but is in a special category.
A list of other chemicals frequently used in food manufacturing is stated below List of other chemicals: Polydextrose,
Polyvinylpyrrolidone, Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, Polyvinyl alcohol, Pullulan, Basic methacrylate copolymer, Oxidized
starch, Monostarch phosphate, Distarch phosphate, Phosphated distarch phosphate, Acetylated distarch phosphate,
Acetylated starch, Acetylated distarch adipate, Hydroxyl propyl starch, Hydroxy propyl distarch phosphate, Starch sodium
octenyl succinate, Acetylated oxidized starch, Starch aluminum Octenyl succinate, Triethyl citrate, Glyceryl triacetate;
triacetin, Propan-1-2-diol; propylene glycol, Polyethylene glycol.
11. Regulation Food additives are under strict control of numerous governing bodies. In the European Union,
the governing bodies are the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Commission, Parliament
and Council. These bodies are accountable for the safety assessment, which includes toxicological studies and dietary
exposure assessment, authorization which includes maintaining and publishing data bases of food additives permitted
to be used in the EU, and control which is involved in legislation and labeling of food additives. The U.S. Food and drug
administration (US FDA) is the main governing body of food additives in USA, and almost all other countries have their
own governing bodies of food safety. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation
(WHO) work together in the international arena via a Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Joint Expert
Committee on Food Additives from 1961 has taken initiative of matters regarding the acceptable daily intake (ADI) level.
“ADI is a measure of the amount of a specific substance (originally applied for a food additive, later also for a residue
of a veterinary drug or pesticide) in food or drinking water that can be ingested (orally) on a daily basis over a lifetime
without an appreciable health risk”. “ADIs are expressed usually in milligrams (of the substance) per kilogram of body
weight per day.” All of these food additives are used to fine tune the food items to yield a superb food product having
sensational attributes. In addition, the preservative effect that the food additives impart is of utmost importance. Further,
food safety governing bodies worldwide have set maximum levels to be used in the food industry for all approved food
additives. Thus, health risk is at a low level. However, it is advisable to change ones diet time to time so that the subject is
not exposed to the same food additives for lengthy periods of time. This practice also may not be essential if the customer
pays attention to the recommended daily intake of the ingredients.
12. Take home message “Innovation is change that unlocks new value” according to Jamie Notter. Adding food additives
to enhance the attributes of food is an ancient concept of value addition of food practiced from as early as the hunter-
gatherer era. In the modern era, the demand is greater than the supply, and innovation is the change that satisfies
the demand by all the sectors, such as the manufacturers, retailers, and customers. While using food additives to enhance
the attributes of food, it is of prime importance that guidelines by the relevant food safety authorities are followed since
synthetic and natural compounds with various health effects are widely used as additives. Deviations from food safety
regulations may result in serious negative outcomes. As a result, any party breaching rules and guidelines regarding food
additives will have to face serious consequences, including harsh court decisions against them. In sum, considering
the health effects and regulations regarding food additives are extremely significant although utilizing food additives have
enabled the beings to enjoy a plethora of various food products.
The history of food additives goes back to ancient times. As great civilisations developed, populations grew and so did the
demand for food. In ancient Egypt, where the climate was not conducive to food storage, especially due to the heat,
people started looking for ways to extend the usability life of products. Common practices included the addition of salt,
drying in the sun, curing/corning, meat and fish smoking, pickling, and burning sulphur during vegetable preservation.
The earliest preservatives included sulphur dioxide (E220), acetic acid (E260), and sodium nitrite (E250), while turmeric
(E100) and carmine (E120) were among the first colours. Food preservation was also of immense importance during
numerous armed conflicts. Both during the Napoleonic wars in Europe and during the American Civil War, seafarers and
soldiers needed food. Limited access to fresh food at the front motivated the armed forces to transport their food with
them. This is when cans were introduced for food preservation purposes. In the subsequent centuries, ammonium
bicarbonate (E503ii), also known as salt of hartshorn, used as a rising agent for baked goods, and sodium hydroxide
solution (E524), used in the production of salty sticks, rose to prominence.
The nineteenth century saw considerable advancements in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. A name that
needs to be mentioned here is Louis Pasteur, a French scientist, who studied microbiology, among other things. He was
the first to prove that microorganisms were responsible for food spoilage. At the same time, new chemical compounds
were discovered that were able to inhibit the growth of microbes. Some substances, such as picric acid, hydrofluoric acid,
and their salts, often had disastrous consequences when added to food. Insufficient knowledge of toxicology resulted in
consumer poisonings and even deaths. At that time, food preservation was the number one priority, which was achieved,
for instance, by using salicylic acid, formic acid (E236), benzoic acid (E210), boric acid (E284), propionic acid (E280),
sorbic acid (E200) and its potassium salt (E202), and esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Later, food concerns also focused
on improving the organoleptic properties of their products and started to enhance food with colours, flavours, and
sweeteners, without first researching their effects on human health. For example, such practices involved the use of
synthetic colours used in fabric dyeing. This desire to make money on beautiful-looking products led to adulterating food
with copper and iron salts, which have a negative impact on the human body. It was as late as in 1907 that the United
States studied 90 of the synthetic colours used at that time for food dyeing and found only 7 to be acceptable for further
use. Detailed studies and strict regulations on the use of food additives were created almost a century later.
Globally, food safety is ensured by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO). In 1962, these organisations established a special agenda—the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The
Commission has prepared and updated the Codex Alimentarius, which is not a legal Act per se, but provides a reference
for standards on raw materials and food products, acceptable contamination levels, hygienic processing, research methods,
and food additives for almost all countries worldwide. In the European Union, the body responsible for improving human
health protection and food safety risk mitigation, as well as for taking care of purchaser interests, is the European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA). It is a scientific agency established in 2002 pursuant to the Regulation of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002. European legislation is based on the Codex Alimentarius but conducts
its own complementary research. Therefore, the list of food additives permitted by the European Union is different from
the American one. The primary legal Act governing food in Poland is the Food and Nutrition Safety Act of 25 August
2006 (as amended). It specifies the requirements applicable to food and nutrition, concerning product labelling, hygienic
conditions throughout the production process, and product replacement rules, as well as requirements concerning the use
of food additives. The key document that pertains specifically to food additives is the Regulation of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives. The EU-approved list of food additives is
presented in the Commission Regulation (EU) of 11 November 2011.
A food additive (additional substance) is any substance that is not a food in itself or an ingredient in food, but when
added to a product for processing purposes, it becomes part of the food. The following are not considered to be food
additives: ingredients in food or chemicals to be used in other products, i.e. in particular sweeteners, such as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and oligosaccharides; substances with flavouring, dyeing, and sapid properties (such as
dried fruit); glazing and coating substances, which are not intended to be consumed; and chewing gum bases, dextrin,
modified starch, ammonium chloride, edible gelatine, milk protein and gluten, blood plasma, casein, and inulin. The law
forbids the use of food additives in unprocessed food, honey, non-emulsified oils and fats of an animal or vegetable
origin, butter, milk, fermented milk products (unflavoured, with living bacteria cultures), natural mineral and spring water,
unflavoured leaf tea, coffee, sugar, dry pasta, and unflavoured buttermilk. Any marketed additive must comply with the
requirements of the European Food Safety Authority, i.e. it has to be technologically justified. It must not put consumers’
life or health at risk; its use should not mislead the purchaser; its acceptable daily intake (ADI), or quantum satis, the
smallest amount which is needed to achieve a specific processing objective for the substance, must be calculable; and, last
but not least, such an additive must not adulterate the product it is to be added to. Producers are also required to include
information on any food additives on product labelling.
EU legislation has approved approximately 330 food additives for use. The primary objectives behind the use of additives
are to extend the shelf life and freshness of products, prevent product quality impairment, make the product more
attractive to customers, achieve the desired texture, ensure specific product functionality, facilitate production processes,
reduce production costs, and enrich the nutritional value of products. In order to harmonise, effectively identify any
additives, and ensure smooth exchange of goods, each food additive has its own, standardised, code. This code is
consistent with the International Numbering System (INS) and comprises the letter “E” and three or four digits. There are
several food additive classifications. One is based on the regulation and differentiates between colours (approx. 40),
sweeteners (approx. 16), and other additives (approx. 277).
Additional substances can also be categorised on the basis of code numbers:
1. Colours—E100–E199
2. Preservatives and acidity regulators—E200–E299
3. Antioxidants and synergists—E300–E399
4. Stabilising, thickening, emulsifying, coating, and bulking substances—E400–E499
5. Other substances—E500 and above
Food additives can also be divided into four major groups, based on their processing purpose. These are substances that
prevent food spoilage, those which improve sensory features, firming additives and excipients. The most numerous group
among additives that slow down food spoilage are preservatives. These are either natural or synthetic chemical
compounds added to food to restrict as much as possible the biological processes that take place in the product, e.g. the
development of microflora and pathogenic microbes, and the effects of enzymes that affect food freshness and quality. In
food products, preservatives change the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes or cell walls, damage the genetic system,
and deactivate some enzymes. Food is preserved using antiseptics or antibiotics. The former are synthetically produced
simple compounds that often have natural correlates, and they make up no more than 0.2% of the product. Antibiotics, or
substances produced by microorganisms, are used in very small, yet effective, doses. The effectiveness of preservatives
depends primarily on their effect on a specific type of microorganism, which is why it is vital to select the appropriate
preservative based on the microbes found in the product (bacteria, mould, or yeast). Other factors that determine the
effectiveness of preservatives include the pH value (a low pH is desirable), temperature, the addition of other substances,
and the chemical composition of the product. Preservatives constitute an alternative to physical and biological product
freshness stabilisation methods, such as drying, pickling, sterilising, freezing, cooling, and thickening. Consumer
objections concerning the widespread use of chemical preservatives and their effects on human health have motivated
producers to develop new food preservation procedures. These include radiation, packaging, and storing products in a
modified atmosphere, using aseptic technology. Products that are most commonly preserved include ready-made dishes
and sauces, meat and fish products, fizzy drinks, and ready-made deserts.
Other substances used as preservatives are acids and acidity regulators. These substances lower the pH level and slow
down the growth of enzymes, which hampers the development of microbes. They are used mainly in the production of
marinades. For a specific acid or acidity regulator to fulfil its role as a preservative, it needs to be added in highly
concentrated form, but acetic acid, for instance, can irritate mucous membranes when its concentration exceeds 3%. Acids
and acidity regulators are also used to enhance flavour (usually in fruit or vegetable products, or beverages, to bring out
their sour taste) or to facilitate gelatinisation and frothing during food processing.
Not only microorganisms but also oxygen is responsible for food spoilage. Products such as oils, fats, and dry goods
(flour, semolina) oxidise when they come into contact with atmospheric oxygen. Fat oxidisation (rancidification) occurs in
oils, lard, flour, and milk powder. The browning of fruit, vegetables, and meat, on the other hand, is the result of non-fat
substance oxidisation. These oxidisation processes can be slowed down or eliminated completely using antioxidants.
There are natural and synthetic antioxidants and synergists. Synthetic antioxidants are primarily esters (BHA, BHT,
propyl gallate). These are used to stabilise fats used to fry, e.g. crisps and chips. The most common natural antioxidants
are tocopherols, i.e. vitamin E. Other antioxidants include phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and phenolic acids.
Synthetic antioxidants are more potent and resistant to processing. Synergists are substances that support and extend the
functioning of antioxidants. They can form complexes with heavy metal ions, which retard the oxidisation process. The
most frequently used synergists are EDTA, citric acid, and ascorbic acid. Antioxidants do not pose a risk to human health.
In fact, they can be beneficial. Antioxidants prevent unfavourable interactions between free radicals and tissue and slow
down ageing processes and the development of some diseases.
In order to extend the freshness of consumer goods, products are also packaged in a modified atmosphere. As part of this
process, the oxygen content inside the packaging is reduced and replaced with other gases, such as nitrogen, argon,
helium, and hydrogen. Furthermore, products in the form of aerosol sprays, such as whipped cream, have nitrous oxide,
butane, or propane added to them. All these gases are also food additives with their own E codes.
The organoleptic properties of consumer goods are very important to consumers. Visual appeal is considered to be as
important as taste or smell. This is where food colours come into play. These are used to add colour to transparent
products (e.g. some beverages), intensify or bring out product colour (beverages, sweets), preserve or reproduce colours
that have faded as a result of processing, ensure that all product batches have a specific colour, and provide the products
that are diluted after purchase with strong colour. In order to add colour to a product, manufacturers use natural, nature-
identical, synthetic, and inorganic colours. Natural colours are produced from edible plant parts (fruits, flowers, roots,
leaves) and from animal raw materials, such as blood, chitinous exoskeletons of insects, and muscle tissue. New
technologies have also made it possible to obtain colours from algae, fungi, and mould. Natural colouring substances
include carotenoids that provide a spectrum of yellow and orange colours (carrot, citrus fruit skin), flavonoids that give
products blue and navy-blue colours (grapes, currants, chokeberry, elder), betalains that give products a red colour
(beetroot, capsicum), and chlorophyll that lends green colours (salad, parsley), as well as riboflavin (vitamin B2),
curcumin, and caramel. Natural colours are desirable for consumers, as they do not show any negative effects on health.
However, a significant drawback to using natural colours is that they are very sensitive to environmental factors, such as
pH, ambient temperature, oxygen content, or sun exposure, which is why they are not durable when it comes to processing
and storage. Moreover, the cost of obtaining such colouring substances is rather high. The list of additives contains 17
natural colours, and their market share in 2012 was approx. 31% and was subject to an upward trend.
Synthetic food colours are very competitive compared to natural ones. They offer a wide spectrum of colours, including
those that are not available in nature, provide strong colouring, and are resistant to environmental factors, so they do not
fade during processing. Furthermore, they are not expensive to produce, which contributes to low end-product prices.
Synthetic colours can be divided into organic and inorganic, with organic constituting the considerable majority in terms
of food colouring. In the past, chemical colours were made of coal, while now crude oil is used for this purpose. EU law
approves 15 synthetic colours, including the so-called Southampton colours. A study conducted in 2007 in the United
Kingdom (in Southampton, hence the name) showed the particularly negative effects of six colours on children’s health.
Specifically, tartrazine (E102), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), azorubine (E122), cochineal red (E124),
and Allura red AC (E129) were found to cause hyperactivity. As a result, since 2010, manufacturers which add at least
one of their products have been required to provide label information about their negative effects on concentration and
brain functioning in children. Acceptable daily doses of these colours have also been reassessed and updated. Moreover,
research conducted on lab animals has shown that the long-term use of synthetic colours, and especially the three that
account for 90% of the use of all synthetic colours (Allura red, tartrazine, and sunset yellow), can cause cancer, allergies,
and chromosome mutations. Products that are most often synthetically coloured include candy, wine gums, ready-made
desserts, and refreshing beverages.
During consumption, one can experience product taste, smell, and consistency. These three sensations are referred to as
palatability and are caused by flavours. Taste is experienced by taste buds located in the tongue. Adult individuals have
approximately 10,000 such receptors. There are four primary tastes, namely, salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. There is also an
additional type, referred to as umami, which is Japanese for “savoury, meaty”. This taste experience is provided by
monosodium glutamate. Smell is experienced through volatile compounds that go directly through the nasal or oral cavity
and throat to smell receptors. Taste and smell provide a ready source of information on whether the product is fresh,
whether it has specific characteristics, and whether it has been adulterated. Flavours are mixtures of many compounds, in
which the specific characteristic smell is produced by a single compound or several indispensable compounds. These are
added to enhance the taste or smell of the product or to give something the flavour or aroma that has been lost during
product processing. There are natural, nature-identical, and synthetic flavours. Natural flavours are obtained from parts of
fruits and vegetables, spices, and their flavouring compounds, such as lactones (found in fruits and nuts), terpenes (in
essential oils, found in almost every plant), and carbonyl compounds (fermented dairy products). Nature-identical flavours
are compounds originally found in a given raw material that can be recreated in the lab. Synthetic flavours are compounds
that have been chemically created and produced and do not have their equivalent in nature. Similarly to natural colours,
natural flavours are easily degraded during processing, and their extraction is costly, which is why the food industry
generally uses synthetic substances to provide products with specific taste and odour. Moreover, synthetic compounds are
capable of giving products much stronger flavours than natural ones.
A separate group that enhances the sensory properties of food are sweeteners. Formerly, in order to make products sweet,
manufacturers used sucrose, commonly known just as sugar, obtained from sugar beet or sugarcane. Now large-scale
methods are commonly used, such as chemical production and the extraction of intensively sweetening substances, known
as sweeteners, from specific plants. What is characteristic about such substances is that they are much more potent as
sweeteners compared to sucrose, and, at the same time, their calorific value is close to zero. Natural sweeteners include
glucose-fructose syrup (or syrup based on one of those sugars), thaumatin, neohesperidin DC, stevia, and xylitol.
Synthetic sweeteners include acesulfame K, aspartame (and the salts of these two compounds), sucralose, cyclamates,
saccharin, and neotame. Sweeteners are used in the production of beverages, juices, dairy products, spirits, sweets,
marmalade, and chewing gum. In contrast to sucrose, the majority of synthetic sweeteners do not increase blood sugar
level and do not cause tooth decay. These substances are attractive for producers because the cost of their production is
low, and even small amounts of such compounds are able to ensure the desired sweetness of the product, so these are
economical to use. In addition, most sweetener additives remain functional during processing, although some compounds
are not resistant to high temperatures. A study conducted in 2010 on lab animals raises some concerns when it comes to
sweetener safety in relation to human health. Its findings showed that regular consumption of sweeteners in large
quantities caused obesity and neoplasms in animals. Sweetener additives in consumer goods have been considered safe for
humans. Each such additive has a specific ADI value and amount (in milligrammes) that can be added to 1 kg (or 1 dm3)
of product.
The additives that are vital in terms of processing are firming additives. They create or stabilise the desirable product
structure and consistency. Firming agents include gelling, thickening, emulsifying, bulking, binding, and rising agents,
humectants, and modified starches. The highest status among these substances is enjoyed by
hydrocolloids. Hydrocolloids, known as gums, are polysaccharides of plant, animal, or microbiological origin. There are
natural (guar gum, agar, curdlan), chemically and physically modified (modified starches), and synthetic gums. With their
macromolecular structure, they are able to bind water, improve solution viscosity, and create gels and spongiform masses.
Hydrocolloids are used as gelling (e.g. in the production of jelly, desserts, pudding, and fruit-flavoured starch jelly),
thickening (ready-made sauces, vegetable products), water-binding (powdered products to be consumed with water,
frozen food), and emulsifying agents (to create oil-in-water-type emulsions). They also act as emulsion stabilisers.
Hydrocolloids are considered safe for human health, although some of them can cause allergies. Consumed in large
quantities, they can have laxative effects.
What is also important in creating product structure are emulsifiers and the emulsification method. Emulsifiers are
compounds which facilitate emulsification. There are water-in-oil (margarine) and oil-in-water (mayonnaise) type of
emulsions. Emulsifiers position themselves at the interface between two different phases to stabilise the emulsion. There
are natural emulgents, with lecithin as the most common, and synthetic emulgents (glycerol and its esters). Product
consistency and texture are also adjusted using modified starches. Such starches are usually obtained from potatoes or
corn (also genetically modified one) with chemically altered composition. Similarly to hydrocolloids, such substances can
bind water and produce gels and are also resistant to high temperatures. Modified starches are added to ready-made sauces
and dishes (such as frozen pizza), frozen goods, bread, and desserts (also powdered) to thicken and maintain product
consistency after thermal processing. In order to enhance starch properties, phosphates are often added during starch
modification. The human body needs phosphorus, but its excess can negatively affect the bones, kidneys, and the
circulatory system.
Nowadays, consumer goods are widely available, and consumers are provided with a broad range of products to choose
from. The continuously growing number of world population (approximately 7 billion in 2011) has made supply on the
food market exceed demand. This situation is characteristic of countries with a high GDP. Food producers examine
consumer behaviour patterns to see what encourages them to make a purchase, and also the purchase itself and its
consequences, and then analyse these processes to launch a new product or a substitute for an already existing one. To
sum up, the market has provided more food products than consumers are able to purchase, which results in unimaginable
food wastage. Each year, approximately 100 million tonnes of food goes to waste in Europe. This quantity does not
include agricultural and food waste or fish discards.
Here are 12 of the most common food additives, plus recommendations for which ones to keep out of your diet.
1. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) is a common food additive used to intensify and enhance the flavor of savory dishes.
It’s found in a variety of processed foods like frozen dinners, salty snacks and canned soups. It’s also often added to foods
at restaurants and fast food places. MSG has been a subject of heated controversy since a 1969 study of mice found that
large amounts caused harmful neurological effects and impaired growth and development. However, this additive is likely
to have little to no effect on human brain health as it’s unable to cross the blood-brain barrier. MSG consumption has also
been associated with weight gain and metabolic syndrome in some observational studies, although other research has
found no association. That being said, some people do have a sensitivity to MSG and may experience symptoms like
headaches, sweating and numbness after eating a large amount. In one study, 61 people who reported being MSG-
sensitive were given either 5 grams of MSG or a placebo. Interestingly, 36% experienced an adverse reaction to MSG
while only 25% reported a reaction to the placebo, so MSG sensitivity may be a legitimate concern for some people. If
you experience any negative side effects after consuming MSG, it’s best to keep it out of your diet. Otherwise, if you’re
able to tolerate MSG, it can be safely consumed in moderation without the risk of adverse side effects. MSG is used to
enhance the flavor of many processed foods. Some people may have a sensitivity to MSG, but it’s safe for most people
when used in moderation.
2. Artificial Food Coloring is used to brighten and improve the appearance of everything from candies to condiments. In
recent years, though, there have been many concerns about potential health effects. Specific food dyes like Blue 1, Red
40, Yellow 5 and Yellow 6 have been associated with allergic reactions in some people,. Additionally, one review
reported that artificial food coloring may promote hyperactivity in children, although another study showed that some
children may be more sensitive than others. Concerns have also been raised about the potential cancer-causing effects of
certain food dyes. Red 3, also known as erythrosine, has been shown to increase the risk of thyroid tumors in some animal
studies, causing it to be replaced by Red 40 in most foods. However, multiple animal studies have found that other food
dyes are not associated with any cancer-causing effects. Still, more research is needed to evaluate the safety and potential
health effects of artificial food coloring for humans. Regardless, food dyes are found primarily in processed foods, which
should be limited in a healthy diet. Always opt for whole foods, which are higher in important nutrients and naturally free
of artificial food coloring. Artificial food coloring may promote hyperactivity in sensitive children and can cause allergic
reactions. Red 3 has also been shown to increase the risk of thyroid tumors in animal studies.
3. Sodium Nitrite Frequently found in processed meats, sodium nitrite acts as a preservative to prevent the growth of
bacteria while also adding a salty flavor and reddish-pink color. When exposed to high heat and in the presence of amino
acids, nitrites can turn into nitrosamine, a compound that can have many negative effects on health. One review showed
that a higher intake of nitrites and nitrosamine was associated with a higher risk of stomach cancer. Many other studies
have found a similar association, reporting that a higher intake of processed meats may be linked to a higher risk of
colorectal, breast and bladder cancer. Other studies suggest that nitrosamine exposure may also be linked to a higher
incidence of type 1 diabetes, although findings are inconsistent. Still, it’s best to keep your intake of sodium nitrite
and processed meats to a minimum. Try swapping out processed meats like bacon, sausage, hot dogs and ham for
unprocessed meat and healthy sources of protein. Chicken, beef, fish, pork, legumes, nuts, eggs and tempeh are just a few
delicious high-protein foods that you can add to your diet in place of processed meats. Sodium nitrite is a common
ingredient in processed meats that can be converted into a harmful compound called nitrosamine. A higher intake of
nitrites and processed meats may be linked to a higher risk of several types of cancer.
4. Guar Gum is a long-chain carbohydrate used to thicken and bind foods. It’s widely used in the food industry and can
be found in ice cream, salad dressings, sauces and soups. Guar gum is high in fiber and has been associated with a
multitude of health benefits. For example, one study showed that it reduced symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome such
as bloating and constipation.A review of three studies also found that people who took guar gum along with a meal had
increased feelings of fullness and ate fewer calories from snacking throughout the day. Other research suggests that guar
gum may also help lower levels of blood sugar and cholesterol. However, high amounts of guar gum may have adverse
effects on health. This is because it can swell 10 to 20 times its size, potentially causing issues like obstruction of the
esophagus or small intestine. Guar gum may also cause mild symptoms like gas, bloating or cramps in some people.
Nevertheless, guar gum is generally considered safe in moderation. Additionally, the FDA has set strict guidelines on how
much guar gum can be added to foods to minimize the risk of negative side effects. Guar gum is a long-chain
carbohydrate used to thicken and bind foods. It has been associated with better digestive health, lower levels of blood
sugar and cholesterol, as well as increased feelings of fullness.
5. High-Fructose Corn Syrup: High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn. It’s frequently found in soda,
juice, candy, breakfast cereals and snack foods. It’s rich in a type of simple sugar called fructose, which can cause serious
health issues when consumed in high amounts. In particular, high-fructose corn syrup has been linked to weight gain and
diabetes. In one study, 32 people consumed a drink sweetened with either glucose or fructose for 10 weeks. By the end of
the study, the fructose-sweetened beverage caused significant increases in belly fat and blood sugar levels, plus decreased
insulin sensitivity compared to the glucose-sweetened beverage. Test-tube and animal studies have also found that
fructose can trigger inflammation in the cells. Inflammation is believed to play a central role in many chronic conditions,
including heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Additionally, high-fructose corn syrup contributes empty calories and added
sugar to foods without any of the important vitamins and minerals that your body needs. It’s best to skip sugary snacks
and foods that contain high-fructose corn syrup. Instead, go for whole, unprocessed foods without added sugar,
and sweeten them up with Stevia, yacon syrup or fresh fruit. High-fructose corn syrup is associated with weight gain,
diabetes and inflammation. It’s also high in empty calories and contributes nothing but calories to your diet.
6. Artificial Sweeteners are used in many diet foods and beverages to enhance sweetness while reducing calorie content.
Common types of artificial sweeteners include aspartame, sucralose, saccharin and acesulfame potassium. Studies show
that artificial sweeteners can aid in weight loss and help manage blood sugar levels. One study found that people who
consumed a supplement containing artificial sweeteners for 10 weeks had a lower intake of calories and gained less body
fat and weight than those consuming regular sugar. Another study showed that consuming sucralose for three months had
no effect on blood sugar control in 128 people with diabetes. Note that certain types of artificial sweeteners like aspartame
may cause headaches in some people, and studies show that certain individuals may be more sensitive to its effects. Still,
artificial sweeteners are generally considered safe for most people when consumed in moderation. However, if you
experience any negative side effects after using artificial sweeteners, check ingredients labels carefully and limit your
intake. Artificial sweeteners may help promote weight loss and blood sugar control. Certain types may cause mild side
effects like headaches, but they are generally considered safe in moderation.
7. Carrageenan Derived from red seaweed, carrageenan acts as a thickener, emulsifier and preservative in many different
food products. Common sources of carrageenan include almond milk, cottage cheese, ice cream, coffee creamers and
dairy-free products like vegan cheese. For decades, there have been concerns about the safety of this common food
additive and its potential effects on health. One animal study showed that exposure to carrageenan increased levels of
fasting blood sugar and glucose intolerance, especially when combined with a high-fat diet. Test-tube and animal studies
have found that carrageenan triggered inflammation, as well. Carrageenan is also believed to negatively impact digestive
health, and may be associated with the formation of intestinal ulcers and growths. One small study found that when people
in remission from ulcerative colitis took a supplement containing carrageenan, they experienced an earlier relapse than
those who took a placebo. Unfortunately, current research on the effects of carrageenan is still very limited and more
studies are needed to understand how it may affect people. If you do decide to limit your intake of carrageenan, there are
plenty of resources online that can help you find brands and products that are carrageenan-free. Test-tube and animal
studies have found that carrageenan may cause high blood sugar and could cause intestinal ulcers and growths. One study
also found that carrageenan contributed to an earlier relapse of ulcerative colitis.
8. Sodium Benzoate is a preservative often added to carbonated drinks and acidic foods like salad dressings, pickles, fruit
juices and condiments. It has been generally recognized as safe by the FDA, but several studies have uncovered potential
side effects that should be considered. For example, one study found that combining sodium benzoate with artificial food
coloring increased hyperactivity in 3-year-old children. Another study showed that a higher intake of beverages
containing sodium benzoate was associated with more symptoms of ADHD in 475 college students. When combined with
vitamin C, sodium benzoate can also be converted into a benzene, a compound that may be associated with cancer
development. Carbonated beverages contain the highest concentration of benzene, and diet or sugar-free beverages are
even more prone to benzene formation. One study analyzing the concentration of benzene in a variety of foods found cola
and cole slaw samples with over 100 ppb of benzene, which is over 20 times the maximum contaminant level set by the
EPA for drinking water. To minimize your intake of sodium benzoate, check the labels of your food carefully. Avoid
foods that contain ingredients like benzoic acid, benzene or benzoate, especially if combined with a source of vitamin C
such as citric acid or ascorbic acid. Sodium benzoate may be associated with increased hyperactivity. If combined with
vitamin C, it may also form benzene, a compound that may be associated with cancer development.
9. Trans Fat are a type of unsaturated fat that have undergone hydrogenation, which increases shelf life and improves the
consistency of products. It can be found in many types of processed foods like baked goods, margarine, microwave
popcorn and biscuits. A number of potential health risks have been associated with trans fat intake, and the FDA even
recently decided to revoke their GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status. In particular, multiple studies have linked a
higher intake of trans fats to a higher risk of heart disease. One study found that eating foods high in trans fats increased
several markers of inflammation, which is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. Research also shows there may
be a connection between trans fats and diabetes. A large study with 84,941 women even showed that a high intake of trans
fat was associated with a 40% higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Cutting processed foods out of your diet is the
easiest and most effective way to decrease your trans fat intake. You can also make a few simple switches in your diet,
like using butter instead of margarine and swapping out vegetable oils for olive oil or coconut oil instead. Eating trans fats
has been associated with many negative effects on health, including inflammation, heart disease and diabetes.
10. Xanthan Gum Xanthan gum is a common additive that’s used to thicken and stabilize many types of food such as
salad dressings, soups, syrups and sauces. It’s also sometimes used in gluten-free recipes to help improve the texture of
foods. Xanthan gum has been associated with several health benefits. One study found that consuming rice with added
xanthan gum resulted in lower levels of blood sugar than consuming rice without it. Another study also found that eating
xanthan gum for six weeks reduced levels of blood sugar and cholesterol, plus increased feelings of fullness. However,
recent research on the potential benefits of xanthan gum is still limited. Furthermore, consuming large amounts of xanthan
gum may also be linked to digestive problems, such as increased stool output, gas and soft stools. For most people,
though, xanthan gum is generally safe and well tolerated. If you do experience negative symptoms after eating xanthan
gum, it’s best to reduce your intake or consider eliminating it from your diet. Xanthan gum may help reduce levels of
blood sugar and cholesterol. In large amounts, it may cause digestive issues like gas and soft stools.
11. Artificial Flavoring Artificial flavors are chemicals designed to mimic the taste of other ingredients. They can be
used to imitate a variety of different flavors, from popcorn and caramel to fruit and beyond. Animal studies have found
that these synthetic flavors could have some concerning effects on health. One study found that the red blood cell
production in rats was significantly reduced after they were fed artificial flavorings for seven days. Not only that, certain
flavors like chocolate, biscuit and strawberry were also found to have a toxic effect on their bone marrow cells. Similarly,
another animal study showed that grape, plum and orange synthetic flavorings inhibited cell division and were toxic to
bone marrow cells in mice. However, keep in mind that these studies used a much more concentrated dose than you might
find in food, and further research is needed to determine how artificial flavoring in the amounts found in foods may affect
humans. In the meantime, if you want to limit your intake of artificial flavoring, check the ingredients label of your foods.
Look for “chocolate” or “cocoa” on the ingredients label rather than “chocolate flavoring” or “artificial flavoring.” Some
animal studies have found that artificial flavoring may be toxic to bone marrow cells. More research is needed to evaluate
the effects in humans.
12. Yeast Extract also called autolyzed yeast extract or hydrolyzed yeast extract, is added to certain savory foods like
cheese, soy sauce and salty snacks to boost the flavor. It’s made by combining sugar and yeast in a warm environment,
then spinning it in a centrifuge and discarding the cell walls of the yeast. Yeast extract contains glutamate, which is a type
of naturally occurring amino acid found in many foods. Much like monosodium glutamate (MSG), eating foods with
glutamate may cause mild symptoms like headaches, numbness and swelling in people who are sensitive to its effects.
Additionally, yeast extract is relatively high in sodium, with about 400 milligrams in each teaspoon (8 grams). Reducing
sodium intake has been shown to help decrease blood pressure, especially in people who have high blood pressure.
However, most foods only contain a small amount of added yeast extract, so the glutamate and sodium in yeast extract are
unlikely to cause much of a problem for most people. As of 2017, yeast extract is still recognized as safe by the Food and
Drug Administration. If you do experience negative effects, consider limiting your intake of processed foods with yeast
extract and adding more fresh, whole foods to your diet. Yeast extract is high in sodium and contains glutamate, which
may trigger symptoms in some people. Yet because only small amounts of yeast extract are added to foods, it’s unlikely to
cause problems for most people.
The Bottom Line While certain food additives have been linked to some pretty scary side effects, there are plenty of
others that can be safely consumed as part of a healthy diet. Start reading the ingredient labels when grocery shopping to
take control of your diet and determine what’s really being added to your favorite foods. Additionally, try cutting back on
processed and packaged foods and incorporating more fresh ingredients into your diet to minimize your intake of food
additives.
Food additives are chemicals added to foods to keep them fresh or to enhance their colour, flavour or texture. They may
include food colourings (such as tartrazine or cochineal), flavour enhancers (such as MSG) or a range of preservatives.
Most food additives are listed on the product label, along with other ingredients, in a descending order by weight (flavours
are an exception and do not need to be identified). Sometimes, the additive is spelt out in full. At other times, it is
represented by a code number: for example, cochineal may be listed as Colouring (120); sodium sulphite may be shown as
Preservative (221).
Safety tests for food additives
Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) is responsible for the approval of which food additives are allowed
in Australian foods. All food additives used in Australia undergo a safety assessment, which includes rigorous testing,
before they are approved. Toxicological tests on animals are used to determine the amount of the additive that is expected
to be safe when consumed by humans. This is usually an amount 100 times less than the maximum daily dose at which
‘no observable effects’ are produced by an additive consumed over the test animal’s lifetime. If there is any doubt over the
safety of an additive, approval is not given. If new scientific information becomes available suggesting that a food
additive is no longer safe, the approval to use the food additive would be withdrawn. Most food additives are tested in
isolation, rather than in combination with other additives. The long-term effects of consuming a combination of different
additives are currently unknown.
Effects of food additives Some people are sensitive to particular food additives and may have reactions like hives or
diarrhoea. This doesn’t mean that all foods containing additives need to be automatically treated with suspicion. All foods
are made up of chemicals and food additives are not always ‘less safe’ than naturally occuring chemicals. Many of the
food additives used by the food industry also occur naturally within foods that people eat every day. For example, MSG is
found naturally in parmesan cheese, sardines and tomato in significantly greater quantities than the MSG present as a food
additive. People with food allergies and intolerances are also often sensitive to chemicals found naturally in certain foods,
such as nuts or shellfish. Many people view food additives as a major food threat. However, in terms of health risk, food
additives would come in at the end of the line, after food-borne microorganisms (like salmonella), inappropriate hygiene
and eating habits, environmental contaminants and naturally occurring toxins.
Types of food additives The different types of food additive and their uses include:
 Anti-caking agents – stop ingredients from becoming lumpy.
 Antioxidants – prevent foods from oxidising, or going rancid.
 Artificial sweeteners – increase the sweetness.
 Emulsifiers – stop fats from clotting together.
 Food acids – maintain the right acid level.
 Colours – enhance or add colour.
 Humectants – keep foods moist.
 Flavours – add flavour.
 Flavour enhancers – increase the power of a flavour.
 Foaming agents – maintain uniform aeration of gases in foods.
 Mineral salts – enhance texture and flavour.
 Preservatives – stop microbes from multiplying and spoiling the food.
 Thickeners and vegetable gums – enhance texture and consistency.
 Stabilisers and firming agents – maintain even food dispersion.
 Flour treatment – improves baking quality.
 Glazing agent – improves appearance and can protect food.
  Gelling agents – alter the texture of foods through gel formation.
 Propellants – help propel food from a container.
 Raising agents – increase the volume of food through the use of gases.
 Bulking agents – increase the volume of food without major changes to its available energy.
Food additives and processed foods There is a common misconception that processed foods automatically contain food
additives. Foods like long-life milk, canned foods and frozen foods are all processed, yet none of them need extra
chemicals. If you are unsure whether or not a product contains an additive, check the label. However, some listed
ingredients may contain food additives without mentioning them on the label. For instance, ‘margarine’ might be a listed
ingredient and margarine contains food additives.
Some food additives can cause reactions For most people, additives are not a problem in the short term. However, 50 of
the 400 currently approved additives in Australia have been associated with adverse reactions in some people. Some food
additives are more likely than others to cause reactions in sensitive people. It is often the additives that are used to give a
food a marketable quality, such as colour, that most commonly cause allergic reactions. Some of these hypersensitive
reactions include:
 Digestive disorders – diarrhoea and colicky pains
 Nervous disorders – hyperactivity, insomnia and irritability
 Respiratory problems – asthma, rhinitis and sinusitis
 Skin problems – hives, itching, rashes and swelling.
It is important to realise that many of the symptoms experienced as a result of food sensitivities can be caused by other
disorders. Medical diagnosis is important. If you try to diagnose yourself, you may restrict your diet unnecessarily and
neglect an illness.
Some common food additives that may cause problems Some food additives that may cause problems for some people
include: Flavour enhancers – monosodium glutamate (MSG) 621, Food colourings – tartrazine 102; yellow 2G107;
sunset yellow FCF110; cochineal 120, Preservatives – benzoates 210, 211, 212, 213; nitrates 249, 250, 251, 252;
sulphites 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 and 228,Artificial sweetener – aspartame 951.
Diagnosing food additive sensitivity If you think you may have a food additive sensitivity, it’s important to seek
professional help since all of the symptoms you may be experiencing can also be caused by other disorders. It may help to
keep a food diary and note carefully any adverse reactions. In the case of a sensitivity being identified, the usual practice
is to eliminate all suspect foods from the diet and then reintroduce them one by one to see which additive (or additives)
causes the reaction. This should only be done under medical supervision, since some of the reactions – such as asthma –
can be serious.
The use of food additives is an emotional topic which continues to provoke consumer concern. Despite modern-day
associations food additives have been used for centuries. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard
food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and
flavourings, and the Romans used saltpetre (potassium nitrate), spices and colours for preservation and to improve the
appearance of foods. Cooks regularly used baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies, and
colours, such as cochineal, to transform good-quality raw materials into foods that were safe, wholesome and enjoyable to
eat. The overall aims of traditional home cooking remain the same as those prepared and preserved by today's food
manufacturing methods.
Over the last 50 years, developments in food science and technology have led to the discovery of many new substances
that can fulfil numerous functions in foods. These food additives are now readily available and include; emulsifiers in
margarine, sweeteners in low-calorie products and a wider range of preservatives and antioxidants which slow product
spoilage and rancidity whilst maintaining taste.
2. What are food additives and why are they necessary? A food additive is defined as "any substance not normally
consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food whether or not it has nutritive
value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packaging, transport or storage of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, in it or its by-
products becoming directly or indirectly a component of such foods" (Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008). Many food
additives are naturally occurring and some are even essential nutrients; it is the technical purpose that leads to these being
classified as food additives and given an E number. Food additives play an important role in today's complex food supply.
Never before has the range and choice of foods been so wide either in supermarkets, specialist food shops or when eating
out. Whilst a shrinking proportion of the population is engaged in primary food production, consumers are demanding
more variety, choice and convenience alongside higher standards of safety and wholesomeness at affordable prices.
Meeting these consumer expectations can only be achieved using modern food processing technologies which include the
use of a variety of food additives proven effective and safe through long use and rigorous testing. Additives carry out a
variety of useful functions which we often take for granted. Foods are subjected to many environmental conditions, such
as temperature changes, oxidation and exposure to microbes, which can change their original composition. Food additives
play a key role in maintaining the food qualities and characteristics that consumers demand, keeping food safe,
wholesome and appealing from farm to fork. Food additives are very carefully regulated and the general criteria for their
use is that they perform a useful purpose, are safe and do not mislead the consumer.
3. How is the safety of food additives evaluated in Europe? All food additives must have a demonstrated useful purpose
and undergo a rigorous scientific safety evaluation before they can be approved for use. Until the creation of the European
Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the safety evaluation of additives in Europe was done by the Scientific Committee on
Food (SCF). At present, it is the EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources Added to Food (ANS Panel), who
is in charge of this task. At an international level there is a Joint Expert Committee, from the Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO), on Food Additives (JECFA). Assessments are based on
reviews of all available toxicological data in both humans and animal models. From the available data, the maximum level
of additive that has no demonstrable toxic effect is determined. This is called the "no-observed-adverse-effect level"
(NOAEL) and is used to determine the "Acceptable Daily Intake" (ADI) for each food additive. The ADI provides a large
safety margin and is the amount of a food additive that can be consumed daily over a lifetime without any adverse effect
on health. The SCF before and now the European Food Safety Authority, encourage the lowest possible levels of an
additive in a food. To ensure people do not exceed the ADI by consuming too much of, or too many products containing a
particular additive, EU legislation requires that studies are done to look at the ranges of intakes across a population and to
address any changes in consumption patterns. Occasional intakes over the ADI are unlikely to cause any harm because of
the 100-fold safety margin. However, if the ADI might be exceeded by particular sectors of the population, the
Commission would assess the need to review levels in foods or reduce the range of foods in which the additive is
permitted. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, a joint FAO/WHO activity which develops guidelines for food safety
globally, maintains the "General Standards for Food Additives" (GSFA) database, with the aim of establishing a
harmonised, workable and indisputable international standard for world trade. Only those additives that have been
evaluated by the JECFA are included. Thanks to strict regulation and thorough testing, food additives can be considered
safe components in our diet that are contributing to the rapid evolution of the food supply in Europe and throughout the
world.
4. How are food additives regulated in Europe? A true single market for food products could not exist without harmonised
rules for authorisation and conditions for the use of additives. In 2008, the EU Regulation (EC) 1333/2008 on food
additives which sets out the criteria by which additives are assessed, authorised and listed as approved. This regulation
harmonized the European legislation of all food additives, including sweeteners and colours which were previously
covered by separate pieces of legislation, and lays out the procedures for authorization, conditions of use and rules for
labelling. The list of authorised food additives and their specific conditions of use can be consulted in a database on the
European Commission website. Only authorized additives can be used in the EU with the foods in which they can be used
and any maximum levels being described in the list. The purity required for these additives is laid down in a separate
regulation defining specific purity criteria All food additives authorized for use in the EU before 20 Janunary 2009 must
undergo a re-evaluation and risk assessment based on the latest available scientific information by EFSA.
5. What are the rules on labelling on food additives in the EU? In the EU, food additives must be identified as ingredients
of the foods in which they are used. The name or E number of the additive (e.g. citric acid or E 330) must be listed on the
labels of food products as well as information about the function that the additive performs in the food (i.e. why it is used:
e.g. preservative). Some common additives include: colours, preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilisers,
thickeners, and sweeteners. These are each discussed in more detail below.
6. What is an E-number? An E-number signifies approval of an additive by the EU. To obtain an E-number, the additive
must have been fully evaluated for safety by the SCF or the European Food Safety Authority. The E-number system also
serves as a simple and convenient way to label permitted additives across the range of languages in the European Union.
7. Do food additives cause hyperactivity? In the 1970s, some researchers suggested that changes in diet had coincided
with a rise in the number of children with behaviour problems. The idea that food additives, and food colours in particular,
could be linked to hyperactivity generated much interest and considerable controversy. In 2007, a study by researchers at
the University of Southampton linked increased levels of hyperactivity in young children with consuming mixtures of
some artificial food colours and the preservative sodium benzoate. The results of the Southampton study show that when
the children were given the drinks containing the test mixtures, in some cases their behaviour was significantly more
hyperactive. In 2008, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluated the study against the background of previous
studies, going back to the 1970s, on the effect of food additives on behaviour and acknowledged that it was the largest
study carried out on a suggested link between food additives and hyperactivity in the general population. The scientific
assessment panel was assisted by experts from the fields of behaviour, child psychiatry, allergy and statistics. The panel
noted that the majority of the previous studies used children described as hyperactive and these were therefore not
representative of the general population. The EFSA concluded that there was limited evidence that the mixtures of
additives tested had an effect on the activity and attention of some children. Although the findings from the study could be
relevant for specific individuals showing sensitivity to food additives in general or to food colours in particular, it was
found not to be possible at present to assess how widespread such sensitivity may be in the general population. Professor
of Psychology, Jim Stevenson, who led the research noted 'However parents should not think that simply taking these
additives out of food will prevent all hyperactive disorders. We know that many other influences are at work but this at
least is one a child can avoid.'
8. Can food additives cause allergies or food intolerance reactions? There has been much public concern that additives
cause adverse reactions although careful investigations show that this is often based on misconception rather than on
identifiable adverse reactions. Food additives have only rarely been shown to cause true allergic (immunological)
reactions. Among the food additives reported to cause adverse reactions are:
Colours Reactions to tartrazine (E 102, a yellow food colour) and carmine (E 120 or red cochinille) have been reported
occasionally in sensitive individuals. Symptoms include skin rashes nasal congestion and hives, although the incidence is
very low (estimated to be 1-2 persons per 10,000) and very rare. IgE-mediated allergic reactions have been reported for
carmine. Tartrazine has also been reported to cause asthma in sensitive individuals although the incidence is extremely
low.
Sulphites One group of additives that can cause problems in sensitive individuals is the sulfiting agents. This group
includes several inorganic sulphite additives (E 220-228), including sodium sulphite, potassium bisulphite and
metabisulphite containing sulphur dioxide (SO2). These preservatives are used to control microbial growth in fermented
beverages and they have been widely used in wines, beers and fruit products for over 2000 years. In sensitive (asthmatic)
individuals, sulphites may trigger asthma characterised by breathing difficulties, shortness of breath, wheezing and
coughing.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and aspartame MSG is made up of sodium and glutamic acid. Glutamic acid is an amino
acid found naturally in high protein foods such as meats and dairy products like Camembert cheese. MSG is also a flavour
enhancer used in prepared meals, some Chinese food, certain sauces and soups. MSG has been "blamed" for a variety of
side effects including headaches and body tingling, however scientific studies show no link between MSG and these
reactions suggesting that some other component of the meal, or even psychological responses, may be responsible for any
adverse effects.
Similarly, the high-intensity sweetener aspartame (another substance made from naturally occurring amino acids, aspartic
acid and phenylalanine) has been blamed for a wide variety of adverse effects, none of which have been validated by
scientific studies.
While food additives pose no problems for most people, a small number of people with specific allergies may be sensitive
to certain food additives. It appears that where food additives have an adverse effect, they exacerbate a pre-existing
condition rather than induce it. These adverse reactions, which are rarely allergic, and the foods or food components
responsible, should be validated by a health professional or dietician to ensure that unnecessary dietary restrictions are not
imposed. As all food additives are clearly labelled, those with specific sensitivities and those who believe they have
sensitivity to a food additive, can readily avoid any that may pose problems.
9. What food additives are used in Europe? Food additives that are commonly added to foods in Europe include:
9.1 Additives that maintain freshness and prevent deterioration: Some food additives help to keep foods fresh and safe.
They help increase shelf-life by protecting foods against deterioration caused by oxidation or by micro-organisms. They
can be divided into two categories based on their principal function.
9.1.1. Antioxidants: prevent the oxidation of foods that results rancidity or discoloration. They are used in baked foods,
cereals, fats, oils and salad dressings. The major fat soluble antioxidants are:
 Tocopherols (E 306-309), BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole or E 320) and BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene or E
321) - these protect edible fats, vegetable oils and salad dressings from turning rancid.
 Ascorbic acid (E 300) and citric acid (E 330) - which preserve the colour of freshly cut fruits and vegetables.
9.1.2. Preservatives limit, retard or arrest the growth of micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria, yeast, mould) that are present in or
gain entry to the food, preventing spoilage or food poisoning. They are used in baked foods, wine, cheese, cured meats,
fruit juices and margarine among others. Examples include:
 Sulphur dioxide and sulphites (E 220-228) - these help to prevent colour changes in dried fruits and vegetables.
Sulphites also inhibit the growth of bacteria in wine and fermented foods, some snack foods and baked goods.
Sulphites also have antioxidant properties.
 Calcium propionate (E 282) - prevents bread and baked foods from turning mouldy.
 Nitrates and nitrites (sodium and potassium salts) (E 249-252) - are used as a preservative in processed meats
such as ham and frankfurters to keep the products safe by preventing the growth of botulinum bacteria,
Clostridium botulinum, which is highly pathogenic.
9.2 Additives that amplify or promote sensory qualities: Additives are also useful for imparting certain characteristics to
foods, improving texture or helping in food processing.
9.2.1. Taste and texture modifiers: Examples are:
 Emulsifiers and stabilisers - The purpose of these food additives is to maintain consistent texture and to prevent
the separation of ingredients in such products as margarine, low-fat spreads, ice cream, salad dressings and
mayonnaise. Many reduced-fat and low-fat versions of common foods are dependent on this technology. Any
recipe that requires the mixing of ingredients that normally do not mix, such as fat and water, need emulsifiers
and stabilisers to impart and maintain the desired consistency. Examples include lecithin, mono- and digycerides.
 Thickeners - these substances help increase the viscosity of foodstuffs. They are added to foods such as salad
dressings and flavoured milk. Gelatin or pectin are often used as thickening agents.
 Sweeteners - Both "bulk" and "intense" sweeteners impart a sweet taste to foodstuffs and are useful in low-calorie
products and for special dietary products, such as those for diabetics. Intense sweeteners, such as acesulfam K (E
950), aspartame (E 951) and saccharin (E 954) are 130-200 times, 200 times and 300-500 times sweeter,
respectively, than sugar-and they have zero calories. Thaumatin (E 957), a naturally sweet protein extracted from
the fruit of the plant Thaumatococcus danielli, is 2500 times sweeter than sugar and is used at very low levels for
its flavouring properties. Bulk sweeteners include sorbitol (E 420), isomalt (E 953) and maltitol (E 965) and these
can be incorporated into "table-top" sweeteners and in energy-reduced foods, in which they provide volume and
mouth feel. These substances have reduced caloric value, providing 2.4 kcal/gram ompared with 4 kcal/gram for
other carbohydrates.
  Flavour enhancers - Probably the best known is monosodium glutamate (MSG; E 621), which is used to bring out
and enhance the flavours in the foods to which it is added. It is used mainly in savoury products and in a wide
variety of oriental dishes.
 Others - this group includes acids, acidity regulators (used to control acidity and alkalinity in various types of
food products), anti-caking agents (used to keep powders flowing freely), anti-foaming agents (reduce foams, e.g.
when jams are boiled), and packaging gases (used in certain types of sealed packages, such as for meat, fish,
seafood and ready-prepared vegetables and salads found in chill cabinets).
9.2.2. Colours: is one of the first and most important sensory qualities and it helps us to accept or reject particular foods.
Whilst adding colour may appear to some to be purely cosmetic, there is no doubt that colour is important in consumer
perception of a food and it is often associated with a specific flavour and intensity of flavour. Colours are used to add or
restore colour in a food in order to enhance its visual appeal and to match consumer expectations. The processing of peas
and the preparation of jams can lead to loss of colour, and hence food colours can compensate for these losses. Some
colours are used purely for visual decoration on cakes and confectionery items. Masking or disguising inferior quality,
however, are unacceptable uses of colours
The primary reasons for adding colours to foods include:
 To offset colour loss due to exposure to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture and storage conditions
 To compensate for natural or seasonal variations in food raw materials or the effects of processing and storage to
meet consumer expectations (Masking or disguising inferior quality, however, are unacceptable uses of colours.).
 To enhance colours that occur naturally but at levels weaker than those usually associated with a given food.
Annex 1: Questions and Answers about Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs)
1. What is an ADI? The Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is defined as an estimate of the amount of a food additive,
expressed on a bodyweight basis that can be ingested on a daily basis over a lifetime without appreciable risk to health.
"Without appreciable risk" means based on the current knowledge, certainty that no harm will result, even after a lifetime
of exposure to the chemical additive concerned. The ADI is usually given as a range of 0-x milligrams per kilogram of
bodyweight per day.
2. What is the purpose of an ADI? ADIs serve to protect the health of consumers and to make international trade in food
easier. The ADI is a practical approach to determining the safety of food additives and is a means of achieving some
harmonisation of regulatory control. The advantage of regulatory and advisory bodies setting ADIs for food additives is
that they are universally applicable in different countries and to all sectors of the population.
3. Who determines the ADI? Basically, expert scientific committees advise national and international regulatory
authorities. The safety assessments of food additives have developed along similar lines in individual Member States in
the European Union and in the wider international community. The main international body that addresses the safety of
food additives is the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) of the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The setting of international standards has become
increasingly important in recent years as the World Trade Organisation arrangements specify that Joint FAO/WHO and
Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) standards will apply to the safety and composition of foods worldwide. A
standard called the General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) has been established by Codex, with the aim of
developing a harmonised, workable and indisputable international standard for world trade. Only those additives that have
been evaluated by the JECFA and found to meet the necessary standards of use in foods are included.
At EU level, additives approved for use in current legislation are listed in Annex 1 of the EU regulation on food additives
(EC 1333/2008) after agreement by each of the Member States. All those additives have all been evaluated by the former
Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) and since the creation of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) by the EFSA
Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources Added to Food (ANS) (post 2008) or the EFSA Panel on Food Additives,
Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC Panel) (pre-2008). These expert advisory groups
usually set an ADI, or in the absence of an ADI, may stipulate other limitations on use. Only additives evaluated by the
SCF and/or EFSA are given an E-number, as an indication of European safety approval. The concept of ADI and the
JECFA safety evaluations have been widely adopted by EFSA, the US Food and Drug Administration and other
authorities worldwide.
4. How is the ADI determined? The general criteria for the use of food additives set out in the EU regulation stipulate that
additives can be approved only if they present no hazard to human health at the level of use proposed based on the
scientific evidence available. The safety evaluation is based on a scientific review of all pertinent toxicological data on the
specific additive-both observations in humans and mandatory tests in animals. In the EU, all the evidence is reviewed by
the European Food Safety Authority. The toxicological tests required by the regulatory authorities include lifetime feeding
studies and multigenerational studies that determine how the additive is handled by the body in order to assess any
possible harmful effects of the additive or its derivatives. The starting point for establishing the ADI is the determination
of the "No Observed Adverse Effect Level" (NOAEL) for the most sensitive adverse effect relevant to human health in
the most sensitive species of experimental animal. The NOAEL is, therefore, the highest dietary level of an additive at
which no adverse effects were observed in the studies and it is expressed in milligrams of the additive per kilogram of
bodyweight per day (mg/kg bodyweight/day). The NOAEL is then divided by a safety factor, usually 100, which results in
a large margin of safety.
5. Why is a safety margin necessary? Firstly, the NOAEL is determined in animals, not humans. It is therefore prudent to
adjust for possible differences by assuming that man is more sensitive than the most sensitive test animal. Secondly, the
reliability of toxicity tests is limited by the number of animals tested. Such tests cannot represent the diversity of the
human population, subgroups of which may show different sensitivities (e.g. children, the old and the infirm). Again, it is
prudent to adjust for these differences.
6. What safety margin is normally used when determining levels of food additives? Traditionally, the World Health
Organisation has used a safety or uncertainty factor of 100, based on a 10-fold factor to allow for differences between
animals and an average human, and a 10-fold factor to allow for differences between average humans and sensitive
subgroups (pregnant women, the elderly). However, this may be varied according to the characteristics of the additive, the
extent of the toxicology data and the conditions of use.
7. Is it acceptable for an individual to exceed the ADI on any given day? The consumption of an additive above its ADI
on a given day is not a cause for concern because the ADI has a large built-in safety factor and in practice, consumption
above the ADI on one day is more than accounted for by consumption below the ADI on most other days. However, if an
intake figure indicates that the ADI may be regularly exceeded by certain sectors of the population, it may be necessary
for the European Food Safety Authority to advise a reduction of levels in foods consistent with the amount needed to
achieve its function, or to reduce the range of foods in which the additive is permitted for use. Because of the large safety
margin used in setting the ADI, it is likely that an ADI for a given additive would have to be exceeded by some
considerable amount for there to be any risk of harm to human health.
8. How are dietary intakes of food additives monitored? The monitoring of food additives is carried out by individual
Member States on advice from the European Food Safety Authority. The ADI is compared with "average" and "extreme"
consumption estimates in the population as whole or in particular subgroups of the population. Provided that intakes for
average and extreme consumers are within the ADI, it is unlikely that any harm will result because the ADI is based on a
no-observed adverse effect level, to which a large safety margin has been applied. To ensure that consumers are not
exceeding the ADI by consuming too much or too many products containing a particular additive, EU legislation requires
that intake studies be carried out to assess any changes in intake patterns.
Following many enquiries from journalists, researchers and the general public about food additives and health, we asked
some of the specialists who help us on these subjects to provide some straightforward answers about the science behind
food preservation, the meaning and reasons for E-numbers in food and drink, what scientists say about possible adverse
health effects of specific additives, and how they are tested and regulated for public safety.
Preservatives Food preservatives constitute a group of compounds of widely different molecular structures; they are
organic and inorganic substances with different functional groups and tendencies to form ions. There are no procedures
that are generally applicable to the analysis of preservatives as a class of food additive; the procedures are specific to
the preservative being analyzed. The lowest concentrations of commonly used preservatives are of the order of a few
milligrams per kilogram of food, and, with few exceptions, recommended or statutory methods of analysis are designed to
give a good accuracy at levels of 10 to > 1000 mg of preservative per kilogram of food. The question of the lower limit of
detection is rarely an issue, unless it is desired to use small sample sizes, e.g., < 1 g, or to determine whether or not a food
or its ingredients had been treated with a preservative. For solid foods, small sample sizes often lead to nonrepresentative
sampling and should be avoided. Not all the procedures described constitute official methods of analysis. Frequently, for
routine analysis, a food manufacturer would use a rapid or cheap analytical technique standardized against an official
method. The official status of given procedures varies from country to country.
Organic and inorganic acid preservatives may be added in the form of the undissociated acid or a variety of salts. In food,
the ionic composition is determined largely by concentration and pH, but it is generally impossible to predict this
accurately for any given situation. In order to avoid complications with the specification of the amount of preservative in a
food, this is usually referred to as the weight-for-weight concentration of the undissociated acid, e.g., benzoic acid, sorbic
acid, or sulfur dioxide. Nitrite and nitrate levels are expressed in terms of the weight of the sodium salt.
There are, of course, a very large number of possible analytical procedures available for each preservative. Those given
here represent a selection to illustrate the variety of methods recommended for use on food samples.
Food preservatives are specific additives to prevent deterioration from enzymes, microorganisms, and exposure to oxygen.
All chemical preservatives must be nontoxic and readily soluble, not impart off-flavors, exhibit antimicrobial properties
over the pH range of the food, and be economical and practical.
Sugar, salt, nitrites, butylated hydroxy anisol (BHA), butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tert-butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), vinegar, citric acid, and calcium propionate are all chemicals that preserve foods. Salt, sodium nitrite, spices,
vinegar, and alcohol have been used to preserve foods for centuries. Sodium benzoate, calcium propionate, and potassium
sorbate are used to prevent microbial growth that causes spoilage and to slow changes in color, texture, and flavor.
Potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate both prevent spoilage by inhibiting mold and yeast. Sodium benzoate may be in
foods such as salad dressings, soft drinks, canned tuna, and mixed dried fruit. Potassium sorbate is found in cheese, wine,
and dried meats. BHA and BHT are antioxidants that prevent rancidity of fats and are added to shortening, margarine, and
fried snacks such as potato chips
Consumers have raised concerns about the use of preservatives in foods that have complicated chemical names that make
them seem more appropriate for a chemistry experiment than a meal. Sodium benzoate, BHA, BHT, and TBHQ have
especially been targets of consumer apprehension. These compounds have been approved for their safe use in foods and
have not been linked to any human illness or complications for the general public. As is the nature of scientific inquiry,
reports of adverse effects of these compounds can be found in the literature. The abundance of evidence suggests that the
risks of these compounds, which are used in small amounts, to human health are insignificant. And, in contrast to having a
negative impact on health, BHA and BHT have been linked with having a positive effect due to their antioxidant capacity.
Weighing the risk/benefits of using these chemicals in foods is an ongoing debate and the FDA, food companies, and
consumers must all participate. No food, additive, or ingredient will be 100% safe for 100% of the people. Using scientific
thinking to consider these complicated decisions is essential to avoid emotional reactions based on misinformation.
Food preservatives constitute a group of compounds of widely different molecular structures; they are organic
and inorganic substances with different functional groups and tendencies to form ions. There are no procedures that are
generally applicable to the analysis of preservatives as a class of food additive; the procedures are specific to
the preservative being analyzed. The lowest concentrations of commonly used preservatives are of the order of a few
milligrams per kilogram of food, and, with few exceptions, recommended or statutory methods of analysis are designed to
give a good accuracy at levels of 10 to > 1000 mg of preservative per kilogram of food. The question of the lower limit of
detection is rarely an issue, unless it is desired to use small sample sizes, e.g., < 1 g, or to determine whether or not a food
or its ingredients had been treated with a preservative. For solid foods, small sample sizes often lead to nonrepresentative
sampling and should be avoided. Not all the procedures described constitute official methods of analysis. Frequently, for
routine analysis, a food manufacturer would use a rapid or cheap analytical technique standardized against an official
method. The official status of given procedures varies from country to country.
Organic and inorganic acid preservatives may be added in the form of the undissociated acid or a variety of salts. In food,
the ionic composition is determined largely by concentration and pH, but it is generally impossible to predict this
accurately for any given situation. In order to avoid complications with the specification of the amount of preservative in a
food, this is usually referred to as the weight-for-weight concentration of the undissociated acid, e.g., benzoic acid, sorbic
acid, or sulfur dioxide. Nitrite and nitrate levels are expressed in terms of the weight of the sodium salt.
Food preservatives are specific additives to prevent deterioration from enzymes, microorganisms, and exposure to oxygen.
All chemical preservatives must be nontoxic and readily soluble, not impart off-flavors, exhibit antimicrobial properties
over the pH range of the food, and be economical and practical.
Sugar, salt, nitrites, butylated hydroxy anisol (BHA), butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tert-butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), vinegar, citric acid, and calcium propionate are all chemicals that preserve foods. Salt, sodium nitrite, spices,
vinegar, and alcohol have been used to preserve foods for centuries. Sodium benzoate, calcium propionate, and potassium
sorbate are used to prevent microbial growth that causes spoilage and to slow changes in color, texture, and flavor.
Potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate both prevent spoilage by inhibiting mold and yeast. Sodium benzoate may be in
foods such as salad dressings, soft drinks, canned tuna, and mixed dried fruit. Potassium sorbate is found in cheese, wine,
and dried meats. BHA and BHT are antioxidants that prevent rancidity of fats and are added to shortening, margarine, and
fried snacks such as potato chips
Consumers have raised concerns about the use of preservatives in foods that have complicated chemical names that make
them seem more appropriate for a chemistry experiment than a meal. Sodium benzoate, BHA, BHT, and TBHQ have
especially been targets of consumer apprehension. These compounds have been approved for their safe use in foods and
have not been linked to any human illness or complications for the general public. As is the nature of scientific inquiry,
reports of adverse effects of these compounds can be found in the literature. The abundance of evidence suggests that the
risks of these compounds, which are used in small amounts, to human health are insignificant. And, in contrast to having a
negative impact on health, BHA and BHT have been linked with having a positive effect due to their antioxidant capacity.
Weighing the risk/benefits of using these chemicals in foods is an ongoing debate and the FDA, food companies, and
consumers must all participate. No food, additive, or ingredient will be 100% safe for 100% of the people. Using scientific
thinking to consider these complicated decisions is essential to avoid emotional reactions based on misinformation.
Food preservatives can be extrinsic (intentionally added), intrinsic (normal constituent of food), or developed (produced
during fermentation) (Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995; Jay, 1996). Factors affecting preservative effectiveness include: (1)
concentration of inhibitor, (2) kind, number, and age of microorganisms (older cells more resistant), (3) temperature, (4)
time of exposure (if long enough. some microbes can adapt and overcome inhibition), and (5) chemical and physical
characteristics of food (water activity, pH, solutes, etc.). Preservatives that are cidal are able to kill microorganisms when
large concentrations of the substances are used. Static activity results when sublethal concentrations inhibit microbial
growth
Some examples of inorganic preservatives are sodium chloride (NaCl), nitrate and nitrite salts, sulfites, and sulfur dioxide
(SO2). NaCl lowers water activity and causes plasmolysis by withdrawing water from cells. Nitrites and nitrates are curing
agents for meats (hams, bacons, sausages, etc.) to inhibit C. botulinum under vacuum packaging conditions. Sulfur
dioxide (SO2), sulfites (SO3), bisulfite (HSO3), and metabisulfites (S2O5) form sulfurous acid in aqueous solutions, which
is the antimicrobial agent. Sulfites are widely used in the wine industry to sanitize equipment and reduce competing
microorganisms. Wine yeasts are resistant to sulfites. Sulfites are also used in dried fruits and some fruit juices. Sulfites
have been used to prevent enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning in some fruits and vegetables (cut potatoes).
Nitrites can react with secondary and tertiary amines to form potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines during cooking;
however, current formulations greatly reduce this risk. Nitrates in high concentrations can result in red blood cell
functional impairment; however, at approved usage levels they are safe (Nitrite Safety Council, 1980; Hotchkiss and
Cassens, 1987). Sulfiting agents likewise can cause adverse respiratory effects to susceptible consumers, particularly
asthmatics (Stevenson and Simon, 1981; Schwartz, 1983). Therefore, use of these two classes of agents is strictly
regulated.
A number of organic acids and their salts are used as preservatives. These include lactic acid and lactates, propionic acid
and propionates, citric acid, acetic acid, sorbic acid, and sorbates, benzoic acid and benzoates, and methyl and propyl
parabens (benzoic acid derivatives). Benzoates are most effective when undissociated; therefore, they require low pH
values for activity (2.5–4.0). The sodium salt of benzoate is used to improve solubility in foods. When esterified as
parabens, benzoates are active at higher pH values. Benzoates are primarily used in high-acid foods (jams, jellies, juices,
soft drinks, ketchup, salad dressings, and margarine). They are active against yeast and molds, but minimally so against
bacteria. They can be used at levels up to 0.1%.
Sorbic acid and sorbate salts (potassium most effective) are effective at pH values less than 6.5 but at a higher pH than
benzoates. Sorbates are used in cheeses, baked or nonyeast goods, beverages, jellies, jams, salad dressings, dried
fruits, pickles, and margarine. They inhibit yeasts and molds, but few bacteria except C. botulinum. They prevent yeast
growth during vegetable fermentations and can be used at levels up to 0.3%.
Propionic acid and propionate salts (calcium most common) are active against molds at pH values less than 6. They have
limited activity against yeasts and bacteria. They are widely used in baked products and cheeses. Propionic acid is found
naturally in Swiss cheese at levels up to 1%. Propionates can be added to foods at levels up to 0.3%.
Acetic acid is found in vinegar at levels up to 4–5%. It is used in mayonnaise, pickles, and ketchup, primarily as a
flavoring agent. Acetic acid is most active against bacteria, but has some yeast and mold activity, though less active than
sorbates or propionates. Lactic acid, citric acid, and their salts can be added as preservatives, to lower pH, and as
flavorants. They are also developed during fermentation. These organic acids are most effective against bacteria.
Some antibiotics may be found in foods, although medical compounds are not allowed in human food, trace amounts used
for animal therapy may occasionally be found. Bacteriocins, which are antimicrobial peptides produced by
microorganisms, can be found in foods. An example of an approved bacteriocin is nisin, which is allowed in process
cheese food as an additive. Some naturally occurring enzymes (lysozyme and lactoferrin) can be used as preservatives in
limited applications where denaturation is not an issue. Some spices, herbs, and essential oils have antimicrobial activity,
but such high levels are needed that the food becomes unpalatable. Ethanol has excellent preservative ability but is
underutilized because of social stigma. Wood smoke, whether natural or added in liquid form, contains several phenolic
antimicrobial compounds in addition to formaldehyde. Wood smoke is most active against vegetative bacteria and some
fungi. Bacterial endospores are resistant. Activity is correlated with phenolic content. Carbon dioxide gas can dissolve in
food tissues to lower pH and inhibit microbes. Developed preservatives produced during fermentation include organic
acids (primarily lactic, acetic, and propionic), ethanol, and bacteriocins. All added preservatives must meet government
standards for direct addition to foods. All preservatives added to foods are GRAS.
A preservative is a substance or a chemical that is added to products such as food, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs,
paints, biological samples, cosmetics, wood, and many other products to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or
by undesirable chemical changes. In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical
preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product. Physical preservation entails processes such as
refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce the risk of foodborne infections, decrease microbial spoilage,
and preserve fresh attributes and nutritional quality. Some physical techniques for food preservation include dehydration,
UV-C radiation, freeze-drying, and refrigeration. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are
sometimes combined.
Antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method is the most traditional and ancient type of
preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH
level. The most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid. Common antimicrobial preservatives are
presented in the table. Nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of these chemical compounds
range from inhibiting growth of the bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. Water-based home and personal care
products use broad-spectrum preservatives, such as isothiazolinones and formaldehyde releasers, which may cause
sensitization, allergic skin reactions, and toxicity to aquatic life.

E number chemical compound Comment

E200 – sorbic acid, sodium sorbate and

common for cheese, wine, baked goods, personal care products
E203 sorbates

E210 – used in acidic foods such as jams, salad

benzoic acid and benzoates
E213 dressing, juices, pickles, carbonated drinks, soy sauce
 E214 –
parabens stable at a broad pH range, personal care products
E219

E220 –
sulfur dioxide and sulfites common for fruits, wine
E228

E249 –
nitrites used in meats to prevent botulism toxin
E250

E251 –
nitrates used in meats
E252

E270 lactic acid -

E280 –
propionic acid and propionates baked goods
E283

isothiazolinones
n/a home and personal care products, paints/coatings
(MIT, CMIT, BIT)

formaldehyde releasers (DMDM

n/a home and personal care products
hydantoin)

Antioxidants The free radical pathway for the first phase of the oxidative rancidification
of fats. This process is slowed by antioxidants.
The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a high fat content. Fats
quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen. Antioxidants prevent or inhibit the
oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid (vitamin
C) and ascorbates. Thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and
chips. Other antioxidants include
the phenol derivatives BHA, BHT, TBHQ and propyl gallate. These agents
suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. Other preservatives
include ethanol and methylchloroisothiazolinone.

E number chemical compound comment

E300-304 ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate cheese, chips

E321 butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole also used in food packaging

E310-312 gallic acid and sodium gallate oxygen scavenger

E220 – E227 sulfur dioxide and sulfites beverages, wine

E306 – E309 tocopherols vitamin E activity

A variety of agents are added to sequester (deactivate) metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common
sequestering agents are disodium EDTA, citric acid (and citrates), tartaric acid, and lecithin.
Nonsynthetic compounds for food preservation Citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and
vegetables, e.g., mono/polyphenol oxidase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic
acid and tocopherol, which are vitamins, are common preservatives. Smoking entails exposing food to a variety of
phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives
include rosemary and oregano extract, hops, salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, diatomaceous earth and castor oil. Traditional
preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause
hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers. This has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in
vegetables.
History and methods Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times. Smoked meat for example has phenols and
other chemicals that delay spoilage. The preservation of foods has evolved greatly over the centuries and has been
instrumental in increasing food security. The use of preservatives other than traditional oils, salts, paints, etc. in food
began in the late 19th century, but was not widespread until the 20th century. The use of food preservatives varies greatly
depending on the country. Many developing countries that do not have strong governments to regulate food additives face
either harmful levels of preservatives in foods or a complete avoidance of foods that are considered unnatural or foreign.
These countries have also proven useful in case studies surrounding chemical preservatives, as they have been only
recently introduced. In urban slums of highly populated countries, the knowledge about contents of food tends to be
extremely low, despite consumption of these imported foods.
Drying In ancient times the sun and wind naturally dried out foods. Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures started drying
foods in 1,200 B.C. in the sun. The Romans used a lot of dry fruit. In the Middle Ages, people made “still houses” where
fruits, vegetables, and herbs could dry out in climates that did not have strong sunlight. Sometimes fires were made to
create heat to dry foods. Drying prevents yeasts and bread molds (Rhizopus) from growing by removing moisture so
bacteria cannot grow.
Freezing Cellars, caves, and cool streams were used for freezing. American estates had ice houses built to store ice and
food on the ice. The icehouse was then converted to an “icebox”. The Icebox was converted in the 1800s to mechanical
refrigeration. Clarence Birdseye found in the 1800s that freezing meats and vegetables at a low temperature made them
taste better.
Fermenting was discovered when a few grains of barley were left in the rain and turned into
beer. Microorganisms ferment the starch-derived sugars into alcohols. This is also how fruits are fermented into wine and
cabbage into Kimchi or sauerkraut. Anthropologists believe that as early as 10,000 B.C people began to settle and grow
barley. They began to make beer and believed that it was a gift from gods. It was used to preserve foods and to create
more nutritious foods from less desirable ingredients. Vitamins are produced through fermentation
by microorganisms making the end product more nutritious.
Pickling occurs when foods are placed in a container with vinegar or another acid. It is thought that pickling came about
when people used to place food in wine or beer to preserve it due to them having a low pH. Containers had to be
stoneware or glass (vinegar will dissolve metal from pots). After the food was eaten, the pickling brine had other uses.
Romans would make a concentrated pickle sauce called “garum”. It was very concentrated and the dish that it would be
used in would only need a few drops to get the fish taste. Due to new foods arriving from Europe in the 16th century, food
preservation increased. Ketchup originated from Europe as an oriental fish brine and when it made it to America, sugar
was added. Pickling sauces were soon part of many recipes such as chutneys, relish, piccalilli, mustard, and ketchup when
different spices were added to them.
Curing The beginning of curing was done through dehydration. Salting was used by early cultures to help desiccate
foods. Many different salts were used from different places such as rock salt, sea salt, spiced salt, etc.. People began to
experiment and found in the 1800s that some salts gave meat an appealing red color instead of the grey that they were
used to. During their experimenting in the 1920s they realized this mixture of salts were nitrates (saltpeter) that
prevented Clostridium botulinum growth.
Jam and Jelly Early cultures also used honey or sugar as a preservatives. Greece used a quince and honey mixture with a
slight amount of drying and then tightly packed into jars. The Romans used the same technique but instead cooked the
honey and quince mixture to make a solid texture. Indian and Oriental traders brought sugarcane to the northern climates
where housewives were then able to make preservatives by heating fruit with the sugarcane.
Canning started in 1790 from a French confectioner, Nicolas Appert, when he found that by applying heat to food in
sealed glass bottles, the food is free from spoilage. Appert’s ideas were tried by the French Navy with meat, vegetables,
fruit, and milk in 1806. An Englishman, Peter Durand decided to use Appert’s method on tin cans in 1810. Even though
Appert found a method that worked, he did not understand why it worked because many believed that the lack of air
caused the preservation. In 1864 Louis Pasteur linked food spoilage/illness to microorganisms. Different foods are placed
into jars or cans and heated to a microorganism and enzyme inactivating temperature. They are then cooled forming a
vacuum seal which prevents microorganisms from contaminating the foods.
Public awareness of food preservation Public awareness of food preservatives is uneven. Americans have a perception
that food-borne illnesses happen more often in other countries. This may be true, but the occurrence of illnesses,
hospitalizations, and deaths are still high. It is estimated by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) that each year there are
76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths linked to food-borne illness. The increasing demand for
ready-to-eat fresh food products has led to challenges for food distributors regarding the safety and quality of their foods.
Artificial preservatives meet some of these challenges by preserving freshness for longer periods of time, but these
preservatives can cause negative side-effects as well. Sodium nitrite is a preservative used in lunch
meats, hams, sausages, hot dogs, and bacon to prevent botulism. It serves the important function of controlling
the bacteria that cause botulism, but sodium nitrite can react with proteins, or during cooking at high heats, to
form carcinogenic N-nitrosamines. It has also been linked to cancer in lab animals. The commonly used sodium
benzoate has been found to extend the shelf life of bottled tomato paste to 40 weeks without loss of quality. However, it
can form the carcinogen benzene when combined with vitamin C.] Many food manufacturers have reformed their products
to eliminate this combination, but a risk still exists. Consumption of sodium benzoate may also cause hyperactivity. For
over 30 years, there has been a debate about whether or not preservatives and other food additives can cause hyperactivity.
Studies have found that there may be increases in hyperactivity amongst children who consume artificial colorings
and benzoate preservatives and who are already genetically predisposed to hyperactivity, but these studies were not
entirely conclusive. Hyperactivity only increased moderately, and it was not determined if the preservatives, colorings, or
a combination of the two were responsible for the increase.
On the labels of many packaged foods these days, it’s not unusual to see more ingredients that the product does not
contain than those it does: “Gluten-free, lactose-free, sugar-free. No MSG, no trans fats, no artificial flavors, no
preservatives… ” Some of these labels are meant to convey the message, “Contains no bad stuff.” The message panders to
the people who presume that anything added to a processed food-an additive-is not “natural” and should therefore be
shunned. But let’s take a closer look at one of those additives, namely chemical preservatives. Are they bad for us? Or are
they just the inevitable consequence of societal evolution?
When good food goes bad Mother Nature has some pretty harsh rules. We may eat only our fellow living organisms-
plants and animals-and to do so, we must take their lives. But the instant living organisms die, nature’s chemical and
biological cleanup squads kick in, and foods begin to deteriorate, gradually becoming “spoiled,” or unfit to eat.
Microscopic bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum will feast on proteins, leaving behind their botulinum toxin, the most
acutely toxic substance known. Molds and yeasts ferment carbohydrates, turning them sour. Heat and oxygen turn fats
rancid. Enzymes in the foods themselves speed their breakdown and ultimate decay. Over the past few thousand years, we
humans have come up with a variety of ways of keeping our hard-won harvest in an edible, tasty, nontoxic condition.
Remarkably, all these methods-still in use today-were devised long before the discovery of bacteria in the 17th century.
What’s more, several of these methods not only preserve foods, but they also enhance or improve their flavors
Brave new world In the past 60 years or so, the world of food has changed drastically. As the ever-growing global
population has shifted from rural to more urban living, food buying has become detached from food production as the
supermarket has replaced the home garden or farm. Now that most of the world’s population is consuming widely
distributed packaged foods, commercial food manufacturers often have to add preservatives directly to foods to keep them
fresh and attractive during weeks of shipping and shelf display before the consumer even opens the jars or cans. And once
they are open, preservatives (along with cosmetic additives) have to keep the food looking good. Food scientists have a
huge arsenal of chemical preservatives at their disposal to do these jobs. About 1,000 food additives are listed in the
Codex Alimentarius, an international (185 member countries) collection of standards and codes of practice relating to
foods, food production, and food safety. Of these additives, about 100 are classified as preservatives.
Government oversight In most developed countries, government agencies are tasked with testing all food additives for
safety. In the United States, the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN), a division of the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), employs more than 800 scientists who continually test the safety of domestic and imported
foods. Can we trust these scientific watchdogs? It depends on whom you ask. Inevitably in our contentious society, there
are some who do and some who don’t.
Ancient preservation methods Cooking was probably discovered shortly after the discovery of fire, some hundreds of
thousands of years ago. Temperatures above about 165°F kill almost all microorganisms.
Boiling in water is a very effective sterilizer.
Sugaring is the process by which a concentrated solution of sugar extracts water from bacterial cells, thereby dehydrating
them. Bacteria cannot survive without water.
Salting or brining has been used to preserve foods since around 2000 B.C. Just as sugar does, salt, or salt solutions,
extract water from bacterial cells by osmosis, dehydrating and killing the bacteria.
Cooling or freezing slows all bacterial growth and chemical reactions.
Curing, or treating with nitrites, kills bacteria and adds flavor and color (for example, to bacon or ham).
Fermenting happens when beneficial lactic acid bacteria and yeasts drive out pathogenic organisms, producing alcohol
and pleasing flavor(wine, beer, sauerkraut, kimchi, yogurt).
Pickling calls for soaking foods in vinegar or salt water. Most bacteria cannot grow in acidic or highly salty
environments.
Poaching or sealing in fat, as in confit or rillettes, prevents oxidation by protecting the food from air.
Drying kills bacteria, molds, and yeasts, which cannot live without water.
Smoking, one of the oldest treatments, is a byproduct of cooking over fire. This process dries meats and fish while
imparting unique flavors.
Modern chemical preservatives
Antimicrobials inhibit the growth of bacteria, molds, and yeasts. Sulfites, including sulfur dioxide, are used in dried
fruits, fruit juices, vinegars, and wines. Calcium propionate inhibits molds and bacteria in baked goods. Its progenitor,
propionic acid, occurs naturally in strawberries, apples, grains, and cheese.
Antifungals such as sodium benzoate, sorbic acid, and parabens prevent mold in beverages, fruit preserves, cheese,
pickles, salads, meats, and margarine. Benzoates are found naturally in cranberries, prunes, greengage plums, cinnamon,
cloves, and apples, and have been used to preserve foods for about 100 years.
Antioxidants inhibit oxidation by air, which turns fats rancid, by gobbling up the free radicals that participate in oxidation
reactions. Antioxidants include sulfites, BHA (butylated hydroxytoluene), TBHQ (tertiary butylated hydroquinone),
ascorbic acid, (vitamin C), and propyl gallate.
Enzyme inhibitors slow the natural enzyme-driven ripening and spoilage reactions that begin in fruits and vegetables at
harvest. The enzyme phenolase, for example, goes to work as soon as an apple, potato, or banana is cut or bruised, turning
it brown and off-flavored. Citric acid and ascorbic acid inhibit phenolase, which cannot function in acidic conditions.
Sulfites also inhibit enzymatic degradation reactions in fruits such as raisins and dried apricots.
Sequestrants, also known as chelating agents, tie up atoms of contaminating trace metals such as iron and copper, which
catalyze (accelerate) the oxidation and enzyme reactions that cause the discoloration of foods. The most-used chelating
agent is EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid). Other sequestrants are polyphosphates and citric acid. We use
chemicals such pesticides, fumigants and algaecides in the field to deal with pests, fungus and mold. After harvest, we use
chemicals to firm our fruit, waxes to prevent water loss, antibiotics to prevent infection, and preservatives to prevent food
from going stale. Some of these chemicals benefit the consumers by minimizing pathogens such as Salmonella, E. coli
0157:H7 and Hepatitis A. Other chemicals keep prices low by extending the shelf life of products. Still others make our
produce more cosmetically desirable. For example, waxes on applies deepen the color tone while preventing water loss
and shriveled skin.
Organic vegetables and fruits are grown without pesticides, fumigants, algaecides and other chemical agents. Prepared
organic foods such as spaghetti sauce do not include preservatives, antibiotics or brightening agents. Many people think
that organic foods taste better and are healthier. They are understandably wary about eating produce that has been
tampered with.
Preservatives are added to food to fight spoilage caused by bacteria, molds, fungus, and yeast. Preservatives can keep food
fresher for longer periods of time, extending its shelf life. Food preservatives also are used to slow or prevent changes in
color, flavor or texture and delay rancidity.
Preservatives are used commonly in medicines such as acetaminophen, insulin and cough syrup to help prevent microbial
contamination. Simply, preservatives help prevent the growth of microorganisms, particularly bacteria and fungi, which
may cause disease or infection.
Preservatives in cosmetics and personal care products help prevent contamination and the growth of harmful bacteria in
products ranging from sunscreens, lotions and shampoos to cleansers, toothpaste and makeup.
Antimicrobial preservatives in cosmetics and personal care products help prevent the growth of molds, yeasts and
bacteria, guarding against contamination that can cause irritation or infections. Antioxidant preservatives also can help
keep personal care products from spoiling by suppressing reactions that can occur when certain ingredients in a cosmetic
or personal care product combine with oxygen in the presence of light, heat and some metals.
Wood treated with preservatives can be used to build telephone poles, road signs and marine pilings as well as decks, play
structures and raised garden beds.
The use of preservatives in food products is strictly studied, regulated and monitored by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). Federal regulations require evidence that food additives are safe for their intended use.
Preservatives in foods are subject to ongoing safety review by FDA as scientific understanding and methods of testing
continue to improve.
In contrast to foods, with the exception of color additives, cosmetic products and ingredients including preservatives do
not need FDA premarket approval. FDA can take action against products on the market that are not in compliance with
the law; for example, if the product contains any poisonous or harmful substance. FDA monitors companies that conduct
product recalls and can request a product recall if the company does not issue a recall on its own.
Preservatives in medicines and drugs are generally considered to be “inactive ingredients” by FDA. Inactive ingredients
(such as dyes, preservatives, and flavoring agents) are parts of a drug or medicine that do not affect the therapeutic action
of the active ingredients. FDA’s Inactive Ingredient Database provides information on inactive ingredients present in
FDA-approved drug products.
FDA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and other federal
agencies regularly monitor and conduct research on vaccine safety.
What are the uses of food preservatives and what do food preservatives do? Preservatives are added to food to fight
spoilage caused by bacteria, molds, fungus, and yeast. Preservatives also help keep food fresh for longer periods of time.
What are preservatives made of? Preservatives can be made of “natural” chemicals such as salt or alcohol. They can also
be man-made, or synthetic chemicals. “Natural” or “organic” chemicals are not necessarily healthier than synthetic or
man-made chemicals. In fact, artificial preservatives such as sodium nitrate, sodium benzoate and propionate have long
been used in food preparation because they are effective in small amounts.
How are additives and food preservatives approved for use in foods? Today, food and color additives, including
preservatives, are more strictly studied, regulated and monitored than at any other time in history, and FDA has the
primary legal responsibility for determining their safe use. To add a new food preservative to the market, or before using a
substance already approved for one use in another application, the manufacturer or other sponsor must obtain approval
from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and provide scientific data demonstrating that the substance is safe
for its intended use.
Why are preservatives added to foods? Preservatives are added to foods to help prevent or slow spoilage due to bacteria,
molds, fungi or yeast, as well as to slow or prevent changes in the food’s color, flavor or texture, delay rancidity, and
maintain freshness.
Why are preservatives used in vaccines? Preservatives kill, prevent, or slow the growth of microorganisms, particularly
bacteria and fungi, which may cause disease or infection. Studies have found that there is no convincing scientific
evidence that the low dose of thimerosal as a preservative in vaccines causes harm, except for possible minor reactions
like redness and swelling at the injection site. The FDA offers information about the safety of thimerosal.
What is sodium benzoate? In acidic drinks like sodas and fruit juices, sodium benzoate is an antimicrobial preservative
and flavoring agent that can inhibit the growth of bacteria, mold and yeast. It is found naturally in cranberries, prunes,
apples and some spices. Sodium benzoate can also be used to lubricate pills and tablets for medicines.
What are nitrites? Why are they used as preservatives? Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite or sodium nitrate) are preservatives
used to prevent bacteria in lunch meats and other cured meats. In a typical person’s diet, 80 percent of nitrites come from
vegetables such as spinach, radishes and lettuce. Nitrites also deter botulism to some degree. FDA has stated that the food
preservative sodium nitrate can be safely used in or on specified foods.
What are sulphites? Why are they used as preservatives? Sulphites such as sulphur dioxide are types of salts widely used
for their preservative and antioxidant properties. In food, these are found predominantly in dried fruits and vegetables, soft
drinks and alcoholic beverages.
What are parabens? Why are they used as preservatives? Parabens are preservatives that help to protect against the growth
of bacteria, fungi and yeast. Parabens are derived from para-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA), which occurs naturally in
many fruits and vegetables. According to FDA, there is “no reason for consumers to be concerned about the use of
cosmetics containing parabens.”
What is formaldehyde? Why is it used as a preservative? Formaldehyde is a simple chemical compound made of
hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. All life forms – bacteria, plants, fish, animals and humans – naturally produce
formaldehyde. As a preservative, formaldehyde is well known for its anti-bacterial properties, helping to prevent the
growth of bacteria and other pathogens and extend shelf life when it is added as a product ingredient.
There are three classes of chemical preservatives commonly used in foods:
 Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate)
 Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite)
 Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide)
If you look at the ingredient labels of different foods, you will frequently see these different types of chemicals used.
Another common preservative that you will commonly see on food labels is sorbic acid. All of these chemicals either
inhibit the activity of bacteria
Everyone has heard about food preservatives, but how do they work? Chemical & Engineering News, in the Nov. 11
issue, explains what these useful chemicals can do to keep food safe and palatable. Chemical preservatives can't take the
place of stronger preservation methods, like commercial sterilization, which kills most bacteria and enzymes, but they can
be used effectively to retard spoiling and to stop the growth of harmful microorganisms.
Chemical & Engineering News is a weekly newsmagazine published by the American Chemical Society, the world's
largest scientific society.
Preservatives can be grouped into three general types: antimicrobials that block growth of bacteria, molds or yeasts;
antioxidants that slow oxidation of fats and lipids that leads to rancidity, and a third type that fights enzymes that promote
the natural ripening that occurs after fruits or vegetables are picked.
Sulfur dioxide works in all three areas and is part of a larger group called sulfites, compounds found in numerous foods. A
small percentage of people are allergic to sulfites, but the FDA says the preservative is safe for the majority. Some
vinegars, fruit juices and dried fruits contain sulfites.
Sulfites block the growth of microbes by interrupting the normal functioning of their cells, according to Hassan Gourama,
Ph.D., associate professor of food science at Pennsylvania State University.
Propionates are antimicrobials that help keep bakery products fresh. Propionic acid occurs naturally in apples,
strawberries, grains and cheese. It works against bread molds and spores of a bacterium that leads to a condition called
"rope" that makes bread inedible. Benzoates, another weak antimicrobial, fight fungi, working best in areas at a low acid
level, where there are few bacteria. Benzoates are found naturally in cranberries.
Nitrites and nitrates most commonly are used to preserve meats and block deadly botulism bacteria. These preservatives
also give cured meat its fresh pink color. Without nitrates or nitrites meat turns brown. The only potential problem with
nitrites, Gourama says, is that they react with amino acids to form nitrosamines, cancer-causing agents. The levels used in
cured meat are low and are not of concern, however, he adds.
Antioxidant preservatives stop the chemical breakdown of food when products are exposed to the air. Unsaturated fatty
acids in oils and lipids are especially susceptible to oxidation and will take on a rancid flavor and odor as a result.
A third group of preservatives attacks enzymes in food that cause fruits and vegetables to over-ripen after harvest. One
enzyme, for example, causes apples and potatoes to turn brown soon after they are cut or peeled. Acids such as ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) and citric acid retard this process by making the pH level uncomfortably low for the enzyme.
Gourama says that at present many food scientists are searching for more preservatives in natural products. Some new
antimicrobials have even been found in the microorganisms themselves, he says.
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (NTU Singapore) scientists have discovered a plant-based food
preservative that is more effective than artificial preservatives.
The organic preservative comprises a naturally-occurring substance known as 'flavonoids', a diverse group of
phytonutrients found in almost all fruits and vegetables. The flavonoids created by NTU scientists have strong anti-
microbial and anti-oxidant properties; two key traits of preservatives that inhibit bacterial growth and keep food fresher
for longer.
In tests carried out on on meat and fruit juice samples, the organic preservative kept its samples fresh for two days without
refrigeration, compared to commercial-grade artificial food preservatives.
The experiment was conducted at room temperature (about 23 degrees Celsius) where the other food samples with
artificial preservatives succumbed to bacteria contamination within six hours.
The NTU research team was led by Professor William Chen, Director of NTU's Food Science & Technology programme.
The team is already in talks with multinational companies to further develop the new food preservative.
The team's findings were published last month in the scientific journal Food Chemistry - one of the top three research-
based food science publications.
Prof Chen said, "This organic food preservative is derived from plants and produced from food grade microbes, which
means that it is 100 per cent natural. It is also more effective than artificial preservatives and does not require any further
processing to keep food fresh.
"This may open new doors in food preservation technologies, providing a low-cost solution for industries, which will in
turn encourage a sustainable food production system that can produce healthier food that stay fresh longer."
Harnessing nature's gifts Flavonoids are naturally occurring chemicals in plants which are responsible for defending
plants against pathogens, herbivores, pests, and even environmental stress such as strong ultraviolet rays from prolonged
hours of sunshine. Found in almost all fruits and vegetables, it is responsible for inducing vivid colours in them. These
include onions, tea, strawberries, kale, and grapes.
Though flavonoids' anti-microbial potential have been reported, they have not been used as a food preservative because
they require further processing before they can mitigate bacteria. This is known as 'prenylation' -- a process involving the
addition of hydrophobic molecules onto a protein to facilitate cell attachment -- which is not cost-effective or sustainable.
NTU researchers have not only found a way to grow flavonoids with high anti-microbial and antioxidant properties but
also in a natural and sustainable manner. They achieved this by implanting the flavonoid-producing mechanism from
plants into baker's yeast (a species known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
Similar to how vaccines are manufactured using yeast, the researchers found that the yeast produced flavonoids with high
anti-microbial properties, which are not even present in pure flavonoid samples extracted directly from plants.
Prof Chen said, "Anti-microbial and anti-oxidant properties are key elements in food preservation. Flavonoids extracted
directly from plants need to be further processed to be antimicrobial whereas our flavonoids produced from yeast do not
require this. Secondly, there have been no reports on anti-oxidant properties in flavonoids while our yeast-based
flavonoids naturally come with it."
Growing international concern on artificial preservatives This research comes at a time when there is a growing body
of scientific evidence on how artificial preservatives affect the body's long-term growth and development.
Last month (23 July), the American Academy of Pediatrics, which represents some 67,000 pediatricians in the United
States, issued an announcement expressing concerns about chemicals used in food preservatives especially for meat
products. These include nitrates and nitrites, which can interfere with thyroid hormone production that is essential for the
regulation of metabolic processes, and has also been linked with gastrointestinal and nervous system cancers.
Sharing an independent view on the research, Dr. Gabriel Oon Chong Jin, a Consultant Medical Oncologist at Mount
Elizabeth Hospital, said, "The new source of natural food preservatives from flavonoids safely produced from yeast by
NTU is brilliant, as this species of yeast has been used in brewing beer and in the manufacture of hepatitis B vaccines.
Dr Oon, a former consultant and adviser to the World Health Organisation and a pioneer in implementing the universal
vaccination programme in Singapore, added, "Flavonoids are important natural food supplements with vitamins, but also
used as food additives, without causing harm to the human system. This is unlike currently available artificial
preservatives used in most processed foods such as aspartame and nitrates, which may cause cancer among other adverse
health effects."
The NTU research team aims to further develop their findings with the food industry and enhance its efficacy and safety
so that it can be used in all packaged food products.
Food products can be contaminated by a variety of pathogenic and spoilage microbiota, the former causing foodborne
diseases and the latter causing significant economic losses for the food industry due to undesirable effects on the food
properties. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), each year in the United States, 48 million
people get sick, 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3,000 die because of foodborne infections. However, although foodborne
outbreaks are well recorded, sporadic cases are not because not all patients visit the doctor or enter the hospital and the
causative agent is not always identified. A considerable number of foodborne pathogens of great public health importance
(e.g., VTEC E. coli serotypes, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, and Yersinia enterocolitica) have emerged
during the recent two decades causing severe illness and foodborne outbreaks worldwide.
Microbial food spoilage is also an area of immense concern for the food industry. It is estimated that as much as 25% of
all food produced is lost after harvest due to microbial activity. While the growth of spoilage microbiota in foods is not
harmful for the human health, it has negative impact on the shelf-life, textural characteristics, and overall quality of the
finished products, affects the consumer choices, and results in significant commercial losses. Thus, prevention or
inhibition of microbial growth in foods is of outmost importance for the current globalized food production. Hence, there
is still the need for new processing methods, to be used either alone or in combination with the already existing ones, able
to reduce or eliminate foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria.
Chemical additives have been extensively used to prevent the survival and proliferation of microorganisms, but their
safety and impact on human health are under discussion. Since the reduction or elimination of pathogens and spoilage
microorganisms in food is the foremost priority, the current trends in food processing are focusing on the use of natural
compounds, which are considered as safe alternatives and satisfy the consumer preferences for more “green foods.” Hence
the increased awareness on the safety of food additives and preservatives, and the consumer’s trend to avoid foods
containing chemicals, which, in the long-term, may have adverse impact on their health, have generated a significant
number of studies and publications on the potential use of various natural substances, recognized as GRAS (Generally
Recognized as Safe), to be used as food preservatives. Chemical compounds added to foods as antioxidant agents are also
of concern, particularly when important protein sources (e.g., burgers, steaks) are involved in the daily diet of westernized
consumer living in the developed countries [1, 2]. Synthetic antioxidants such as BHT, TBHQ, and BHA have
demonstrated various adverse effects on the human health including allergy, headache, asthma, and dermatitis. Recent
studies on the utilization of natural antioxidants (e.g., herbal essential oils and extracts) indicate their capacity and safety
[3, 4]. Also, the antimicrobial properties of natural substances such as plant essential oils and extracts have been
extensively studied with promising results [5]. The proper recycling and use of fruit-processing plants by-products like
fruit seeds or skins discarded and piling up in huge amounts every year, are of great interest for the food industry,
particularly their potential to be a useful source of oil and meal [6]. Additionally, the oil from plant seeds can be used by
the food industry for manufacturing more “natural” or “green” foods and also can sufficiently extend the shelf-life of the
food product [7]. The oils derived from fruit seeds oils may also have some more useful properties beyond being just
“edible.” The oil derived from the seed extract of two Mexican varieties of cactus pear (Opuntia albicarpa and Opuntia
ficus indica) has been found to have sufficient antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [8]. Furthermore, some biological
active compounds produced by microorganisms are widely used in the food industry as well. A good alternative to
conventional chemically synthesized food preservatives is the use of natural antimicrobials such as bacteriocins produced
by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), with Nisin being officially employed by the food industry and thus the most widely used.
Bacteriocins are peptides, actually microbial toxins, produced from various microorganisms, and so far some of them
(e.g., enterocins produced mostly by enterococci) have shown remarkable antimicrobial potential and their application as
a natural barrier against pathogens and food spoilage has been proven to be very efficient, when used in the form of
purified or semipurified extracts or as protective cultures [9, 10]. Therefore, as the developments in food preservation are
focusing on the implementation of natural antimicrobials and antioxidants this special issue explores the potential of
alternatives to currently used preservatives through the publication of five high-quality articles, which aim to address
recent advancements in the field of natural food preservatives and antioxidants. The prospect to replace synthetic
preservatives with natural substances has been demonstrated by comparing the effects of Shirazi thyme, cinnamon, and
rosemary extracts (denoted as natural antioxidants) with those of the synthetic antioxidant BHT on protein and lipid
oxidations, physicochemical, microbial, and sensory characteristics of frozen beef burgers during storage. Specifically, the
oxidative stability of the beef burgers containing Shirazi thyme, cinnamon, and rosemary extracts was well demonstrated,
and the antibacterial activity was documented, as the total microbial counts of the tested burgers were well below the
maximum allowed limit. Besides the evaluation of the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of natural substances it is
important to optimize their recovery. With regard to bacteriocins, to enhance Enterocin Y31 production and simplify the
steps of separation and purification, a proper simplified and defined medium (SDM) has been developed for
the Enterococcus faecium Y31 growth and enhancement of the Enterocin Y31 production. The bacterial growth did not
result in Enterocin Y31 production in MRS medium and, therefore, both the growth rate and the Enterocin Y31
production were set as the goal for the investigation. Single omission experiments revealed that 5 g/L NaCl, five vitamins,
two nucleic acid bases, MgSO4·7H2O, MnSO4·4H2O, KH2PO4, K2HPO4, CH3COONa, fourteen amino acids, and
glucose were essential for the adequate strain growth and Enterocin Y31 production. As a result, a novel simplified and
defined medium (SDM) was formulated containing 30 ingredients, in which the Enterocin Y31 production yield was
higher when compared to either MRS or CDM. The development of the SDM improved the Enterocin Y31 production and
simplified the steps of purification (only two steps), which is very promising and increases its potential applications.
Referring to seeds’ oils, the optimization of the extraction conditions of cactus pear seed oil has been obtained using
ultrasound in a closed system based on the antioxidant activity and using response surface methodology. The yield
extraction and antioxidant and antimicrobial activity were compared with those obtained using both conventional and
unconventional methods, such as Soxhlet and maceration, using heat, agitation or long extraction times, microwave,
supercritical fluids and ultrasound-assisted extraction in an open and in a closed system. The results have shown that
ultrasound exhibited lower oil yield and antioxidant activity but had the potential to achieve comparable results if multiple
ultrasound extractions are performed in the time needed by conventional methods. Seed oils showed similar antimicrobial
activity despite the extraction method and can be an alternative extraction method of seed oils from fruits such as cactus
pear. Lastly, the replacement of chemical additives with natural compounds has been addressed for fish foods as well.
Fish-paste products also known as fish cakes or surimi-based products are worldwide favorites. Surimi, a wet protein
concentrate of fish muscle, is used as an intermediate raw material to produce surimi seafood. The flavor, texture, taste,
shelf-life, and market value of surimi-based products depend on several factors, including the additives used to prepare the
surimi. While preparing surimi with chemical additives, several problems have been observed, such as a lack of unique
characteristics, inferior acceptability, and poor functionality. In this context, a systematic review of fish-paste products
prepared using natural food additives (e.g., animal, seafood and plant source additives, herbs and oriental medicines,
grains and roots, and functional food materials) has been performed, which summarizes the existing relevant knowledge
in the production of new value-added foodstuffs of interest for the surimi industry.
In conclusion, this special issue offers to the readers the chance to be informed on the recent advancements related to the
antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of natural substances that are of interest for the contemporary food industry.
Their prospective use in the food production has the potential to lead towards the production of safer and healthier foods,
not excluding their contribution to a more efficient preservation of the environment, when chemicals will be replaced with
natural substances.
Antioxidants "Antioxidant" is a term commonly used in food science to describe compounds that block lipid peroxidation
and other oxidative reactions, thereby maintaining freshness and prolonging the shelf lives of food products. Dietary
antioxidants and antioxidant supplements are lauded as quenching reactive oxygen species and preventing different
chronic diseases, but strong evidence for their beneficial effects is lacking. In addition to the essential antioxidant
nutrients, vitamins E and C, there are several well-designed antioxidant and cytoprotective enzyme systems in the human
body, which are more important than dietary non-nutrient antioxidants. At high concentrations, many antioxidants could
act as pro-oxidants, increasing oxidative stress and inducing toxicity.
Antioxidants play an important role in overall health. They are natural compounds found in some foods that help
neutralize free radicals in our bodies. Free radicals are substances that occur naturally in our bodies but attack the fats,
protein and the DNA in our cells, which can cause different types of diseases and accelerate the aging process.
The best antioxidant sources are fruits and vegetables, as well as products derived from plants. Some good choices include
blueberries, raspberries, apples, broccoli, cabbage, spinach, eggplant, and legumes like red kidney beans or black beans.
They’re also found in green tea, black tea, red wine and dark chocolate. Usually, the presence of color indicates there is a
specific antioxidant in that food. The keyword here is variety. Try to get as many fruits and vegetables with different
colors when you plan your meals and go to the grocery store. An array of color in your diet will give you the widest range
of beneficial antioxidants.
Q: Does it matter whether the produce is cooked or consumed raw? A: Depending on the particular food, cooking
temperatures and methods can sometimes increase or decrease antioxidant levels. The important thing is that you eat
antioxidant-rich foods, so go with your personal preference for preparation—as long as it's not deep frying!
Q: Are added antioxidants as effective as those that occur naturally? A: Yes, vitamins such as C, A and E can be
added to foods – and they often are, such as in orange juice. One of the things those additives do is act as antioxidants in
the body. There is no significant physiological difference between the added antioxidants and the ones occurring naturally
in the food source. However, there’s also no evidence that taking antioxidant dietary supplements work as well as the
antioxidants found in food products. It’s important not to overdo it on supplements because there can be too much of a
good thing. With food products, it would be extremely difficult to consume an excessive amount of antioxidants.
Q: Is there a specific amount of antioxidants consumers should aim for each day? A: There is not a set recommended
daily allowance (RDA) for antioxidants, but the new MyPlate tool based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans
recommends that you make half your plate fruits and vegetables. If you aim to do that at most meals, you can be sure to
get the antioxidants you need.
Antioxidants are among the most studied topics both in the area of food science and nutrition. Antioxidants were firstly
used as just a food preservative, then it was realized that they inhibited the oxidation processes not only in foods but also
in human metabolism. Then, they gained the spotlight with their important roles both in foods and in human body.
Consequently, significant number of research articles focusing on the antioxidant content of different foods, analytical
methods for better estimation and measurement of the antioxidant capacity of foods have been publishing for years. In
addition, there is a growing interest among the food scientists in improving the knowledge on the physiological effects of
antioxidants in the human body. This review provides a historical overview about antioxidants covering their occurrence
and roles in various foods, analytical methods for the determination of their antioxidant capacity, and their physiological
effects.
Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals,
thereby leading to chain reactions that may damage the cells of organisms. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) terminate these chain reactions. To balance the oxidative stress, plants and animals maintain complex
systems of overlapping antioxidants, such as glutathione and enzymes (e.g., catalase and superoxide dismutase), produced
internally, or the dietary antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin E. The term "antioxidant" is mostly used for two entirely
different groups of substances: industrial chemicals that are added to products to prevent oxidation, and naturally
occurring compounds that are present in foods and tissue. The former, industrial antioxidants, have diverse uses: acting
as preservatives in food and cosmetics, and being oxidation-inhibitors in fuels. Antioxidant dietary supplements have not
been shown to improve health in humans, or to be effective at preventing disease. Supplements of beta-carotene, vitamin
A, and vitamin E have no positive effect on mortality rate[3][4] or cancer risk. Additionally, supplementation
with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Health effects
Relation to diet Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, there is still
considerable debate on whether antioxidant-rich foods or supplements have anti-disease activity. Moreover, if they are
actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidants are health-promoting in the diet and in what amounts beyond typical
dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, and others
declare that the hypothesis is unproven and misguided. Polyphenols, which have antioxidant properties in vitro, have
unknown antioxidant activity in vivo due to extensive metabolism following digestion and little clinical evidence of
efficacy.
Drug candidates Common pharmaceuticals (and supplements) with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy
of certain anticancer medication and radiation. A 2016 systematic review examined allopurinol and acetylcysteine as
possible add-on treatments for schizophrenia. Tirilazad, a steroid derivative that inhibits lipid peroxidation, was shown in
human trials to have no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage and worsened results in
ischemic stroke.
Adverse effects
Structure of the metal chelator phytic acid.
Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary
minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract and preventing them
from being absorbed. Examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high
in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets
in developing countries where less meat is eaten and there is high consumption of
phytic acid from beans and unleavened whole grain bread.

Foods Reducing acid present

Cocoa bean and chocolate, spinach, turnip and rhubarb Oxalic acid

Whole grains, maize, legumes Phytic acid

Tea, beans, cabbage Tannins

High doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy
Trial (CARET) study of lung cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene and vitamin
A had increased rates of lung cancer. Subsequent studies confirmed these adverse effects. These harmful effects may also
be seen in non-smokers, as one meta-analysis including data from approximately 230,000 patients showed that β-carotene,
vitamin A or vitamin E supplementation is associated with increased mortality, but saw no significant effect from vitamin
C. No health risk was seen when all the randomized controlled studies were examined together, but an increase in
mortality was detected when only high-quality and low-bias risk trials were examined separately. As the majority of these
low-bias trials dealt with either elderly people, or people with disease, these results may not apply to the general
population. This meta-analysis was later repeated and extended by the same authors, confirming the previous
results. These two publications are consistent with some previous meta-analyses that also suggested that vitamin E
supplementation increased mortality, and that antioxidant supplements increased the risk of colon cancer. Beta-
carotene may also increase lung cancer. Overall, the large number of clinical trials carried out on antioxidant supplements
suggest that either these products have no effect on health, or that they cause a small increase in mortality in elderly or
vulnerable populations.
Oxidative challenge in biology
The structure of the antioxidant vitamin ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
A paradox in metabolism is that, while the vast majority of complex life on
Earth requires oxygen for its existence, oxygen is a highly reactive molecule that
damages living organisms by producing reactive oxygen species. Consequently,
organisms contain a complex network of antioxidant metabolites and enzymes that
work together to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components such
as DNA, proteins and lipids. In general, antioxidant systems either prevent these
reactive species from being formed, or remove them before they can damage vital
components of the cell. However, reactive oxygen species also have useful cellular
functions, such as redox signaling. Thus, the function of antioxidant systems is not to remove oxidants entirely, but
instead to keep them at an optimum level.
The reactive oxygen species produced in cells include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hypochlorous acid (HClO), and free
radicals such as the hydroxyl radical (·OH) and the superoxide anion (O2−). The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable
and will react rapidly and non-specifically with most biological molecules. This species is produced from hydrogen
peroxide in metal-catalyzed redox reactions such as the Fenton reaction. These oxidants can damage cells by starting
chemical chain reactions such as lipid peroxidation, or by oxidizing DNA or proteins. Damage to DNA can
cause mutations and possibly cancer, if not reversed by DNA repair mechanisms, while damage to proteins causes enzyme
inhibition, denaturation and protein degradation.
The use of oxygen as part of the process for generating metabolic energy produces reactive oxygen species. In this
process, the superoxide anion is produced as a by-product of several steps in the electron transport chain. Particularly
important is the reduction of coenzyme Q in complex III, since a highly reactive free radical is formed as an intermediate
(Q·−). This unstable intermediate can lead to electron "leakage", when electrons jump directly to oxygen and form the
superoxide anion, instead of moving through the normal series of well-controlled reactions of the electron transport
chain. Peroxide is also produced from the oxidation of reduced flavoproteins, such as complex I. However, although these
enzymes can produce oxidants, the relative importance of the electron transfer chain to other processes that generate
peroxide is unclear. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, reactive oxygen species are also produced
during photosynthesis, particularly under conditions of high light intensity. This effect is partly offset by the involvement
of carotenoids in photoinhibition, and in algae and cyanobacteria, by large amount of iodide and selenium, which involves
these antioxidants reacting with over-reduced forms of the photosynthetic reaction centres to prevent the production of
reactive oxygen species.
Examples of bioactive antioxidant compounds Antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions, depending on
whether they are soluble in water (hydrophilic) or in lipids (lipophilic). In general, water-soluble antioxidants react with
oxidants in the cell cytosol and the blood plasma, while lipid-soluble antioxidants protect cell membranes from lipid
peroxidation. These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet. The different antioxidants are
present at a wide range of concentrations in body fluids and tissues, with some such as glutathione or ubiquinone mostly
present within cells, while others such as uric acid are more evenly distributed (see table below). Some antioxidants are
only found in a few organisms and these compounds can be important in pathogens and can be virulence factors.
The relative importance and interactions between these different antioxidants is a very complex question, with the various
antioxidant compounds and antioxidant enzyme systems having synergistic and interdependent effects on one
another. The action of one antioxidant may therefore depend on the proper function of other members of the antioxidant
system. The amount of protection provided by any one antioxidant will also depend on its concentration, its reactivity
towards the particular reactive oxygen species being considered, and the status of the antioxidants with which it interacts.
Some compounds contribute to antioxidant defense by chelating transition metals and preventing them from catalyzing the
production of free radicals in the cell. Particularly important is the ability to sequester iron, which is the function of iron-
binding proteins such as transferrin and ferritin.[47] Selenium and zinc are commonly referred to as antioxidant nutrients,
but these chemical elements have no antioxidant action themselves and are instead required for the activity of some
antioxidant enzymes, as is discussed below.

Concentration in human serum Concentration in liver tissue

Antioxidant Solubility
(μM) (μmol/kg)

Ascorbic acid (vitamin

Water 50–60[56] 260 (human)[57]
C)

Glutathione Water 4[58] 6,400 (human)[57]

Lipoic acid Water 0.1–0.7[59] 4–5 (rat)[60]

Uric acid Water 200–400[61] 1,600 (human)[57]

β-carotene: 0.5–1
Carotenes Lipid 5 (human, total carotenoids)
retinol (vitamin A): 1–3

α-Tocopherol (vitamin E) Lipid 10–40 50 (human)

Ubiquinol (coenzyme Q) Lipid 5 200 (human)

Uric acid is by far the highest concentration antioxidant in human blood. Uric acid (UA) is an antioxidant oxypurine
produced from xanthine by the enzyme xanthine oxidase, and is an intermediate product of purine metabolism. In almost
all land animals, urate oxidase further catalyzes the oxidation of uric acid to allantoin, but in humans and most higher
primates, the urate oxidase gene is nonfunctional, so that UA is not further broken down. The evolutionary reasons for this
loss of urate conversion to allantoin remain the topic of active speculation. The antioxidant effects of uric acid have led
researchers to suggest this mutation was beneficial to early primates and humans. Studies of high altitude acclimatization
support the hypothesis that urate acts as an antioxidant by mitigating the oxidative stress caused by high-altitude hypoxia.
Uric acid has the highest concentration of any blood antioxidant and provides over half of the total antioxidant capacity of
human serum. Uric acid's antioxidant activities are also complex, given that it does not react with some oxidants, such
as superoxide, but does act against peroxynitrite, peroxides, and hypochlorous acid. Concerns over elevated UA's
contribution to gout must be considered as one of many risk factors. By itself, UA-related risk of gout at high levels (415–
530 μmol/L) is only 0.5% per year with an increase to 4.5% per year at UA supersaturation levels (535+ μmol/L). Many
of these aforementioned studies determined UA's antioxidant actions within normal physiological levels, and some found
antioxidant activity at levels as high as 285 μmol/L.
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid or vitamin C is a monosaccharide oxidation-reduction (redox) catalyst found in both animals
and plants. As one of the enzymes needed to make ascorbic acid has been lost by mutation during primate evolution,
humans must obtain it from their diet; it is therefore a dietary vitamin. Most other animals are able to produce this
compound in their bodies and do not require it in their diets. Ascorbic acid is required for the conversion of
the procollagen to collagen by oxidizing proline residues to hydroxyproline. In other cells, it is maintained in its reduced
form by reaction with glutathione, which can be catalysed by protein disulfide isomerase and glutaredoxins. Ascorbic acid
is a redox catalyst which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. In
addition to its direct antioxidant effects, ascorbic acid is also a substrate for the redox enzyme ascorbate peroxidase, a
function that is used in stress resistance in plants. Ascorbic acid is present at high levels in all parts of plants and can reach
concentrations of 20 millimolar in chloroplasts.
 Glutathione
The free radical mechanism of lipid peroxidation.
Glutathione is a cysteine-containing peptide found in most forms of aerobic life. It is not
required in the diet and is instead synthesized in cells from its constituent amino
acids. Glutathione has antioxidant properties since the thiol group in
its cysteine moiety is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced. In
cells, glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme glutathione
reductase and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems, such as ascorbate
in the glutathione-ascorbate cycle, glutathione peroxidases and glutaredoxins, as
well as reacting directly with oxidants. Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell's redox
state, glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants. In some organisms glutathione is replaced by other
thiols, such as by mycothiol in the Actinomycetes, bacillithiol in some Gram-positive bacteria, or by trypanothione in
the Kinetoplastids.
Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of eight related tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are fat-soluble vitamins
with antioxidant properties. Of these, α-tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest bioavailability, with the
body preferentially absorbing and metabolising this form. It has been claimed that the α-tocopherol form is the most
important lipid-soluble antioxidant, and that it protects membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals
produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction. This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the
propagation reaction from continuing. This reaction produces oxidised α-tocopheroxyl radicals that can be recycled back
to the active reduced form through reduction by other antioxidants, such as ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol. This is in line
with findings showing that α-tocopherol, but not water-soluble antioxidants, efficiently protects glutathione peroxidase 4
(GPX4)-deficient cells from cell death. GPx4 is the only known enzyme that efficiently reduces lipid-hydroperoxides
within biological membranes. However, the roles and importance of the various forms of vitamin E are presently
unclear, and it has even been suggested that the most important function of α-tocopherol is as a signaling molecule, with
this molecule having no significant role in antioxidant metabolism. The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are even
less well understood, although γ-tocopherol is a nucleophile that may react with electrophilic mutagens, and tocotrienols
may be important in protecting neurons from damage.
Pro-oxidant activities Antioxidants that are reducing agents can also act as pro-oxidants. For example, vitamin C has
antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide; however, it will also reduce metal
ions that generate free radicals through the Fenton reaction.
2 Fe3+ + Ascorbate → 2 Fe2+ + Dehydroascorbate
2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O2 → 2 Fe3+ + 2 OH· + 2 OH−
The relative importance of the antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of antioxidants is an area of current research, but
vitamin C, which exerts its effects as a vitamin by oxidizing polypeptides, appears to have a mostly antioxidant action in
the human body. However, less data is available for other dietary antioxidants, such as vitamin E, or
the polyphenols. Likewise, the pathogenesis of diseases involving hyperuricemia likely involve uric acid's direct and
indirect pro-oxidant properties. That is, paradoxically, agents which are normally considered antioxidants can act as
conditional pro-oxidants and actually increase oxidative stress. Besides ascorbate, medically important conditional pro-
oxidants include uric acid and sulfhydryl amino acids such as homocysteine. Typically, this involves some transition-
series metal such as copper or iron as catalyst. The potential role of the pro-oxidant role of uric acid in (e.g.)
atherosclerosis and ischemic stroke is considered above. Another example is the postulated role of homocysteine in
atherosclerosis.
Enzyme systems enzymetic pathway for detoxification of reactive oxygen species. As with the chemical antioxidants,
cells are protected against oxidative stress by an interacting network of antioxidant enzymes. Here, the superoxide
released by processes such as oxidative phosphorylation is first converted to hydrogen peroxide and then further reduced
to give water. This detoxification pathway is the result of multiple enzymes, with superoxide dismutases catalysing the
first step and then catalases and various peroxidases removing hydrogen peroxide. As with antioxidant metabolites, the
contributions of these enzymes to antioxidant defenses can be hard to separate from one another, but the generation
of transgenic mice lacking just one antioxidant enzyme can be informative.
Superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxiredoxins Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are a class of closely related
enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of the superoxide anion into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD enzymes are
present in almost all aerobic cells and in extracellular fluids. Superoxide dismutase enzymes contain metal ion cofactors
that, depending on the isozyme, can be copper, zinc, manganese or iron. In humans, the copper/zinc SOD is present in
the cytosol, while manganese SOD is present in the mitochondrion. There also exists a third form of SOD in extracellular
fluids, which contains copper and zinc in its active sites. The mitochondrial isozyme seems to be the most biologically
important of these three, since mice lacking this enzyme die soon after birth. In contrast, the mice lacking copper/zinc
SOD (Sod1) are viable but have numerous pathologies and a reduced lifespan (see article on superoxide), while mice
without the extracellular SOD have minimal defects (sensitive to hyperoxia). In plants, SOD isozymes are present in the
cytosol and mitochondria, with an iron SOD found in chloroplasts that is absent from vertebrates and yeast.
Catalases are enzymes that catalyse the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, using either an iron or
manganese cofactor. This protein is localized to peroxisomes in most eukaryotic cells. Catalase is an unusual enzyme
since, although hydrogen peroxide is its only substrate, it follows a ping-pong mechanism. Here, its cofactor is oxidised
by one molecule of hydrogen peroxide and then regenerated by transferring the bound oxygen to a second molecule of
substrate. Despite its apparent importance in hydrogen peroxide removal, humans with genetic deficiency of catalase —
"acatalasemia" — or mice genetically engineered to lack catalase completely, suffer few ill effects.
Decameric structure of AhpC, a bacterial 2-
cysteine peroxiredoxin from Salmonella typhimurium.
Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases that catalyze the reduction of hydrogen
peroxide, organic hydroperoxides, as well as peroxynitrite. They are divided into
three classes: typical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxins; atypical 2-cysteine
peroxiredoxins; and 1-cysteine peroxiredoxins. These enzymes share the same
basic catalytic mechanism, in which a redox-active cysteine (the peroxidatic
cysteine) in the active site is oxidized to a sulfenic acid by the peroxide
substrate. Over-oxidation of this cysteine residue in peroxiredoxins inactivates
these enzymes, but this can be reversed by the action
of sulfiredoxin. Peroxiredoxins seem to be important in antioxidant metabolism, as
mice lacking peroxiredoxin 1 or 2 have shortened lifespan and suffer from hemolytic anaemia, while plants use
peroxiredoxins to remove hydrogen peroxide generated in chloroplasts.
Thioredoxin and glutathione systems The thioredoxin system contains the 12-kDa protein thioredoxin and its
companion thioredoxin reductase. Proteins related to thioredoxin are present in all sequenced organisms. Plants, such
as Arabidopsis thaliana, have a particularly great diversity of isoforms. The active site of thioredoxin consists of
two neighboring cysteines, as part of a highly conserved CXXC motif, that can cycle between an active dithiol form
(reduced) and an oxidized disulfide form. In its active state, thioredoxin acts as an efficient reducing agent, scavenging
reactive oxygen species and maintaining other proteins in their reduced state. After being oxidized, the active thioredoxin
is regenerated by the action of thioredoxin reductase, using NADPH as an electron donor. The glutathione system includes
glutathione, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidases, and glutathione S-transferases. This system is found in
animals, plants and microorganisms. Glutathione peroxidase is an enzyme containing four selenium-cofactors that
catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. There are at least four different glutathione
peroxidase isozymes in animals. Glutathione peroxidase 1 is the most abundant and is a very efficient scavenger of
hydrogen peroxide, while glutathione peroxidase 4 is most active with lipid hydroperoxides. Surprisingly, glutathione
peroxidase 1 is dispensable, as mice lacking this enzyme have normal lifespans, but they are hypersensitive to induced
oxidative stress. In addition, the glutathione S-transferases show high activity with lipid peroxides. These enzymes are at
particularly high levels in the liver and also serve in detoxification metabolism.
Oxidative stress in disease Oxidative stress is thought to contribute to the development of a wide range of diseases
including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, the pathologies caused by diabetes, rheumatoid
arthritis, and neurodegeneration in motor neuron diseases. In many of these cases, it is unclear if oxidants trigger the
disease, or if they are produced as a secondary consequence of the disease and from general tissue damage; One case in
which this link is particularly well understood is the role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease. Here, low density
lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation appears to trigger the process of atherogenesis, which results in atherosclerosis, and finally
cardiovascular disease. Oxidative damage in DNA can cause cancer. Several antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferase etc. protect DNA from
oxidative stress. It has been proposed that polymorphisms in these enzymes are associated with DNA damage and
subsequently the individual's risk of cancer susceptibility. A low calorie diet extends median and maximum lifespan in
many animals. This effect may involve a reduction in oxidative stress. While there is some evidence to support the role of
oxidative stress in aging in model organisms such as Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans, the evidence
in mammals is less clear. Indeed, a 2009 review of experiments in mice concluded that almost all manipulations of
antioxidant systems had no effect on aging.
Uses in technology
Food preservatives Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration. Exposure to oxygen
and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in
containers or even coating it in wax, as with cucumbers. However, as oxygen is also important for plant respiration,
storing plant materials in anaerobic conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors. Consequently,
packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ~8% oxygen atmosphere. Antioxidants are an especially important
class of preservatives as, unlike bacterial or fungal spoilage, oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or
refrigerated food. These preservatives include natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (AA, E300) and tocopherols
(E306), as well as synthetic antioxidants such as propyl gallate (PG, E310), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA, E320) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, E321). The most common molecules attacked by
oxidation are unsaturated fats; oxidation causes them to turn rancid. Since oxidized lipids are often discolored and usually
have unpleasant tastes such as metallic or sulfurous flavors, it is important to avoid oxidation in fat-rich foods. Thus, these
foods are rarely preserved by drying; instead, they are preserved by smoking, salting or fermenting. Even less fatty foods
such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying. Oxidation is often catalyzed by metals, which is
why fats such as butter should never be wrapped in aluminium foil or kept in metal containers. Some fatty foods such as
olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants, but remain sensitive to
photooxidation. Antioxidant preservatives are also added to fat based cosmetics such as lipstick and moisturizers to
prevent rancidity.
Industrial uses
Substituted phenols and derivatives of phenylenediamine are common
antioxidants used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline (petrol).
Antioxidants are frequently added to industrial products. A common use is
as stabilizers in fuels and lubricants to prevent oxidation, and in gasolines to
prevent the polymerization that leads to the formation of engine-fouling
residues. In 2014, the worldwide market for natural and synthetic antioxidants
was US$2.25 billion with a forecast of growth to $3.25 billion by 2020.
Antioxidant polymer stabilizers are widely used to prevent the degradation of polymers such as rubbers, plastics
and adhesives that causes a loss of strength and flexibility in these materials. Polymers containing double bonds in their
main chains, such as natural rubber and polybutadiene, are especially susceptible to oxidation and ozonolysis. They can be
protected by antiozonants. Solid polymer products start to crack on exposed surfaces as the material degrades and the
chains break. The mode of cracking varies between oxygen and ozone attack, the former causing a "crazy paving" effect,
while ozone attack produces deeper cracks aligned at right angles to the tensile strain in the product. Oxidation and UV
degradation are also frequently linked, mainly because UV radiation creates free radicals by bond breakage. The free
radicals then react with oxygen to produce peroxy radicals which cause yet further damage, often in a chain reaction.
Other polymers susceptible to oxidation include polypropylene and polyethylene. The former is more sensitive owing to
the presence of secondary carbon atoms present in every repeat unit. Attack occurs at this point because the free radical
formed is more stable than one formed on a primary carbon atom. Oxidation of polyethylene tends to occur at weak links
in the chain, such as branch points in low-density polyethylene.
 Fuel
Components[167] Applications[167]
additive

Turbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic

AO-22 N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine
fluids, waxes, and greases

AO-24 N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine Low-temperature oils

Turbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids,

AO-29 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol
waxes, greases, and gasolines

AO-30 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol Jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines

AO-31 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol Jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines

2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol and 2,6-di-tert-

AO-32 Jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
butyl-4-methylphenol

Jet fuels and gasolines, widely approved

AO-37 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol
for aviation fuels

Levels in food: Fruits and vegetables are good sources of antioxidant vitamins C and E. Antioxidant vitamins are found in
vegetables, fruits, eggs, legumes and nuts. Vitamins A, C, and E can be destroyed by long-term storage or prolonged
cooking. The effects of cooking and food processing are complex, as these processes can also increase
the bioavailability of antioxidants, such as some carotenoids in vegetables. Processed food contains fewer antioxidant
vitamins than fresh and uncooked foods, as preparation exposes food to heat and oxygen.

Antioxidant vitamins Foods containing high levels of antioxidant vitamins

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables

Vitamin E (tocopherols, tocotrienols) Vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds

Carotenoids (carotenes as provitamin A) Fruit, vegetables and eggs

Other antioxidants are not obtained from the diet, but instead are made in the body. For example, ubiquinol (coenzyme Q)
is poorly absorbed from the gut and is made through the mevalonate pathway. Another example is glutathione, which is
made from amino acids. As any glutathione in the gut is broken down to free cysteine, glycine and glutamic acid before
being absorbed, even large oral intake has little effect on the concentration of glutathione in the body. Although large
amounts of sulfur-containing amino acids such as acetylcysteine can increase glutathione, no evidence exists that eating
high levels of these glutathione precursors is beneficial for healthy adults.
Measurement and invalidation of ORAC: Measurement of antioxidant content in food is not a straightforward process,
as antioxidants collectively are a diverse group of compounds with different reactivities to various reactive oxygen
species. In food science, the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) was once an industry standard for estimating
antioxidant strength of whole foods, juices and food additives, mainly from the presence of polyphenols. Earlier
measurements and ratings by the United States Department of Agriculture were withdrawn in 2012 as biologically
irrelevant to human health, referring to an absence of physiological evidence for polyphenols having antioxidant
properties in vivo. Consequently, the ORAC method, derived only from in vitro experiments, is no longer considered
relevant to human diets or biology. Alternative in vitro measurements of antioxidant content in foods – also based on the
presence of polyphenols – include the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay.
History: As part of their adaptation from marine life, terrestrial plants began producing non-marine antioxidants such
as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), polyphenols and tocopherols. The evolution of angiosperm plants between 50 and 200
million years ago resulted in the development of many antioxidant pigments – particularly during the Jurassic period – as
chemical defences against reactive oxygen species that are byproducts of photosynthesis. Originally, the term antioxidant
specifically referred to a chemical that prevented the consumption of oxygen. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
extensive study concentrated on the use of antioxidants in important industrial processes, such as the prevention of
metal corrosion, the vulcanization of rubber, and the polymerization of fuels in the fouling of internal combustion engines.
Early research on the role of antioxidants in biology focused on their use in preventing the oxidation of unsaturated fats,
which is the cause of rancidity. Antioxidant activity could be measured simply by placing the fat in a closed container
with oxygen and measuring the rate of oxygen consumption. However, it was the identification of vitamins C and E as
antioxidants that revolutionized the field and led to the realization of the importance of antioxidants in the biochemistry
of living organisms. The possible mechanisms of action of antioxidants were first explored when it was recognized that a
substance with anti-oxidative activity is likely to be one that is itself readily oxidized. Research into how vitamin
E prevents the process of lipid peroxidation led to the identification of antioxidants as reducing agents that prevent
oxidative reactions, often by scavenging reactive oxygen species before they can damage cells.
Antioxidants are substances that are capable of slowing down the autoxidation process of other compounds or neutralize
free radicals. They have been used in food processing industries as a means to hinder oxidation, enhance flavor, aroma
and color. Antioxidants have also been used and valued for treatment of various diseases such as cancer and coronary
heart disease. Even though, synthetic antioxidants including butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) may cause side effects to
human health and presumed unsafe to be used, they are the ones in a great use in the area of food processing industries as
most food and pharmaceutical products contain them. The objective of this review work is therefore to provide an
overview of the findings related to the presence of antioxidants in plant sources particularly those that have not been
extensively studied and evaluated such as fruits and vegetables by-products. To minimize their effects, researches have
been conducted aiming to substitute them with antioxidants from natural sources. Recent studies show that synthesis of
natural antioxidants from fruit and vegetable waste has gained great attention. Further research has to be performed on
plant phenols and processing of agricultural and industrial by-products as a potential source for extraction of antioxidants.
In order to increase the affirmative effect and usefulness of antioxidants to human health, it is recommended to follow a
balanced and varieties of diets instead of taking antioxidant supplements on a regular basis. Therefore, we should
consume a diet high in antioxidant rich fruits and vegetables day by day. Furthermore, nutritional importance, promotion
of health and prevention against damages caused by free radicals can lead to the potential applications of antioxidants in
food industries in more intensified approaches. In a nutshell, antioxidant foods and ingredients are an important
component of the food industry and thus reconsidering the health implications of adding antioxidants to foods require
unfathomable investigations.
Antioxidants delay or inhibit lipid oxidation at low concentration. Tocopherols, ascorbic acid, carotenoids, flavonoids,
amino acids, phospholipids, and sterols are natural antioxidants in foods. Antioxidants inhibit the oxidation of foods by
scavenging free radicals, chelating prooxidative metals, quenching singlet oxygen and photosensitizers, and inactivating
lipoxygenase. Antioxidants show interactions, such as synergism (tocopherols and ascorbic acids), antagonism (α‐
tocopherol and caffeic acid), and simple addition. Synergism occurs when one antioxidant is regenerated by others, when
one antioxidant protects another antioxidant by its sacrificial oxidation, and when 2 or more antioxidants show different
antioxidant mechanisms.
Oxidation decreases consumer acceptability of foods by producing low‐molecular‐weight off‐flavor compounds, as well
as by destroying essential nutrients, and it produces toxic compounds and dimers or polymers of lipids and proteins
(Aruoma 1998). Oxidation of foods can be minimized by removing prooxidants such as free fatty acids, metals, and
oxidized compounds, and by protecting foods from light. Air evacuation by reduced pressure or adding oxygen
scavengers can also reduce oxidation. Since it is very difficult to completely remove all the prooxidants and air,
antioxidants are now increasingly added to foods to slow down the process of oxidation. Antioxidants significantly delay
or inhibit oxidation of oxidizable substrates at low concentration, compared to the higher contents of lipids and proteins in
foods (Halliwell and Gutteridge 2001). Antioxidants in foods do not necessarily protect biological tissues from free
radical oxidative damage because they have to be converted into usable forms in tissues and interact with other
substances, in addition to effective concentration differences, and they must display difficulty in absorption from the diet
(Azzi and others 2004). The antioxidants are naturally present in foods, or can be added or formed during processing.
Antioxidants for foods should be reasonable in cost, nontoxic, stable, effective at low concentration, have carry‐through,
and should not change flavor, color, and texture of the food matrix (Schuler 1990). The effects of antioxidants on the
oxidation of foods are dependent on their concentration (Frankel and others 1996), polarity, and the medium (Cuvelier
and others 2000; Samotyja and Malecka 2007), and also the presence of other antioxidants (Decker 2002). The
objective of this article was to discuss the reaction mechanisms of antioxidants by focusing on their thermodynamic and
kinetic characteristics depending on their surroundings during the oxidation of foods.
Major Antioxidants in Foods Extensive research has been done on the isolation, purification, and identification of the
various antioxidants. Phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid are the most important natural antioxidants. Carotenoids,
protein‐related compounds, Maillard reaction products, phospholipids, and sterols also show natural antioxidant activities
in foods. Phenolic compounds such as tocopherols, polyphenols, phenolic acids, and lignans are widely distributed in :
Tocopherols are monophenolic compounds and derivatives of chromanol.They are very soluble in oil and thus are the
most important antioxidants in edible fats and oils. Tocopherols are more frequently found in vegetable oils than animal
fats, especially soybean, canola, sunflower, corn, and palm oils. Most vegetable oils contain tocopherols at concentrations
higher than 500 ppm; beef tallow and lard contain less than 40 ppm. Palm oil contains tocopherols at 100 to 150 ppm, and
also 620 to 650 ppm tocotrienols. The refining process, especially deodorization, reduces tocopherol contents in oils.
Tocopherols in crude soybean oil (1670 ppm) were decreased to 1138 ppm during deodorization.
Polyphenols Olive oil is oxidation‐resistant due to the presence of tyrosol (4‐hydroxyphenylethanol; 34.9 ppm),
hydroxytyrosol (3,4‐dihydroxyphenylethanol; 37.8 ppm), and catechol. Hydroxytyrosol is the most effective antioxidant
in olive oil. Most of these antioxidants are removed during alkaline refining and deodorization.
Flavonoids are major plant polyphenols and are derivatives of diphenylpropanes and a heterocyclic 6‐membered ring with
oxygen. They include flavanols (catechins, naringin), flavanones (hesperidin, naringenin), flavones (apigenin, luteolin),
flavonols (kaempferol, quercitrin, myricetin, quercetin), anthocyanins, and leucoanthocyanidins. The glycosylation of
flavonoids results in lower antioxidant activity than the corresponding aglycons. The solubility of flavonoids in fats and
oils is very low and their role in the oxidation of oil is not significant; however, they can contribute to decreasing the
oxidation of oil in food emulsions.
Phenolic acids Phenolic acids are closely related to flavonoids. They include hydroxycinnamic acids (coumaric, ferulic,
caffeic, chlorogenic, and sinapic acids), hydroxycoumarin (scopoletin), and hydroxybenzoic acids (ellagic, gallic, gentisic,
salicylic, and vanillic acids). Chlorogenic and caffeic acids are present in sunflower oil, and sinapic and ferulic acids are
present in rapeseed and defatted rice bran oils, respectively. Olive oil contains vanillic, syringic, caffeic, and cinnamic
acids. Phenolic acids as antioxidants in oils are also limited due to solubility problems.
Lignans are phenylpropanoids derived from phenylalanine. They include sesamol, sesamin, sesamolin, sesaminol,
sesamolinol, pinoresinol, and secoisolariciresinol. The major lignans in unroasted sesame oil are sesamin (474 ppm),
sesamolin (159 ppm), and sesamol (<7 ppm). Concentration of sesamol is increased to higher than 36 ppm by roasting the
sesame seeds due to hydrolysis of sesamolin to sesamol. Sesamin and sesamolin extracted from roasted sesame oil and
sesaminol in bleached sesame oil are more heat‐resistant than α‐tocopherol. Secoisolariciresinol and secoisolariciresinol
diglucoside (14.1 to 30.9 mg/g, dry basis) are found in flaxseed.
Ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate, and calcium ascorbate are water soluble and have a limitation as antioxidants for fats
and oils. Ascorbyl palmitate is used in fat‐containing foods to decrease their oxidation.
Carotenoids are polyenoic terpenoids having conjugated trans double bonds. They include carotenes (β‐carotene and
lycopene), which are polyene hydrocarbons, and xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, capsanthin, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin,
and violaxanthin) having oxygen in the form of hydroxy, oxo, or epoxy groups. Carotenoids are fat soluble and play an
important role in the oxidation of fats and oils.
Carotene is the major carotenoid in oils, and β‐carotene is the most studied. Palm oil is one of the richest sources of
carotenoids. Crude palm oil and red palm olein contain 500 to 700 ppm carotenoids, but refined plam oil is not a good
source of carotenoids. Virgin olive oil contains 1.0 to 2.7 ppm β‐carotene, as well as 0.9 to 2.3 ppm luteinorn, soybean,
and peanut oils contain lower amounts of β‐carotene at 1.2, 0.28, and 0.13 ppm, respectively.
Protein‐related compounds: Hypoxanthine, xanthine, glycine, methionine, histidine, tryptophan, proline, lysine, ferritin,
transferritin, and carnosine show their antioxidant activities in the oxidation of lipid‐containing foods. Enzymes such as
glucose oxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase are known to decrease the oxidation of foods.
Application of enzymes and proteins as antioxidants is limited to unprocessed oil because oil processing denatures the
enzymes and proteins.
Maillard reaction products from amines and reducing sugars or carbonyl compounds from lipid oxidation slow down lipid
oxidation. There are a number of Maillard reaction products, but the responsible compounds for the antioxidant activity
have not been clearly determined to date.
Phospholipids Crude oil contains phospholipids such as phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine,
phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidylserine, but most of them are removed by oil processing such as degumming. Oils
that are consumed without refining contain higher amounts of phospholipids. Crude soybean oil contains
phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine at 501 and 214 ppm, respectively; however, RBD soybean oil contains
only 0.86 and 0.12 ppm phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine, respectively. Unroasted sesame oil contains
690 ppm phospholipids. Extra virgin olive oil contains 34 to 156 ppm phospholipids and filtration of the oil lowers the
contents to 21 to 124 ppm.
Phosphatidylcholine decreased the oxidation of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and soybean oil in the dark. Egg yolk
phospholipids at 0.031% to 0.097% decreased the autoxidation of DHA‐rich oil and squalene, and the antioxidant activity
of egg yolk phosphatidylethanolamine was higher than that of phosphatidylcholine. Although phospholipids are generally
known as antioxidants, they can increase lipid oxidation depending on the environment such as presence of iron reported
that phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine increased the oxidation of tocopherol‐stripped canola oil with
added chlorophyll b under light.
Sterols are steroid alcohols with an aliphatic hydrocarbon side chain of 8 to 10 carbons at the C17‐position and a hydroxy
group at the C3‐position. β‐Sitosterol, stigmasterol, and sitostanol are present in edible oils, with the highest amount of β‐
sitosterol. Corn and rapeseed oils have 8000 ppm sterols, and palm and coconut oils have 600 to 1000 ppm sterols. Virgin
and refined olive oils contain β‐sitosterol at 667 and 898 ppm, respectively. Antioxidant activity of β‐sitosterol was lower
than those of ferulic acid and tocopherol in the autoxidation of soybean oil. Solubility of plant sterols in corn oil is 2% to
3% at 25 °C.
Oxidation Mechanisms of Fats and Oils Different chemical mechanisms are responsible for the oxidation of fats and
oils during processing, storage, and cooking. Two types of oxygen, atmospheric triplet oxygen and singlet oxygen, can
react with fats and oils. Triplet oxygen, having a radical character, reacts with radicals and causes autoxidation. The
nonradical electrophilic singlet oxygen does not require radicals to react with; it directly reacts with the double bonds of
unsaturated fats and oils with high electron densities, which is called type II photosensitized oxidation..
Autoxidation Fats and oils should be in radical forms to react with triplet oxygen in autoxidation. Lipids are normally in
nonradical singlet state and heat, metals, or light accelerates their radical formation. Allylic hydrogen, especially hydrogen
attached to the carbon between 2 double bonds, is easily removed due to low bond dissociation energy. The carbon and
hydrogen dissociation energies are the lowest at the bis‐allylic methylene position. Bis‐allylic hydrogen at C11 of linoleic
acid is removed at 75 to 80 kcal/mol. The energy required to remove allylic hydrogen in C8 or C14 of linoleic acid is 88
kcal/mol, and 101 kcal/mol is necessary to remove alkyl hydrogen from C17 or C18. Upon formation of lipid radicals by
hydrogen removal, the double bond adjacent to the carbon radical in linoleic and linolenic acids shifts to the more stable
next carbon, resulting in conjugated diene structures. The shifted double bond mostly takes the more thermodynamically
stable trans form.
The lipid radical reacts with triplet oxygen very quickly at normal oxygen pressure (2 to 8 × 109/M/s; and forms lipid
peroxy radical. The lipid peroxy radical abstracts hydrogen from other lipid molecules to form lipid hydroperoxide and
another lipid radical. The radicals automatically catalyze the reaction and the autoxidation is called free radical chain
reaction. When radicals react with each other, nonradical species are produced to stop the reaction.
Photosensitized oxidation Light accelerates lipid oxidation, especially in the presence of photosensitizers such as
chlorophylls. Chlorophylls in singlet state become excited upon absorption of light energy in pico second. Excited singlet
state chlorophylls become excited triplet state via intersystem crossing (k = 1 to 20 × 108/s;. Excited triplet state
chlorophylls react with triplet oxygen and produce singlet oxygen by energy transfer, returning to their ground singlet
state. Singlet oxygen is able to diffuse over larger distances, about 270 nm, to react with electron‐rich compounds. Since
singlet oxygen is electrophilic due to a completely vacant 2 pπ orbital, it directly reacts with high‐electron‐density double
bonds via 6‐membered ring without lipid radical formation. The resulting hydroperoxides by singlet oxygen are both
conjugated and nonconjugated. Production of nonconjugated hydroperoxides does not occur in autoxidation. The
oxidation of linoleic acid by singlet oxygen produces C9‐ and C13‐hydroperoxides, as well as C10‐ and C12‐
hydroperoxides.
Formation of lipid hydroperoxides by photosensitized oxidation. The reaction rate of lipid with singlet oxygen is much
higher than that with triplet oxygen; the reaction rates of linoleic acid with singlet oxygen and triplet oxygen are 1.3 ×
105 and 8.9 × 101/M/s, respectively.
Thermal oxidation Heating of oil produces various chemical changes including oxidation. The chemical mechanism of
thermal oxidation is basically the same as the autoxidation mechanism. The rate of thermal oxidation is faster than the
autoxidation, and the unstable primary oxidation products, hydroperoxides, are decomposed rapidly into secondary
oxidation products such as aldehydes and ketones. Specific and detailed scientific information and comparisons of the
oxidation rates between thermal oxidation and autoxidation are not yet available. Thermal oxidation of oil produces many
volatiles and nonvolatiles. Volatiles such as aldehydes, ketones, short‐chain hydrocarbons, lactones, alcohols, and esters
are produced from decomposition of hydroperoxides by the same mechanisms as the autoxidation. Many nonvolatile polar
compounds and triacylglycerol dimers and polymers are produced in thermally oxidized oil by radical reactions.
Dimerization and polymerization are major reactions in the thermal oxidation in oil. Dimers and polymers are large
molecules with a molecular weight range of 692 to 1600 Daltons and formed by a combination of –C–C–, –C–O–C–, and
–C–O–O–C– bonds. Polymerization occurs more easily in oil with high linoleic acid than in high oleic acid oil contents.
C–C bonds are formed between 2 acyl groups to produce acyclic dimers in heated oil under low oxygen. The Diels‐Alder
reaction produces cyclic dimers of tetrasusbtituted cyclohexene, and radical reactions within or between triacylglycerols
also produce cyclic polymers. Polymers are rich in oxygen and highly conjugated dienes and produce a brown, resin‐like
residue.
Enzymatic oxidation Lipid oxidation is catalyzed by lipoxygenase in a nonradical mechanism. Lipoxygenase is an iron‐
bound enzyme with Fe in its active center. Lipoxygenase oxidizes unsaturated fatty acids having a 1‐cis, 4‐cis‐pentadiene
system resulting in oil deterioration, and oils containing linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids are favored substrates.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA can also be oxidized by lipoxygenase. Lipoxygenase with iron in the ferric state
(LOX‐Fe3+) forms a stereospecific complex with the unsaturated fatty acid having a 1,4‐pentadienyl system (RH), and it
abstracts hydrogens from interrupted methylenes in the fatty acids. It binds to pentadienyl radical which is rearranged into
a conjugated diene system, followed by the reaction with oxygen to produce lipid peroxy radicals (ROO ). The iron in
the enzyme is reduced to the ferrous state (LOX‐Fe2+). Lipid peroxy radicals are reduced to ROO− by lipoxygenase with
iron in a ferric state again, and the attachment of a proton, which is produced by the oxidation of hydrogen abstracted
from fats and oils by lipoxygenase, results in release of hydroperoxides
Mechanisms of Antioxidants in the Oxidation of Foods Antioxidants slow down the oxidation rates of foods by a
combination of scavenging free radicals, chelating prooxidative metals, quenching singlet oxygen and photosensitizers,
and inactivating lipoxygenase.
Free radical scavenging Antioxidants scavenge free radicals of foods by donating hydrogen to them, and they produce
relatively stable antioxidant radicals with low standard reduction potential, less than 500 mV. Rates of hydrogen
abstraction from lipids and antioxidants are in the order of 10°/M/s and 105 to 106/M/s, respectively. The higher stability
of antioxidant radicals than that of food radicals is due to resonance delocalization throughout the phenolic ring structure.
Examples of antioxidants to scavenge free radicals are phenolic compounds (tocopherols, butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tert‐butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), propyl gallate (PG), lignans, flavonoids, and
phenolic acids), ubiquinone (coenzyme Q), carotenoids, ascorbic acids, and amino acids. Thiacremonone extracted from
heated garlic at 130 °C has higher radical scavenging activity than ascorbic acid, α‐tocopherol, or BHA.
Structure of thiocremonone. The effectiveness of antioxidants to scavenge free radicals of foods depends on the bond
dissociation energy between oxygen and a phenolic hydrogen, pH related to the acid dissociation constant, and reduction
potential and delocalization of the antioxidant radicals. Hydrogen transfer from antioxidants to the peroxy or alkyl radicals
of foods is more thermodynamically favorable when the bond dissociation energy for O–H in the antioxidants is low.
Bond dissociation energy for O–H of phenolic antioxidants corresponds to 70 to 80 kcal/mol, and decreases in the order of
δ > γ > β > α‐tocopherol. Bond dissociation energy for O–H of phenolic antioxidants is affected by surrounding solvents;
it is higher in polar solvents such as acetonitrile and tert‐butyl alcohol than nonpolar benzene. Thus, polar solvents
decrease the radical scavenging activity of the antioxidants due to the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between oxygen
or nitrogen in a polar solvent and OH group in phenolic antioxidants.
The bond dissociation energy for O–H of the phenolic antioxidants also predicts the stabilization of antioxidant radicals.
The lower the bond dissociation energy for the O–H group of the antioxidants, the more stable the antioxidant radical. The
antioxidants with low bond dissociation energy are thus more efficient hydrogen donors and better antioxidants. The O–H
bond strength of phenolic antioxidants is affected by substitution of hydrogen in a benzene ring. The antioxidant activity
of the phenolic antioxidants is dependent on the balance between the electron‐donating effect of the substituents and the
steric crowding around the phenolic OH groups which is related to the position of the substituents. Any substituent
destabilizing the ground‐state phenolic antioxidants, and/or stabilizing the phenoxy radical form of the antioxidants,
reduces the O–H bond strength. Substituents such as an alkyl or a 2nd hydroxy group improve stabilization of the
antioxidant radicals and increase radical scavenging activity. A single substitution of methyl, tert‐methyl, or methoxy
group at the ortho‐position decreased the O–H bond strength by 1.75, 1.75, and 0.2 kcal/mol, and the O–H bond strength
decrease by the same substituent at the meta‐position was about 0.5 kcal/mol.
An intramolecular hydrogen bond between phenolic hydrogen and the oxygen‐containing substituent, such as a methoxy
group at the ortho‐position, stabilizes ground‐state phenol to cancel the O–H bond strength decrease by the methoxy
group, and there is a negligible change in the bond dissociation energy (0.2 kcal/mol decrease;. Double substitution
interactively (additively or synergistically) contributes to the O–H bond strength. Electron‐withdrawing substituents such
as COOR and COOH at the para‐position stabilize the phenol form of antioxidants, and destabilize the phenoxy radical
form of the antioxidants, to increase the O–H bond strength and make the antioxidants less efficient. However, the
substituent such as methyl, tert‐butyl, methoxy, or phenyl group decreases the O–H bond strength. When the substituent at
the para‐position is an unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the unpaired electron is highly delocalized, the phenoxy radical
is strongly stabilized and the bond dissociation energy for the O–H is decreased. The hydrogen‐donating ability decreases
in the order of hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and ferulic acid in olive oil.
The antioxidant activity of phenolic acids such as caffeic, protocatechuic, and chlorogenic acids is dependent on the pH;
they are not efficient radical scavengers under acidic pH, but very good scavengers above pH 7 to 8. At the basic pH,
phenolic acids are ionized to a phenolated form. The phenolated antioxidant has a higher electron‐donating capacity than
the parent species and activates the phenolic group to give higher free radical scavenging activity. The higher radical
scavenging activity of the phenolated form of phenolic acids was suggested to be due to a rapid electron transfer to lipid
peroxy radicals from the anion of the phenolic acids.
The reduction potential of antioxidant radicals can predict the ease of a compound to donate hydrogen to food radicals; the
lower the reduction potential of the antioxidant radicals, the greater the hydrogen donating ability of the antioxidants. Any
compound whose radical has a reduction potential lower than food radicals or oxygen‐related radicals can donate
hydrogen to them, and can act as an antioxidant. The reduction potentials of hydroxy, alkyl, alkoxy, alkyl peroxy, and
superoxide anion radicals are approximately 2300, 600, 1600, 1000, and 940 mV, respectively. Tocopherol, ascorbic acid,
and quercetin radicals have reduction potentials of 500, 330, and 330 mV, respectively, which are lower than peroxy,
alkoxy, and alkyl radicals. This enables for tocopherol and ascorbic acid to donate hydrogen to the peroxy, alkoxy, and
alkyl radicals to slow down the formation of food radicals. Phenolic compounds can donate hydrogen to alkyl peroxy
radicals and the resulting phenolic radicals do not catalyze the oxidation of other molecules due to the low reduction
potential. The phenolic radicals react with each other to form hydroquinone with regeneration of phenolic antioxidants or
to form phenolic dimers. The phenolic radical can react with lipid peroxy radicals to form phenolic‐peroxy species
adducts that undergo the degradation reactions.
Food Deterioration and its Control: 7 Food Deterioration and its Control All foods undergo varying degrees of
deterioration during storage. Deterioration may include losses in organoleptic desirability, nutritional value, safety, and
aesthetic appeal. Foods may change in color, texture, flavor, or another quality attribute as discussed in Chapter 6. Food is
subject to physical, chemical, and biological deterioration. The highly sensitive organic and inorganic compounds which
make up food and the balance between these compounds, and the uniquely organized structures and dispersions that
contribute to texture and consistency of unprocessed and manufactured products are affected by nearly every variable in
the environment. Heat, cold, light and other radiation, oxygen, moisture, dryness, natural food enzymes, microorganisms
and macroorganisms, industrial contaminants, some foods in the presence of others, and time-all can adversely affect
foods. This range of potentially destructive factors and the great diversity of natural and processed foods is why so many
variations of several basic food preservation methods find application in modern food technology. The rapidity with
which foods spoil if proper measures are not taken is indicated in Table 7.1, which lists the useful storage life of typical
plant and animal tissues at 21°C. Meat, fish, and poultry can become inedible in less than a day at room temperature. This
is also true for several fruits and leafy vegetables, raw milk, and many other products. Room temperature or field
temperature can be much higher than 21°C during much of the year in many parts of the world. Typically, slower rates of
deterioration occur with foods that are low in moisture, high in sugar, salt, or acid, or modified in other ways.
Nevertheless, even in our modern and efficient warehouses and supermarkets, shelfstable, refrigerated, and frozen foods
undergo continuous change, necessitating stock rotation and product removal at definite intervals, which may be days,
weeks, or months for such products as baked goods, soft cheeses, and frozen specialties, respectively. Rapid spoilage has
significance in less developed areas as well as in the most highly advanced and organized societies. In less developed
areas starvation because of spoilage has been know to occur in villages only 20-30 km from locations of a lush harvest. In
highly advanced societies food production generally is centralized in areas where food can be most efficiently grown or
processed. These areas in the United States can be half a continent or more distant from a population center where the
food will be consumed. Unless the deteriorative factors are controlled, there would be no food for these population centers
and, indeed, there could be no highly advanced society. History has been made and wars won or lost over food
deterioration and its control. Wars, and the need to provide food for armies in regions remote from areas of food
production, have always focused attention on the problems of food deterioration, and 773 N. N. Potter et al., Food Science
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1998 774 Food Science Table 7.1. Useful Storage Life of Plant and
Animal Tissues Food Product Meat Fish Poultry Dried, salted, smoked meat and fish Fruits Dried fruits Leafy vegetables
Root crops Dried seeds SOURCE: Desrosier and Desrosier (1977). Generalized Storage Life 21°C (days) 1-2 1-2 1-2 360
and more 1-7 360 and more 1-2 7-20 360 and more this is still very true today. It is interesting to note that some of the
most important advances in preventing food deterioration have been made in time of war. At the close of the eighteenth
century France was at war and Napoleon's armies were doing poorly on inadequate rations that frequently included
spoiled meat and other unwholesome or unpalatable items. Similar problems, including elimination of scurvy, were facing
the navy and merchant shipping. Prizes were offered as incentive to encourage development of useful methods of
preserving food. From this came the discovery by Nicolas Appert that if food was sufficiently heated in a sealed container
and the container not opened, the food would be preserved. Appert was awarded 12,000 francs and honored in 1809, and
the world gained the art of food canning. It was not until the work of Pasteur some 50 years later, that growth of
microorganisms was shown to be a major cause of food spoilage; this provided an explanation for Appert's method of
preservation. One of the most important aspects offood science is an understanding offood deteriorative factors and their
control. Commonly, various forms of preservation were developed long before an understanding of the principles
involved were known; and many of the foods we prize today developed out of attempts to prevent deterioration and
prolong storage life. One might not ordinarily think of butter as a means of preserving food, but long ago it was
discovered that while milk deteriorated in a day or two, clumps of butter fat that formed when milk was agitated could be
removed from the milk and would store for weeks or months. Similarly, cheese, smoked fish, dried fruits, and many
fermented foods had their beginnings in attempts to slow down deteriorative processes. SHELF LIFE AND DATING OF
FOODS The shelf life of a food is sometimes defined as the time it takes a product to decline to an unacceptable level. Of
course, what is "acceptable" varies from one person to another. To some, the slightest odor in fish is unacceptable,
whereas others may prefer fish which has developed considerable odor. In many cases, shelf life is taken as the time a
product remains salable. In the final analysis, shelflife is ajudgment that must be made by the food manufacturer or
retailer. In many cases, the manufacturer must
All foods undergo varying degrees of deterioration during storage. Deterioration may include losses in organoleptic
desirability, nutritional value, safety, and aesthetic appeal. Foods may change in color, texture, flavor, or another quality
attribute as discussed in Chapter 6. Food is subject to physical, chemical, and biological deterioration. The highly
sensitive organic and inorganic compounds which make up food and the balance between these compounds, and the
uniquely organized structures and dispersions that contribute to texture and consistency of unprocessed and manufactured
products are affected by nearly every variable in the environment. Heat, cold, light and other radiation, oxygen, moisture,
dryness, natural food enzymes, microorganisms and macro organisms, industrial contaminants, some foods in the
presence of others, and time-all can adversely affect foods. This range of potentially destructive factors and the great
diversity of natural and processed foods is why so many variations of several basic food preservation methods find
application in modern food technology. The rapidity with which foods spoil if proper measures are not taken is indicated
in Table 7.1, which lists the useful storage life of typical plant and animal tissues at 21°C. Meat, fish, and poultry can
become inedible in less than a day at room temperature. This is also true for several fruits and leafy vegetables, raw milk,
and many other products. Room temperature or field temperature can be much higher than 21°C during much of the year
in many parts of the world. Typically, slower rates of deterioration occur with foods that are low in moisture, high in
sugar, salt, or acid, or modified in other ways. Nevertheless, even in our modern and efficient warehouses and
supermarkets, shelf stable, refrigerated, and frozen foods undergo continuous change, necessitating stock rotation and
product removal at definite intervals, which may be days, weeks, or months for such products as baked goods, soft
cheeses, and frozen specialties, respectively. Rapid spoilage has significance in less developed areas as well as in the most
highly advanced and organized societies. In less developed areas starvation because of spoilage has been known to occur
in villages only 20-30 km from locations of a lush harvest. In highly advanced societies food production generally is
centralized in areas where food can be most efficiently grown or processed. These areas in the United States can be half a
continent or more distant from a population center where the food will be consumed. Unless the deteriorative factors are
controlled, there would be no food for these population centers and, indeed, there could be no highly advanced society.
History has been made and wars won or lost over food deterioration and its control. Wars, and the need to provide food
for armies in regions remote from areas of food production, have always focused attention on the problems of food
deterioration. this is still very true today. It is interesting to note that some of the most important advances in preventing
food deterioration have been made in time of war. At the close of the eighteenth century France was at war and
Napoleon's armies were doing poorly on inadequate rations that frequently included spoiled meat and other unwholesome
or unpalatable items. Similar problems, including elimination of scurvy, were facing the navy and merchant shipping.
Prizes were offered as incentive to encourage development of useful methods of preserving food. From this came the
discovery by Nicolas Appert that if food was sufficiently heated in a sealed container and the container not opened, the
food would be preserved. Appert was awarded 12,000 francs and honored in 1809, and the world gained the art of food
canning. It was not until the work of Pasteur some 50 years later, that growth of microorganisms was shown to be a major
cause of food spoilage; this provided an explanation for Appert's method of preservation. One of the most important
aspects of food science is an understanding of food deteriorative factors and their control. Commonly, various forms of
preservation were developed long before an understanding of the principals involved were known; and many of the foods
we prize today developed out of attempts to prevent deterioration and prolong storage life. One might not ordinarily think
of butter as a means of preserving food, but long ago it was discovered that while milk deteriorated in a day or two,
clumps of butter fat that formed when milk was agitated could be removed from the milk and would store for weeks or
months. Similarly, cheese, smoked fish, dried fruits, and many fermented foods had their beginnings in attempts to slow
down deteriorative processes.
MAJOR CAUSES OF FOOD DETERIORATION The major factors affecting food deterioration include the
following:
1. growth and activities of microorganisms, principally bacteria, yeasts, and molds;
2. Activities of food enzymes and other chemical reactions within food itself;
3. Infestation by insects, parasites, and rodents;
4. Inappropriate temperatures for a given food;
5. Either the gain or loss of moisture;
6. Reaction with oxygen;
7. light;
8. physical stress or abuse; and
9. Time.
• These factors can be divided into biological, chemical, and physical factors. Often these factors do not operate in
isolation. Bacteria, insects, and light,
For example, can all be operating simultaneously to spoil food in the field or in a warehouse?
• Similarly, heat, moisture, and air simultaneously affect the multiplication and activities of bacteria, as well as the
chemical activities of food enzymes. At any one time, many forms of deterioration may take place, depending on the food
and environmental conditions.
Remedies
Effective preservation must eliminate or minimize all of these factors in a given food.
• For example, in the case of canned meats the meat is sealed in a metal can, which protects it from insects and rodents as
well as from light, which could affect its color and possibly its nutritive value. The can also protects the meat from drying
out. Vacuum is applied or the can is flushed with nitrogen to remove oxygen before sealing. The sealed can is then heated
to kill microorganisms and to destroy meat enzymes. The processed cans are stored in a cool room and the length of time
the cans are held in supermarkets and in our homes is limited. In this case the preservation method takes into account all
of the major factors in food deterioration. It is well to consider these factors individually.
Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds
 There are thousands of genera and species of microorganisms. Several hundred are associated in one way or another
with food products. Not all cause disease or food spoilage, and the growth of several types is actually desirable because
they are used to make and preserve foods.
1. For Instance: The lactic acid-producing organisms used to make cheese, sauerkraut, and certain types of sausage are
examples
2. Others are used for alcohol production in making wine or beer, or for flavor production in other foods.
3. Microorganism multiplication on or in foods frequently is the major cause of food deterioration.
Microorganisms capable of spoiling food are found everywhere-in the;  soil,  water, and air; on the skins of
cattle the feathers of poultry; In the intestines and other cavities of the animal body.
They are found in following areas on the skins,  peels of fruits and vegetables,  and on the hulls of grain and the
shells of nuts.,  food processing equipment that has not been sanitized,  on the hands, skin,  clothing of food-handling
personnel.
How Microorganism is threat for Human race…
1. microorganisms generally are not found within healthy living tissue-such as within the flesh of animals, or the flesh or
juice of plants
2. But they are always present to invade the flesh of plants or animals through a break in the skin, or if the skin is
weakened by disease or death.
3. In this case they may digest the skin and penetrate through it to the tissue below
4. In nearly all cases, the presence of spoilage organisms in foods is a result of contamination (Polluting).
How to reduce food spoilage?
1. One of the major strategies in reducing food spoilage due to microorganisms is to reduce contamination by ensuring
good sanitation practices.
2. Milk from a healthy cow is sterile as secreted, but becomes contaminated as it passes through the teat canals, which are
body cavities. Milk becomes further contaminated from dirt on the cow's hide, from the air, from dirty utensils and
containers, and so on.
3. Beef becomes contaminated when the animal is slaughtered and the protective skin is broken, especially during cutting.
4. Fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts become contaminated when the skins or shells are broken or weakened.
5. This is also true of healthy eggs. The inside of a healthy egg is sterile, but the shell of the egg can be highly
contaminated from passage through the chicken's body cavity at time oflaying.
Definition
Bacteria are single-celled organisms, many of which can be classified into one of three types based on the shape of
individual cells.
1. These are the spherical shapes represented by several forms of cocci, the rod shape of the bacilli, and spiral forms
possessed by the spirilla and vibrios.
2. Many bacteria can move by means of whiplike flagella
3. Some bacteria, yeast, and all molds produce spores, which are seedlike packets and which under proper conditions can
germinate into full-sized cells called "vegetative cells.
“Spores (a small usually single celled asexual reproductive body produced by many nonflowering plants fungi and some
other bacteria that are capable of developing into a new individual without sexual fusion) are remarkably resistant to heat,
chemicals, and other adverse conditions.
1. Bacterial spores are far more resistant than yeast or mold spores, and more resistant to most processing conditions than
vegetative cells.
2. Sterilization processes are designed specifically to inactivate these are highly resistant bacterial spores.
3. All bacteria associated with foods are small.
4. Most are of the order of one to a few micrometers (fJ.m) in length and somewhat smaller than this in diameter.
Definition
Yeasts are somewhat larger, of the order of 20 j.Lm or so in individual cell length and about a third this size in diameter.
Most yeasts are spherical or ellipsoidal.
Definition
Molds are still larger and more complex in structure. They grow by a network of hairlike fibers called mycelia and send
up fruiting bodies that produce mold spores referred to as conidia.
Signs of Molds presence..
1. The blackness of bread mold
2. the blue-colored veins of blue cheese are due to conidia;
3. beneath the fruiting heads,
4. the hair-like mycelia anchor the mold to the food
Mycelia are 1 jelly or so in thickness and, like bacteria, can penetrate the smallest opening; in the case of a weakened fruit
skin or egg shell, they can digest the skin and make their own route of penetration. Bacteria, yeasts, and molds can attack
virtually all food constituents. Some ferment sugars and hydrolyze starches and cellulose; others hydrolyze fats and
produce rancidity; some digest proteins and produce putrid and ammonia like odors. Other types form acid and make food
sour, produce gas and make food foamy, and form pigments and discolor foods.
A few produce toxins and give rise to food poisoning. When food is contaminated under natural conditions, several types
of organisms will be present together and contribute to a complex of simultaneous or sequential changes, which may
include production of
1. acid and gas
2. putrefaction,
3. And discoloration.
How bacteria multiply their quantity
1. Most bacteria multiply best at temperatures between 16°C and 38°C; these are termed mesophilic.
2. Some will grow at temperatures down to the freezing point of water and are called psychrotrophic or psychrophilic.
3. Others will grow at temperatures as high as 82°C, and we call these thermophilic.
4. The spores of many bacteria will survive prolonged exposure to boiling water and then multiply when the temperature
is lowered.
5. Some bacteria and all molds require oxygen for growth and are called aerobic.
6. Other bacteria will not grow unless all free oxygen is absent and are designated anaerobic.
7. Still others can grow under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions and are called facultative.
8. Most important is the tremendous rate at which bacteria and other microorganisms can multiply. Bacteria multiply by
cell division. One cell becomes two, two become four, and so on in exponential fashion. Under favorable conditions,
bacteria can double their numbers every 30 min. Under such conditions milk with an initial bacterial count of 100,000 or
so per milliliter, which is not uncommon before pasteurization, if left standing at room temperature can reach a bacterial
population of about 25 million in 24 h, and over 5 billion per milliliter in 96 h.
Food-Borne Disease
 A special kind of food deterioration that may or may not alter a food's organoleptic properties has to do with food-borne
disease.
 Food-borne diseases are commonly classified as food infections or food intoxications.
 Whereas the distinction is sometimes imperfect, food infections involve microorganisms present in the food at time of
consumption which then grow in the host and cause illness and disease.
 Food intoxications involve toxic substances produced in foods as by-products of microorganisms prior to consumption
and cause disease upon ingestion. Where the toxin producer is a microorganism, it need not grow in the host to produce
disease or even be present in the food.
 Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum produce bacterial food poisoning by intoxication through the
production of specific bacterial toxins.

1. Produced by C. botulinum is one of the most toxic substances known.

 Certain molds produce mycotoxins, the best known being the allatoxins of Aspergillus flavus. Unlike the toxins of S.
aureus and C. botulinum, which are highly toxic to man, alIatoxins may be more toxic to domestic animals than to man.
However, their carcinogenic properties are cause for much concern since aflatoxins can be produced in a wide range of
cereals, legumes, nuts, and other products allowed to become moldy. When such products occur in feeds, a1latoxins may
subsequently be detected in the milk of animals consuming the feed and in cheese made from such milk.
 Many bacteria can transmit food-borne infections capable of causing human disease.
 Included
 Clostridium porringers
 numerous members of the genus Salmonella
 Shigella dysenteriae,
 Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
 Streptococcus pyogens
 Bacillus cereus,
 Campylobacter jejuni, and others.
A number of viral infections also may be contracted by man through contaminated food that has not been adequately
processed or handled.
 Including
 infectious hepatitis
 poliomyelitis
 various respiratory and intestinal disorders
Microorganisms which cause disease in humans are known as pathogenic or pathogens. Scientists are still learning about
food-borne diseases. Over the last decade or so, several bacteria that had not been thought to be transmitted by food and
cause human disease have been found to do just that.
 Chief among these "newer" pathogens are
 Aeromonas hydrophila
 Yersinia enterocolitica
 Listeria monocytogenes
 Vibrio parahaemolyticus
 a particular type of Escherichia coli called 0157:H7.
Of particular importance is the recent discovery that some food-borne pathogenic bacteria can multiply at temperatures as
low as 3.3°C (38°F). This means that temperatures which have been considered good for refrigerated storage may not
always keep food from becoming a hazard. Considerable research is ongoing into ways to further protect foods from these
psychrotrophic pathogens. Some of the causes of food intoxications and infections are listed in Table 7.2, along with the
types of foods usually involved and general comments on corrective practices.
Insects, Parasites, and Rodents Insects are particularly destructive to cereal grains and to fruits and vegetables. Both in
the field and in storage it has been estimated that insects destroy 5-10% of the U.S. grain crop annually. In some parts of
the world the figure may be in excess of 50%. The insect problem is not just one of how much an insect can eat, but when
insects eat, they damage the food and open it to bacterial, yeast, and mold infection, causing further destruction.
Some measures for controlling Insects..
2. Insects have been controlled in stored grain, fruit, and spices by the use of pesticides, inert atmospheres, or cold
temperatures.
3. The use of chemical pesticides on foods continues to raise questions of possible toxic effects and maximum safe levels,
and there are currently active programs to increase plant resistance and other biological-based methods of insect control.
4. Genetic engineering, for example, offers the possibility of producing food plants which have the genes to make
chemicals which are toxic to insects. When the pest eats the plant, the toxicant kills the insect. Many of these toxicants are
only effective on insects and of little concern for humans or the environment.
5. Insect eggs may persist, or be laid, in food after processing, as for example in flour.
6. An interesting method of destroying insect eggs is to throw the flour with high impact against a hard surface as in a
centrifuge-type machine known as an Entoleter. The impact destroys the eggs. They remain in the flour, but no further
insect multiplication results.
Inspection of foods for insect contamination, which the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act defines.” The life cycle of
the common Drosophila fruit fly progresses through the egg, larval, pupal, and adult fly stages. It is virtually impossible to
produce and transport grains and other food commodities completely devoid of insects and insect parts and so the Food
and Drug Administration recognizes certain low levels of insect contamination as tolerable and takes action when these
levels are exceeded. For example, the acceptable levels for Drosophila eggs and larvae in tomato products are indicated.”
 Commodities containing highly destructive insects are prohibited from import, export, and sometimes transport across
state lines. In the United States, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the USDA is responsible for such
regulations.
 Some states and many countries prohibit fresh fruits and vegetables from being imported in order to try and prevent
spread of the insects.
 An important food-borne parasite is the trichinosis nematode, Trichinella spiralis, which can enter hogs eating
uncooked food wastes. The nematode penetrates the hog's intestines and finds its way into the pork. If the meat is not
thoroughly cooked, the live worm can infect man. It also is possible to destroy the nematode by frozen storage. All pork
and pork products are government inspected, but as a further safeguard they should be thoroughly cooked before being
consumed.
Heat Preservation and Processing: Of the various means of preserving foods, the use of heat finds very wide
application. The simple acts of cooking, frying, broiling, or otherwise heating foods prior to consumption are forms of
food preservation. In addition to making foods more tender and palatable, cooking destroys a large proportion of the
microorganisms and natural enzymes in foods; thus, cooked foods generally can be held longer than uncooked foods.
However, cooking generally does not sterilize a product, so even if it is protected from recontamination, food will spoil in
a comparatively short period of time. This time is prolonged if the cooked foods are refrigerated. These are common
household practices. Another feature of cooking is that it is usually the last treatment food receives prior to being
consumed. The toxin that can be formed by Clostridium botulinum is destroyed by a 10-min exposure to moist heat at
100°C. Properly processed commercial foods will be free of this toxin. Cooking provides a final measure of protection in
those unfortunate cases where a processing error does occur, or a faulty food container becomes contaminated. However,
heat preservation of food generally refers to controlled processes that are performed commercially, such as blanching,
pasteurizing, and canning.
DEGREES OF PRESERVATION It is important to recognize that there are various degrees of preservation by heating,
and that commercial heat-preserved foods are not truly sterile. A few terms must be defined and understood.
 Sterilization refers to the complete destruction of microorganisms. Because of the resistance of certain bacterial spores
to heat, this frequently requires a treatment of at least 121°C of wet heat for 15 min or its equivalent. It also means that
every particle of the food must receive this heat treatment. If a can of food is to be sterilized, then immersing it into a
121°C pressure cooker or retort for 15 min will not be sufficient because of the relatively slow rate of heat transfer
through the food into the can. Depending on the size of the can, the effective time to achieve true sterility may be several
hours. During this time there can be many changes in the food which reduce its quality. Fortunately, many foods need not
be completely sterile to be safe and have keeping quality.
 Commercially Sterile The term commercially sterile or the word "sterile" (in quotes), sometimes seen in the literature,
means that degree of sterilization at which all pathogenic and toxinforming organisms have been destroyed, as well as all
other types of organisms which if present could grow in the product and produce spoilage under normal handling and
storage conditions. Commercially sterilized foods may contain a small number of heatresistant bacterial spores, but these
will not normally multiply in the food supply. However, if they were isolated from the food and given special
environmental conditions, they could be shown to be alive. Most canned and bottled food products are commercially
sterile and have a shelflife of 2 years or more. Even after longer periods, so-called deterioration is generally due to texture
or flavor changes rather than to microorganism growth.
Pasteurization involves a comparatively low order of heat treatment, generally at temperature below the boiling point of
water. Pasteurization treatments, depending on the food, have two different primary objectives. In the case of some
products, notably milk and liquid eggs, pasteurization processes are specifically designed to destroy pathogenic organisms
that may be associated with the food and could have public health significance. The second, more general, objective of
pasteurization is to extend product shelf life from a microbial and enzymatic point of view. This is the objective when
beer, wine, fruit juices, and certain other foods are pasteurized. In the latter case, these foods would not be expected to be
a source of pathogens, or would be protected by some other means of control. Pasteurized products will still contain many
living organisms capable of growth-of the order of thousands per milliliter or per gram-limiting the storage life compared
to commercially sterile products. Pasteurization frequently is combined with another means of preservation, and many
pasteurized foods must be stored under refrigeration. Pasteurized milk may be kept stored in a home refrigerator for a
week or longer without developing significant off-flavors. Stored at room temperature, however, pasteurized milk may
spoil in a day or two. Pasteurization is not limited to liquid foods. A newer application is the steaming of oysters in the
shell to reduce bacterial counts.
Blanching is a kind of pasteurization generally applied to fruits and vegetables primarily to inactivate natural food
enzymes. This is common practice when such products are to be frozen, since frozen storage in itself would not
completely arrest enzyme activity. Blanching, depending on its severity, also will destroy some microorganisms, as
pasteurization will inactivate some enzymes.
BIOAVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS: As with protein, the contents of other nutrients in foods determined by
chemical or physical analysis may be quite misleading in terms of the nutrient status of a food. Apart from amount, what
is important is whether the nutrient is in a form that can be utilized in metabolism; that is, whether the nutrient is
bioavailable. For example, adding small iron pellets to cereals would increase their iron content, but the iron would not be
very available to people eating the cereal and, therefore, be of little value. Many factors influence a nutrient's
bioavailability, including the food's digestibility and the nutrient's absorbability from the intestinal tract, which are
affected by nutrient binding to indigestible constituents and nutrient-nutrient interactions in food raw materials.
Processing and cooking procedures also can influence nutrient bioavailability. Apart from the food itself, different animal
species exhibit variations in bioavailability of specific nutrients from a particular food. The age, sex, physiological health,
consumption of drugs, general nutritional status, combinations of foods eaten together, and other factors all influence the
ability of an individual to make use of a particular nutrient. Bioavailability of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and
minerals may be increased or decreased since all nutrients are reactive and generally present in varying amounts in food
systems. There are many examples of how food composition, processing, and storage affect nutrient bioavailability. One
example is the essential mineral iron. Under practical conditions its bioavailability from foods may be only 1-10% of its
total level determined by chemical analysis. The recommended dietary allowances for nutrients in the United States and
other countries attempt to take bioavailability into account. However, the many factors influencing nutrient bioavailability
and the difficulties inherent in meaningful evaluation procedures leave much research in this area still to be done.
APPEARANCE FACTORS
In addition to size, shape, and wholeness, pattern (e.g., the way olives are laid out in a jar or sardines in a can) can be an
important appearance factor. Wholeness refers to degree of whole and broken pieces; the price of canned pineapple goes
down from the whole rings, to chunks, to bits. Appearance also encompasses the positive and negative aspects of properly
molded blue-veined cheeses, and the defect of moldy bread, as well as the quality attribute of ground vanilla bean specks
in vanilla ice cream, and the defect of specks and sediment from extraneous matter. Although some ice cream
manufacturers have added ground vanilla bean as a mark of highest quality, others have concluded that as often as not a
less-sophisticated consumer misinterprets these specks and rejects the product.
Size and Shape are easily measured and are important factors in federal and state grade standards. Fruits and vegetables
can be graded for size by the openings they will pass through. The simple devices shown in Fig. 6.2 were the forerunners
of current high-speed automatic separating and grading machines, although they are still used to some extent in field
grading and in laboratory work. Size also can be approximated by weight after rough grading, for example, determining
the weight of a dozen eggs. Shape may have more than visual importance, and the grades of certain types of pickles
include the degree of curvature (Fig. 6.3). Such curiosities can become quite important, especially in the design of
machines to replace hand operations. When an engineer attempts to design a machine for automatically filling pickles into
jars at high speeds, it must be recognized that all pickles are not shaped the same, and a machine that will dispense round
objects like olives or cherries can be totally inadequate. Mechanized kitchen, restaurant, and vending systems for rapid
mass feeding have become commonplace. Some of the most difficult engineering problems encountered in such facilities
were in designing equipment that would dispense odd-shaped food pieces into moving dishes.
Color and Gloss Food color not only helps to determine quality, it can tell us many things. Color is commonly an index
of ripeness or spoilage. Potatoes darken in color as they are friedand we judge the endpoint of frying by color. The
bleaching of dried tomato powder on storage can be indicative of too high an oxygen level in the headspace of the
package, whereas the darkening of dried tomato can reflect too high a final moisture level in the powder. The color of a
food foam or batter varies with its density and can indicate a change in mixing efficiency. The surface color of chocolate
is a clue to its storage history. These and many other types of color changes can be accurately measured in the laboratory
and in the plant-all influence or reflect food quality. If the food is a transparent liquid such as wine, beer, or grape juice, or
if a colored extract can be obtained from the food, then various types of colorimeters or spectrophotometers can be used
for color measurement. With these instruments, a tube of the liquid is placed in a slot and light of selected wavelength is
passed through the tube. This light will be differentially absorbed depending on the color of the liquid and the intensity of
this color. Two liquids of exactly the same color and intensity will transmit equal fractions of the light directed through
them. If one of the liquids is a juice and the other is the same juice somewhat diluted with water, the latter sample will
transmit a greater fraction of the incoming light and this will cause a proportionately greater response on the instrument.
Such an instrument can also measure the clarity or cloudiness of a liquid depending on the amount of light the liquid lets
pass. There are several other methods for measuring the color of liquids. If the food is liquid or a solid, we can measure its
color by comparing the reflected color to defined colored tiles or chips. The quality control inspector changes tiles until
the closest color match is made and then defines the color of the food as being identical to the matching tile or falling
between the two nearest tiles. Working with tomato products, one would need to have only a few green and red disks to
cover the usual range of tomato color. The grade standards for tomatoes have been based on such a method. Color
measurement can be further quantified. Light reflected from a colored object can be divided into three components, which
have been termed value, hue, and chroma. Value refers to the lightness or darkness of the color or the amount of white
versus black; hue to the predominant wavelength reflected, which determines what the perceived color is (red, green,
yellow, blue, etc); and chroma refers to the intensity strength ofthe color. The color of an object can be precisely defined
in terms of numerical values of these three components. Another three-dimensional coordinate scale for describing color
utilizes the attributes oflightness-darkness, yellowness-blueness, and rednessgreenness. These dimensions of color, used
in tri-stimulus colorimetry, can be quantified by instruments such as the Hunterlab Color and Color Difference Mete.
Food samples having the same three numbers have the same color. These numbers, as well as numbers representing value,
hue, and chroma, vary with color in a systematic fashion that can be graphed to produce a chromaticity diagram (Fig. 6.5).
The color chemist and quality controller can relate these numbers to color, and through changes in the numbers can follow
gross or minute changes in products that may occur during ripening, processing, or storage. In similar fashion a quality
controller can define the color of a product and relate this information to distant plants to be matched at any future date.
This is particularly useful where the food color is so unstable as to make the forwarding of a standard sample unfeasible.
As with color, there are light-measuring instruments that quantitatively define the shine, or gloss, of a food surface. Gloss
is important to the attractiveness of gelatin desserts, buttered vegetables, and the like.
Consistency Although consistency may be considered a textural quality attribute, in many instances we can see
consistency and so it also is another factor in food appearance. A chocolate syrup may be thin-bodied or thick and
viscous; a tomato sauce can be thick or thin. Consistency of such foods is measured by their viscosity, higher viscosity
products being of higher consistency and lower viscosity being lower consistency. The simplest method to determine
consistency is to measure the time it takes for the food to run through a small hole of a known diameter; or one can
measure the time it takes for more viscous foods to flow down an inclined plane using the Bostwick Consistometer (Fig.
6.6). This device might be used for ketchup, honey, or sugar syrup. These devices are called viscometers. There are
several other types of viscometers using such principles as the resistance of the food to a falling weight such as a ball, and
the time it takes the ball to travel a defined distance; and resistance to the rotation of a spindle, which can be measured by
the power requirements of the motor or the amount of twist on a wire suspending the spindle. Viscometers range from the
quite simple as shown above to highly sophisticated electronic instruments.
TEXTURAL FACTORS Texture refers to those qualities of food that we can feel either with the fingers, the tongue, the
palate, or the teeth. The range of textures in foods is very great, and a departure from an expected texture is a quality
defect. We expect chewing gum to be chewy, crackers and potato chips to be crisp, and steak to be compressible and
shearable between the teeth. The consumer squeezes melons and bread as a measure of texture which indicates the degree
of ripeness and freshness. In the laboratory, more precise methods are available. However, the squeezing device in Fig.
6.7 gives only an approximation of freshness, since the reading also depends on the stiffness ofthe wrapping and the
looseness with which the bread slices are packed.
Measuring Texture Food texture can be reduced to measurements of resistance to force. Iffood is squeezed so that it
remains as one piece, this is compression-as with the squeezing of bread. If a force is applied so that one part of the food
slides past another, it is shearing-as in the chewing of gum. A force that goes through the food so as to divide it causes
cutting-as in cutting an apple. A force applied away from the material results in tearing or pulling apart, which is a
measure of the food's tensile strength-as in pulling apart a muffin. When we chew a steak, what we call toughness or
tenderness is really the yielding of the meat to a composite of all of these different kinds of forces. There are instruments
to measure each kind of force, many with appropriate descriptive names but none exactly duplicate what occurs in the
mouth. Many specialized test instruments have been devised to measure some attribute of texture. For example, a
succulometer (Fig. 6.8) uses compression to squeeze juice out of food as a measure of succulence. A tenderometer applies
compression and shear to measure the tenderness of peas. A universal testing machine fitted with the appropriate devices
can measure firmness and crispness and other textural parameters (Fig. 6.9). This and similar instruments frequently are
connected to a moving recording chart. The time-force curve traced on the chart gives a graphic representation of the
rheological properties of the food item. When an apple half is tested, the tracing would show an initial high degree of
force required to break the skin, and then a change in force as the compressing-shearing element enters and passes through
the apple pulp. Various forms of penetrometers are in use. These generally measure the force required to move a plunger a
fixed distance through a food material. A particular penetrometer used to measure gel strength is the Bloom Gelometer. In
this device, lead shot is automatically dropped into a cup attached to the plunger. The plunger positioned above the gel
surface moves a fixed distance through the gel until it makes contact with a switch that cuts off the flow of lead shot. The
weight of shot in grams, which is proportional to the firmness of the gel, is reported as degrees Bloom. This is one way of
measuring the "strength" of gelatin and the consistency of gelatin desserts. Another kind of penetrometer, also referred to
as a tenderometer, utilizes a multipleneedle probe that is pressed into the rib eye muscle of raw beef (Fig. 6.10). The force
needed is sensed by a transducer and displayed on a meter. The carefully engineered needle probe was designed to give
readings that correlate with the tenderness of the meat after cooking, while at the same time not altering the raw meat for
further use. Several of the above methods for measuring texture alter the food sample being tested, so that it cannot be
returned to a production batch. Since there are correlations between color and texture in some instances, there are
applications where color may be used as an indication of acceptable texture. Under controlled conditions automatic color
measurement may then be used as a nondestructive measure of texture; this is done in the evaluation of the ripeness of
certain fruits and vegetables moving along conveyor belts. Another nondestructive indication of texture is obtained by the
experienced cheesemaker who thumps the outside of a cheese and listens to the sound. This gives a rough indication of the
degree of eye formation during ripening of Swiss cheese. One of the newer methods of nondestructive texture
measurement makes use of sonic energy, which is absorbed to different extents depending on the firmness of an object.
Texture Changes The texture of foods, like shape and color, does not remain constant. Water changes playa major role.
Foods also can change texture on ageing. Texture of fresh fruit and vegetables becomes soggy as the cell walls break
down and the cells lose water. This is referred to as loss of turgor. As more water is lost from the fruit, it becomes dried
out, tough, and chewy. This is desirable in the case of dried apricots, prunes, and raisins. Bread and cake in the course of
becoming stale lose some water and this is a quality defect. Steaming the bread refreshes it somewhat by softening the
texture. Crackers, cookies, and pretzels must be protected against moisture pickup that would soften texture. Quite apart
from changes in the texture of unprocessed foods, there are the textural aspects of processed foods. For example, lipids are
softeners and lubricants that the baker blends into a cake formula to tenderize cake. Starch and numerous gums are
thickeners; they increase viscosity. Protein in solution can be a thickener, but if the solution is heated and the protein
coagulates, it can form a rigid structure as in the case of cooked egg white or coagulated gluten in baked bread. Sugar
affects texture differently depending on its concentration. In dilute solution it adds body and mouthfeel to soft drinks. In
concentrated solution it adds thickening and chewiness. In still higher concentrations it crystallizes and adds brittleness as
in hard candies. The food manufacturer not only can blend food constituents into an endless number of mixtures but may
use countless approved ingredients and chemicals to help modify texture.
1 Food Deterioration and its Causes
2 Main IdeaWhat is food deterioration, and how can food science minimize its effects?
3 Food deterioration includes: changes in organoleptic quality (how something is perceived by a sensory
organ)nutritional valuefood safetyaesthetic appealcolortextureflavorTo some degree, all foods undergo deterioration after
harvest.The role of food science is to minimize negative changes as much as possible.
4 CATEGORIES OF DETERIORATION occurs when a food is consumed that contains a chemical toxic to humans.
Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum produce toxins. Molds in foods produce mycotoxins like aflatoxin that
are not destroyed by heat.
5 Insects:Insect damage can be minor, but this wounds the tissue for additional damage by microorganisms.Controls for
insects include pesticides, inert atmosphere and cold storage.
6 The three general categories of food deterioration are: PhysicalChemicalBiologicalFactors that cause food
deterioration include: light, cold, heat, oxygen, moisture, dryness, other types of radiation, enzymes, microorganisms,
time, industrial contaminants and macroorganisms (insects, mice, and so on).
7 Table 1. Useful Shelf Life at 70 F Food DaysMeat to2Fish to 2Poultry to 2Dried, smoked meat 360+Fruits to 7
8 Table 1. Useful Shelf Life at 70 F Food DaysLeafy vegetables 1 to 2Root Crops 7 to 20Dried seeds
9 SHELF LIFE AND DATING OF FOODS There is a time limit for the usefulness of all foods. This time limit depends
on the type of food, the storage conditions and other factors. If food is held at about 70 F (21 C) its useful life varies as
shown in Table 1.
10 SHELF LIFE AND DATING OF FOODS Shelf life is the time required for a food product to reach an unacceptable
quality. This length of time depends on the food item (Table 1), the processing method, packaging and storage conditions.
Food manufacturers put code dates on their products. "Pack date" is the date of manufacture. The date of display is called
the "display date," and the "sell by date" is the last day to sell. Some foods have a "best used by date," or the last date of
maximum quality. The "expiration date" indicates when the food is no longer acceptable.
11 WHAT CAUSES FOOD DETERIORATION? Specific causes of food deterioration are listed below. Deterioration
can be caused by one or more of the following:Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast and molds;Activity of food
enzymes;Infestations by insects, parasites and rodents;Inappropriate temperatures during processing and storage;Gain or
loss of moisture;Reaction with oxygen;Light;Physical stress or abuse; andTime.
12 Bacteria, yeast, moldThousands of species of microorganisms exist, and a few hundred are associated with foods. Not
all are bad; in fact, some are desirable in food preservation. Microorganisms are found in the soil, water and air; on animal
skins, plant surfaces and digestive tracts; but they are usually not present in healthy tissue.Bacteria are single-celled
organisms occurring in three shapes: round (cocci), rod (bacilli) and spiral (spirilla and vibrios). Some produce spores
which are resistant to heat, chemicals and other adverse conditions.
13 Bacteria, yeast, mold:Yeasts are the largest of the microorganisms but are still single cells, and some produce
spores.Molds are larger than bacteria. They are often filamentous and they all produce spores.In foods, these
microorganisms attack basically all the food components -- including sugars, starches, cellulose, fats and proteins.
Depending on the food and the microorganism, the action on food could be to produce acids, making the food sour, or to
produce alcohol. Some microorganisms produce gas, making the food foamy, while others produce unwanted pigments or
toxins.
14 Bacteria, yeast, mold:Environmental conditions that affect microbial growth include temperature and oxygen.
Microbes that prefer cold temperatures are said to be pyschrophilic. Mesophilic microorganisms prefer normal
temperatures, while thermophilic microorganisms prefer hot temperatures. Bacteria or molds that require atmospheric
oxygen are said to be aerobic, while those yeasts and bacteria that do not require atmospheric oxygen are called anaerobic.
Facultative microorganisms are adaptive, and can survive in either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Obligative
microorganisms are capable of survival in only one or the other situation.
15 Foodborne disease:Humans may be infected by eating a food containing a microorganism. Infections can be caused by
Clostridium perfringen, Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli (E. coli 0157) and several others. Food intoxication
16 Food enzymes:All foods from living tissues have enzymes. Most of these enzymes will survive harvest or slaughter. At
the time of harvest or slaughter, enzymes that control digestion and respiration proceed uncontrolled and cause tissue
damage. Some of the post-harvest enzymatic reactions are actually desirable, as in the ripening of tomatoes and the aging
or tenderizing of beef. Enzyme action can be controlled by heat, chemicals and radiation.
17 Heat and cold:Normal harvest temperatures range from 50 to 100 F. The higher the temperature, the faster biochemical
reactions occur. In fact, the rate of chemical reactions doubles with each 10 degree rise in temperature. On the other hand,
sub-freezing temperatures damage tissues. Cold temperatures may also cause discoloration, change the texture, break an
emulsion and denature protein. Chilling can injure the tissue of fruits as well.
18 Oxygen:Chemical oxidation reactions can destroy vitamins (especially A and C), alter food colors, cause off-flavors
and promote the growth of molds.
19 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION Food preservation involves the use of heat, cold, drying (water activity
or Aw), acid (pH), sugar and salt, smoke, atmosphere, chemicals, radiation and mechanical methods.
20 Heat:Most bacteria are killed at 180 to 200 F, but spores are not. To ensure sterility, you must have wet heat at 250 F
for 15 minutes. High acid foods require the same temperature of heat for less time.
21 Cold:Most microbial growth slows at temperatures under 50 F. Some bacteria, called psychrophiles, actually thrive at
relatively low temperatures and will continue slow growth. Foods frozen at less than 14 F usually do not have any free
water, so these foods also benefit from low water activity to help protect against microbial growth. Freezing may kill
some but not all of the microorganisms.
22 Drying:Drying reduces the water activity (Aw) in a food. Since microorganisms contain about 80 percent moisture,
drying or dehydrating the food also dehydrates the microorganism. Changing the amount of water in a food also alters the
rate of enzyme activity and other chemical reactions.
23 Acid:As the food becomes more acid (lower pH) the heat required for sterilization is reduced. For example, the pH of
corn is about 6.5. At 226 F, 15 minutes are required to destroy C. botulinum spores. The pH of pears is about 3.8 and only
5 minutes are necessary to destroy C. botulinum at 226 F. Acid may occur naturally in foods, be produced by fermentation
or be added artificially.
24 Sugar, salt and smoke:Sugar, salt and smoke are chemical means of controlling food deterioration. The addition of
sugar or salt to a food item increases the affinity of the food for water. This removes the water from the microorganism
through osmosis.Smoke contains formaldehyde and other preservatives. The heat involved with adding the smoke helps
reduce the microbial populations and it dries the food somewhat.
25 Atmosphere:Changing the storage atmosphere reduces food deterioration. The growth of aerobes is slowed by
removing the oxygen, while providing oxygen limits the growth of anaerobes. Adding carbon dioxide or nitrogen also
slows deterioration.
26 Chemicals:Chemical additives such as sodium benzoate, sorbic acid, sodium or calcium propionate and sulphur
dioxide retard the growth of microorganisms, modify enzyme activity, inhibit chemical reactions or modify the structure
of foods
27 Radiation:Radiation includes X-rays, microwave, ultraviolet light and gamma rays. Radiation can destroy
microorganisms and inactivate enzymes.
28 Food Sanitation Definition: Must include
protection from contaminationMust includeall functionsoperationsFood productsOngoing / Dynamic (ever
changing)“Sanitation is a Way of Life”
29 Temperature Control Danger zone (40ºF to 140ºF) Thermometers
Food Temperatures:Danger zone (40ºF to 140ºF)ThermometersMonitor temperaturesThawing
30 Hygiene and Personnel Practices
People are the # 1 considerationRules:SettingFollowingBreaking
31 Hygiene and Personnel Practices
Sanitation program is an attitudeWillingnessEffortOngoing training
32 Hygiene and Personnel Practices
Personnel Training:Appropriate sanitation principlesFood handling practicesManufacturing controlsPersonal hygiene
practices
33 Sanitation Principles/Food Handling
TrainingShould instill understanding of processing stepsTechnology for each productWhere problems existDesire to
satisfy consumersGuard consumer’s interests
34 Manufacturing Controls/Essential Operations
PersonnelMust be trained in critical elementsImportance of these operationsMonitoring these operationsAction to be
takenCertification ProgramsEx. Heat processing equipmentDevelop specific training programs
35 Hygienic Practices Communicable diseases/ Injuries Hand Washing
Personal Cleanliness/ Conduct
36 Communicable Diseases
Restricted access forPeople known to carry or suffer from transmitted diseases through foodRestricted from any food-
handling areasPersons afflicted withInfected woundsSkin infectionsSoresOpen cutsCompletely coveredSecurewaterproof
37 Hand Washing Facilities Personnel Hot water hand washing station
Convenient to food handling areaPersonnelWash hands with soapWarm running, potable waterMust be washedAfter
handling contaminated materialsUsing toilet facilitiesDisinfectant hand dips
38 Personal Cleanliness/Conduct
Must be maintained in food handling operationsPPESanitary clothingHair coveringFootwearProperly maintained
PPEGlovesRemove all jewelryTobacco, gum, and food are not permitted
39 EXERCISES1. Read the labels on food in your home, in a grocery store or on items you buy during the day. Make a
list of the date codes on five different foods. List the "sell by date," the "best used by date," and the "expiration date" for
as many of the foods as you can. Discuss these in class.
40 EXERCISES:2. Leave a food such as meat, bread, fruit and so on at room temperature and describe the changes in
food quality. Discuss these with the class and try to categorize the changes and their causes.
41 EXERCISES:3. Why is the occurrence of E. coli 0157 in food such a worry?
42 EXERCISES:4. What is the chemical makeup of enzymes and how many enzymes exist?
Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the consumer. The cause of such a
process is due to many outside factors as a side-effect of the type of product it is, as well as how the product is packaged
and stored. Due to food spoilage, one-third of the worlds' food produced for the consumption of humans is lost every
year. Bacteria and various fungi are the cause of spoilage and can create serious consequences for the consumers, but
there are preventative measures that can be taken.
Bacteria are responsible for the spoilage of food. When bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are
created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the waste products may be unpleasant to taste
or may even be harmful to one's health. There are two types of pathogenic bacteria that target different categories of food.
The first type is called Clostridium perfingen and targets foods such as meat and poultry, and Bacillus cereus, which
targets milk and cream. When stored or subjected to unruly conditions, the organisms will begin to breed apace, releasing
harmful toxins that can cause severe illness, even when cooked safely.
Fungi has been seen as a method of food spoilage, causing only an undesirable appearance to food, however, there has
been significant evidence of various fungi being a cause of death of many people spanning across hundreds of years in
many places through the world. Fungi are caused by acidifying, fermenting, discoloring and disintegrating processes and
can create fuzz, powder and slimes of many different colors, including black, white, red, brown and green.
Mold is a type of fungus, but the two terms are not reciprocal of each other; they have their own defining features and
perform their own tasks. Very well known types of mold are Aspergillus and Penicillium, and, like regular fungi, create a
fuzz, powder and slime of various colors.
Yeast is also a type of fungus that grows vegetatively via single cells that either bud or divide by way of fission, allowing
for yeast to multiply in liquid environments favoring the dissemination of single celled microorganisms. Yeast forms
mainly in liquid environments and anaerobic conditions, but being single celled, it oftentimes cannot spread on or into
solid surfaces where other fungus flourish. Yeast also produces at a slower rate than bacteria, therefore being at a
disadvantage in environments where bacteria are. Yeasts can be responsible for the decomposition of food with a high
sugar content. The same effect is useful in the production of various types of food and beverages, such
as bread, yogurt, cider, and alcoholic beverages.
Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a
change in texture, an unpleasant odour, or an undesirable taste. The item may become softer than normal. If mold occurs,
it is often visible externally on the item.
Consequences Spoilage bacteria do not normally cause "food poisoning"; typically, the microorganisms that
cause foodborne illnesses are odorless and flavourless, and otherwise undetectable outside the lab. Eating deteriorated
food could not be considered safe due to mycotoxins or microbial wastes. Some pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium
perfringens and Bacillus cereus, are capable of causing spoilage. Issues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do
with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has
been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of fungus, was linked to human
diseases and 100 years ago in Japan, yellow rice was found to contain toxic ingredients.
Prevention A number of methods of prevention can be used that can either totally prevent, delay, or otherwise reduce
food spoilage. A food rotation system uses the first in first out method (FIFO), which ensures that the first item purchased
is the first item consumed. Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food and can lengthen the time long enough for it to
be harvested, processed, sold, and kept in the consumer's home for a reasonable length of time. One of the age old
techniques for food preservation, to avoid mold and fungus growth, is the process of drying out the food or dehydrating it.
While there is a chance of it developing a fungus targeted towards dried food products, the chances are quite low. Other
than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high
hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it
does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of
food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food
is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does
have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents
spoilage. Food like meat, poultry, milk and cream should be kept out of the Danger Zone (between 40°F to 140°F).
Anything between that range is considered dangerous and can cause pathogenic toxins to be emitted, resulting in severe
illness in the consumer. Another way to keep your food from spoiling is by following a four step system: Clean, Separate,
Cook, Chill. This will reduce any risks.
Causes of Food Deterioration If food items are kept for a long period of time and not stored properly, they get spoil such
food items are bad for health. When food items kept for a long time gets spoil as germs start growing on it. Once the food
is spoiled, it cannot be eaten and has to be thrown away. Spoilage is a process in which food items deteriorate to the point
in which it is not edible to human.
Causes of Spoilage The food and water may be infected by germs. Flies carry germs. When they sit on our food, they
pass on these germs to our food. There are various factors which are responsible for food spoilage such as bacteria, mould,
yeast, moisture, light, temperature, and chemical reaction.
1. Bacteria They are the most abundant microorganisms found on the earth. They are tiny in size and vary in shape. Some
bacteria are useful also. They help to convert milk into curd.
2. Protozoa They are single-celled microorganisms that cause disease like food poisoning etc.
3. Fungi They are found in damp and warm places and grow on the dead and rotting matter.
4. Temperature Temperature is one of the major factors which is responsible for food spoilage.
Signs of food spoilage Signs of food spoilage include an appearance different from the fresh food, such as a change in
color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odor or taste.
Food Preservation Food is valuable. Preserving food can help to avoid wasting of food. Food preservation involves
preventing the food from being spoilt. Preservation of food is the process by which food is stored by special methods.
Cooked or uncooked food can be preserved in different ways to be used later. Some methods of preservation are:
1. Freezing Food kept in a refrigerator remains fresh for some days. Germs do not grow easily in cool places. We
preserve food items, like milk fruit, vegetables and cooked food by keeping them in a refrigerator.
2. Boiling By this method, we can preserve food for a short period of time. Germs in milk are killed by pasteurization. It
is done by boiling milk for sometimes and then cooling it quickly.
3. Salting We can add salt to preserve pickles and fish.
4. Sweetening Excess sugar in food also acts as a preservative. We store food for a long time in the form of jams, jellies,
and murabbas by adding sugar.
5. Dehydration In this method, the food items are dried in sun to stop the growth of bacteria in them. Certain foods,
like raw mangoes, fishes, potato chips and papads are preserved by this method.
6. Canning In this method, air is removed from food and put in airtight cans so that germs do not grow on them. Food
items like vegetables, seafood, dairy products etc. Are preserved through this method.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of food preservation: Germs do not grow easily in preserved food and make it safe to eat.
Preservation enables us to enjoy seasonal fruits like strawberries and mangoes even during the offseason.
 Disadvantages of food preservation: Excess salt and sugar are used in the preservation of food which is not
good for health. Some methods of food preservation may lead to loss of nutrients.
Food spoilage can be defined as “any sensory change (tactile, visual, olfactory or flavour)” which the consumer considers
to be unacceptable. Spoilage may occur at any stage along food chain. Spoilage may arise from insect damage, physical
damage, indigenous enzyme activity in the animal or plant tissue or by microbial infections. Most natural foods have a
limited life. Perishable foods such as fish, meat and bread have a short life span. Other food can be kept for a considerably
longer time but decomposes eventually. Enzymes can bring about destruction of polymers in some foods while chemical
reactions such as oxidation and rancidity decompose others but the main single cause of food spoilage is invasion by
microorganisms such as moulds, yeast and bacteria. In case of mould spoilage a furry growth covers the food and it
becomes soft and often smells bad. Bacterial contamination is more dangerous because very often food does not look bad
even though severely infected, it may appear quite normal. The presence of highly dangerous toxins and bacterial spores
is often not detected until after an outbreak of food poisoning, laboratory examination uncovers the infecting agent. Key
words: Food spoilage, Enzymes, Bacterial contamination, Food poisoning, Perishable foods
Food spoilage is a metabolic process that causes foods to be undesirable or unacceptable for human consumption due to
changes in sensory characteristics. Spoiled foods may be safe to eat, i.e. they may not cause illness because there are no
pathogens or a toxin present, but changes in texture, smell, taste, or appearance cause them to be rejected. Some ecologists
have suggested these noxious smells are produced by microbes to repulse large animals, thereby keeping the food
resource for themselves [1]. Food loss, from farm to fork, causes considerable environmental and economic effects. The
USDA Economic Research Service estimated that more than ninety-six billion pounds of food in the U.S. were lost by
retailers, foodservice and consumers in 1995. Fresh produce and fluid milk each accounted for nearly 20% of this loss
while lower percentages were accounted for by grain piroducts (15.2%), caloric sweeteners (12.4%), processed fruits and
vegetables (8.6%), meat, poultry and fish (8.5%), and fat and oils (7.1%) [2]. Some of this food would have been
considered still edible but was discarded because it was perishable, past its sell-by date, or in excess of needs. There are
also environmental and resource costs associated with food spoilage and loss. If 20% of a crop is lost, then 20% of the
fertilizer and irrigation water used to grow that crop was also lost. Shelf life of a food is the time during which it remains
stable and retains its desired qualities. The wide array of available dairy foods challenges the microbiologist, engineer,
and technologist to find the best ways to prevent the entry of microorganisms, destroy those that do get in along with their
enzymes, and prevent the growth and activities of those that escape processing treatments. Troublesome spoilage
microorganisms include aerobic psychrotrophic Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, molds, heterofermentative lactobacilli,
and spore-forming bacteria. Psychrotrophic bacteria can produce large amounts of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes, and
the extent of recontamination of pasteurized fluid milk products with these bacteria is a major determinant of their shelf
life. Fungal spoilage of dairy foods is manifested by the presence of a wide variety of metabolic by-products, causing off-
odors and flavors, in addition to visible changes in color or texture.
Introduction: The microbial food spoilage is one type of food spoilage that is caused by microorganisms. Food spoilage
can define as the process in which the quality of the food deteriorates to some extent which is inconsumable for the person
to eat. Food spoilage occurs as a result of the microbial attack, enzymatic digestion, chemical degradation, physical injury
etc. The microbial food spoilage can be determined physically by the following:
 Change in appearance: The appearance of the food changes by the microbial attack, which forms cloudiness and
liquid formation in the food.
 Change in texture: Texture changes occur as a result of slime formation due to an accumulation of microbial
cells and tissue degradation.
 Colour change: Colour changes due to the chlorophyll breakdown and by the growth of mycelia.
 Change in taste and odour: The taste and odour of the food changes due to the oxidation of nitrogenous
compounds, sulphides, organic acids etc.
Content: Microbial Food Spoilage
1. Definition of Microbial Food Spoilage
2. Causes of Microbial Food Spoilage
3. Classification of Food
4. Microorganisms Involve in Food Spoilage
5. The Process of Microbial Food Spoilage
Definition of Microbial Food Spoilage”: Microbial food spoilage can define the biological process which involves
microorganisms can degrade and decompose the food material, at optimal environmental conditions (temperature, ph,
oxygen, moisture etc.) and brings some undesirable changes which make the food inedible to eat.
Causes of Microbial Food Spoilage: There are two
common factors which favour the growth and
multiplication of microorganisms, which includes:
Storage conditions of the food
The storage conditions basically involve two
environmental factors like temperature, pH and
oxygen that favours the microbial growth on food.
Temperature: The psychrophilic temperature i.e. -
17 is considered to be safe and can prevent the
growth of microorganisms. The temperature above this, refer as “Mesophilic temperature” which is the most favourable
for the microbial growth. The mesophilic temperature is in between 20-40 degrees Celsius. Therefore, the warm
temperature is optimal for microbial growth like mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms.
Oxygen: There are aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms which attack the food in storage conditions either in presence
or absence of oxygen. Aerobic storage conditions favour the aerobic bacteria and moulds. If there are anaerobic storage
conditions then it will favour the growth of anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium sp.
Chemical properties of the food: Chemical properties is another major factor which causes spoilage due to the food’s
own chemical properties. The chemical properties of the food that influence microbial growth includes:

The chemical composition of the food

In food, certain organic biomolecules like protein, carbohydrates and
fats are present which are necessary for the microbial growth.
Protein-rich foods:
In protein-rich foods, the microorganisms which attack are “ Proteolytic
microorganisms”. The proteolytic enzyme causes the degradation of
protein into simpler forms like amino acids, amines etc.

The proteolytic microorganisms include gram-negative, spore-forming

bacteria.
Carbohydrate-rich foods:
In carbohydrate-rich foods, the microorganisms which attack are “Carbohydrate fermenting microorganisms”.
Carbohydrate fermenting microorganisms causes the degradation of carbohydrate into the fermentative products by
producing acids, alcohols and gases.

The carbohydrate fermenting microorganisms include yeast, moulds and bacteria (Micrococcus sp., Streptococcus sp.
Etc.).
Fat rich foods: In fat-rich foods, the microorganisms which attack are “lipolytic microorganisms”. Lipolytic
microorganisms cause the degradation of fat into simpler forms like fatty acids, glycerol etc.

The lipolytic microorganisms include moulds and some gram-negative bacteria. The acidity of the food The pH below
4.5 does not allow the subsequent bacterial growth and are affected mostly by yeasts and moulds like in citrus fruits and
vegetables. The high pH allows bacterial growth occurs mainly in non-acid foods.
Moisture and osmotic concentration of food In food, 13% of the free water favours microbial growth. High sugar and
salt concentration prevent microbial growth. For the growth of moulds, the required sugar concentration is 65-70%. For
the growth of yeasts and bacteria, the required sugar concentration is 50%.
Classification of Food Based on the spoilage, the food can categorize into three
types:
Non-perishable food has no water content and can be stored for a long time. These
are having a long shelf life.
Semi-perishable food has less water content and can be stored for some time.
These are having a medium shelf life.
Perishable food has high water content and cannot store for a longer period. These are having a short shelf life.
The high water or moisture content is a factor which will directly influence the microbial growth, as water promotes the
growth of all living beings. Therefore, the food which is susceptible to the spoilage process refers to Perishable food.
Microorganisms Involve in Food Spoilage: There are commonly three kinds of microorganisms which causes food
spoilage are as follows:
Yeasts: These are the type of fungi which are single-celled and cause “Fermentation of food”. Yeasts are of two types
namely true yeasts and false yeasts. The favourable condition for the yeasts to cause food spoilage are low pH and low
moisture. True yeasts convert sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. False yeasts grow on the food surface as a dry film.
Mould: These are also the type of fungi, which are multicellular and produce a tough visible mass on the food surface
refers as “Mold growth”. These are aerobic organisms which require oxygen to grow, slightly acidic conditions, moisture,
a temperature of 20-40 degrees Celsius. Mostly affects the bread, cheese, meat etc.
Bacteria: These are the organisms which cause food spoilage at low moisture, warm environment (5-60 degrees Celsius),
neutral acidity and in the presence of oxygen.
The Process of Microbial Food Spoilage Microbial food spoilage
involves the following steps:
Microbes first attack the food: As the food contain all the nutrients
required by the microorganisms, at a favourable temperature, pH,
moisture, oxygen etc.
Food degradation: Microorganisms not only degrades the food
material by utilizing the nutrients available in the food but also
decompose the food material.
Decomposition: The enzymatic reaction occurs between the food
components like protein, lipid, fat, carbohydrates etc. and the
microbial enzymes which carry out some chemical changes.
Changes as a result of food decomposition: The changes appear in the form of appearance, texture, colour, taste, odour
etc. as a result of spoilage.
Food spoilage and deterioration is no accident. It is a naturally occurring process. To understand how to maintain the
quality of food and prevent spoilage, we need to know what can cause it. Factors that affect food spoilage include:
Microorganisms, Enzymes, Air, Light, Insects, Rodents, Parasites and Other Creatures, Physical Damage,
Temperature, Time
Microorganisms: Many types of microorganisms can cause food problems. The microorganisms that can cause food-
borne illness are called pathogenic microorganisms. These microorganisms grow best at room temperatures (60-90°F), but
most do not grow well at refrigerator or freezer temperatures. Pathogenic microorganisms may grow in foods without any
noticeable change in odor, appearance or taste. Spoilage microorganisms, including some kinds of bacteria, yeasts and
molds, can grow well at temperatures as low as 40°F. When spoilage microorganisms are present, the food usually looks
and/or smells awful
Enzymes: substances naturally present in food, are responsible for the ripening process in fruits and vegetables. Enzymes
are responsible for texture, color and flavor changes. For example, as a banana turns from green to yellow to brown, not
only does the color change, but there is also a change in the fruit'ss texture. Unblanched, frozen corn-on-the-cob may taste
like the cob over time. This is the result of enzyme action.
Air: Oxidation, a chemical process that produces undesirable changes in color, flavor and nutrient content, results when
air reacts with food components. When fats in foods become rancid, oxidation is responsible. Discoloration of light-
colored fruits can be reduced by using an antioxidant, such as ascorbic acid or citric acid, before freezing. Vapor-proof
packaging that keeps air out helps reduce oxidation problems.
Light exposure could result in color and vitamin loss. Light also may be responsible for the oxidation of fats.
Insects, Rodents, Parasites and Other CreaturesThese creatures require food to survive and damage food, making it
more vulnerable to further deterioration.
Physical Damage Bruises and cracks on raw produce leave areas where microorganisms easily may grow. Improperly
packaged foods, dented cans and broken packages provide places for microorganisms, air, light and creatures to enter.
Gentle handling of food items will help maintain food quality and safety longer.
Temperature affects storage time, and food deteriorates faster at higher temperatures. Recommended temperatures for
storage areas are: Cupboard/Pantry 50-70°F, Refrigerator 34-40°F, Freezer 0°F or below. Microorganisms, both
spoilage and pathogenic, grow rapidly at room temperature. To slow microbial growth, the enzymatic and oxidation
processes, store foods at lower temperatures.
Time Microorganisms need time to grow and multiply. Other reactions, such as oxidation and enzyme action, also require
time to develop. Purchase reasonable quantities, especially of perishable foods, to help avoid long-term storage.
‘Something is fishy’ is a widely used expression over a doubtful, suspicious situation, a good example of how mankind
has taken advantage of microbial spoilage to assess the wholesomeness of a food product. The reduction of
trimethylamine oxide to trimethylamine by bacteria associated primarily with the marine environment (e.g. Alteromonas
and Vibrio) and animal intestines (Enterobacteriaceae) constitutes this major spoilage reaction during the storage of
marine fish and typically identified ‘fishy’ as off note. The microbial alteration of fish can be therefore organoleptically
identified by consumers, considering the food as suspicious for consumption1.
Spoilage of food involves any change which renders food unacceptable for human consumption and may result from a
variety of causes, which include: Insect damage; Physical injury due to freezing, drying, burning, pressure, radiation;
Activity of indigenous enzymes in plant and animal tissues; Chemical changes not induced by microbial or naturally
occurring enzymes (These changes usually involve O2 and light and other than microbial spoilage are the most common
cause of spoilage e.g. oxidative rancidity of fats and oils and the discolouration of cured meats); and growth and activity
of microorganisms: bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
‘Something is fishy’ is a widely used expression over a doubtful, suspicious situation, a good example of how mankind
has taken advantage of microbial spoilage to assess the wholesomeness of a food product. The reduction of
trimethylamine oxide to trimethylamine by bacteria associated primarily with the marine environment (e.g. Alteromonas
and Vibrio) and animal intestines (Enterobacteriaceae) constitutes this major spoilage reaction during the storage of
marine fish and typically identified ‘fishy’ as off note. The microbial alteration of fish can be therefore organoleptically
identified by consumers, considering the food as suspicious for consumption1.Spoilage of food involves any change
which renders food unacceptable for human consumption and may result from a variety of causes, which include: Insect
damage; Physical injury due to freezing, drying, burning, pressure, radiation; Activity of indigenous enzymes in plant and
animal tissues; Chemical changes not induced by microbial or naturally occurring enzymes (These changes usually
involve O2 and light and other than microbial spoilage are the most common cause of spoilage e.g. oxidative rancidity of
fats and oils and the discolouration of cured meats); and growth and activity of microorganisms: bacteria, yeasts and
moulds.
‘Something is fishy’ is a widely used expression over a doubtful, suspicious situation, a good example of how mankind
has taken advantage of microbial spoilage to assess the wholesomeness of a food product. The reduction of
trimethylamine oxide to trimethylamine by bacteria associated primarily with the marine environment (e.g. Alteromonas
and Vibrio) and animal intestines (Enterobacteriaceae) constitutes this major spoilage reaction during the storage of
marine fish and typically identified ‘fishy’ as off note. The microbial alteration of fish can be therefore organoleptically
identified by consumers, considering the food as suspicious for consumption1. Spoilage of food involves any change
which renders food unacceptable for human consumption and may result from a variety of causes, which include:
 Insect damage
 Physical injury due to freezing, drying, burning, pressure, radiation
 Activity of indigenous enzymes in plant and animal tissues
  Chemical changes not induced by microbial or naturally occurring enzymes. These changes usually involve O2
and light and other than microbial spoilage are the most common cause of spoilage e.g. oxidative rancidity of fats
and oils and the discolouration of cured meats
 Growth and activity of microorganisms: bacteria, yeasts and moulds
Food unfit for consumption may not necessarily be spoiled and may contain a high number of food poisoning causing
bacteria without presenting any ‘negative’ characteristics. Microbial deterioration of food is evidenced by alteration in the
appearance (colour changes, pockets of gas / swelling), texture (soft and mushy), colour, odour and flavour or slime
formation.
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The numerous sources of microbial spoilage come from undesired yet ubiquitous micro-organisms which can originate
from the natural habitat, e.g. soil, water, air, spoiled raw materials, biofilms on the surface of equipment, personal hygiene
of food workers. Most foods serve as a good growth medium for many different microorganisms. Considering the variety
of foods and the methods used for processing, it is apparent that practically all kinds of microorganisms are potential
contaminants and can cause changes in appearance, flavour, odour and other qualities of foods. These degradation
processes include putrefaction (proteolytic microorganisms), undesired fermentation (saccharolytic microorganisms) and
rancidity (lipolytic microorganisms).
Microorganisms are commonly present in foods. Depending on their characteristics and growth potential, they can play
different roles: commensals (neither metabolic nor adverse health effects), probiotics (health benefit on the host),
pathogens (adverse health effects on the host), food cultures (technological benefit), and spoilers (deleterious metabolic
activity on the food product). Food microbiology focuses on the relationship of habitat to occurrence of microorganisms,
the effect of environment on growth of various microorganisms in food, the microbiology of food spoilage and food
manufacture, the physical, chemical, and biological destruction of microorganisms in foods, the microbiological
examination of foodstuffs, and public health and sanitation bacteriology.
Food spoilage is a metabolic process that causes foods to be undesirable or unacceptable for human consumption due to
changes in sensory characteristics. Spoiled foods may be safe to eat, i.e. they may not cause illness because there are no
pathogens or toxins present, but changes in texture, smell, taste, or appearance cause them to be rejected. The real
economic cost of food spoilage is difficult to estimate. It is generally considered that circa 30 per cent of manufactured
food product is spoiled, microbial food spoilage being the major cause9. From the EU 2020 Resource Efficiency Flagship
presenting a strategic framework for a more sustainable and efficient use of natural resources, it is estimated that every
person wastes about 179 kilograms of food a year. In total, this is about 89 million tonnes per year. Food waste is
expected to rise in Europe to about 126 million tonnes7.
Food spoilage is wasteful and costly, can adversely affect the economy and can erode consumer confidence. Product
compliance also means unspoiled products at the retailer level and during their shelf life. A good knowledge of the food
product characteristics and its microbial ecology is therefore a priority for food business operators. Sources of microbial
spoilage are either ubiquitous microorganisms from soil, water and air or special sources of contamination, depending on
the ecological microbial niche from spoiled raw materials, food waste, biofilm on the surface of equipment and personal
hygiene from food workers or consumers. Since spoilage depends both on the food matrix and the microorganism of
concern, assessing the variety of microbial food spoilage is like opening Pandora’s Box. A comprehensive approach is
quite unfeasible though we tried to make a first small attempt in Table 3. The major groups are shortly described
hereafter.
Under the globalised term LAB, the following genera are most commonly included: Lactobacillus, Weisella,
Leuconostoc, Lactococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus.
Lactic acid bacteria are widely distributed in various ecological niches and are generally used for the metabolic activity of
organic acid production in dairy products and on sourdough. Yet this activity can be harmful (acetic acid, gas blowing,
post acidification) to food matrices (e.g. processed cheese) or beverages (fruit juices, beer)11.
Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are ubiquitous organisms that are well adapted to sugar and ethanol rich environments.
Twelve genera are recognised and belong to the family Acetobacteraceae, the Alphaproteobacteria: Acetobacter,
Gluconobacter, Acidomonas, Gluconacetobacter, Asaia, Kozakia, Swamina – thania, Saccharibacter, Neoasaia,
Granulibacter, Tanticharoenia and Ameyamaea. Isolation, purification, identification and preservation of AAB are very
difficult. Wine is at most risk of spoilage during production and the presence of these strictly aerobic bacteria in grapes
must and, during wine maturation, can be controlled by eliminating, or at least limiting oxygen, an essential growth
factor2.
Filamentous fungi cause the main ‘visual’ aspect of spoilage through a mouldy appearance, and can sometimes have
toxicogenic properties depending on the species. Fungal spoilage may be characterised by highly visible, often pigmented
growth, slime, fermentation of sugars to form acid, gas or alcohol or off odours/off flavours. Though they can spoil
various types of food products, they are most commonly found in fruits and cereals.
Yeasts8 typically spoil high acid, low pH, high sugar (more than 10 per cent), high salt (more than five per cent) or weak
organic acid (sorbic, acetic, benzoic acid) preserved products. Therefore, fruit and fruit-based products, sugar syrups,
alcoholic or carbonated beverages, salad dressings and other acid sauces, dairy products and fermented foods are often
associated with yeast spoilage.
Gram negative bacteria: Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, Gram negative rod-shaped bacteria may grow at chill
temperatures and have been shown to contribute to the spoilage of chilled red meat, cured meats, poultry, fish, shellfish,
milk and dairy products, e.g. Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas (most common), Alcaligenes, Alteromonas,
Flavobacterium, Moraxella and Archromobacter. Vibrio spp. are halophilic and therefore may cause spoilage of sea fish
and cured meats. Overall, the group is not heat-resistant and can be readily removed by mild thermal treatments.
Enterobacteriaceae are generally slowergrowing at chilled temperatures and become more significant if the temperature
rises above 5°C (dominating between 8 – 15°C). Many strains are psychrotrophic and have been isolated from vacuum
packed meats, poultry, cured meats, milk, dairy and egg products.
Spore forming bacteria: Alicyclobacillus spp.12, Bacillus spp. and Clostridium spp. are of particular significance due to
their ability to produce heat-resistant spores which can survive many heating / pasteurisation processes and germinate
under suitable conditions and grow in foods4. They are therefore most commonly seen in the spoilage of canned foods.
Factors interacting with microbial food spoilage: A variety of factors determine whether microbial growth will preserve or
spoil foods. Intrinsic or food related parameters are inherent to the food product; they are the chemical and physical
characteristics of food. Extrinsic or environ – mental, external factors are the properties of storage environments which
affect both food as well as microorganisms. Implicit factors are the result of mutual interactions in mixed microbial
populations.
Growth hurdles according to the food properties: In most foods, preservative factors work in combination and play a
decisive role for both microbial quality and safety. These preservative factors are called hurdles, and the so-called hurdle
effect concept was introduced in the late 1970s as an illustration for the complex interactions of several inhibitory factors
in the preservation of foods. Using a ranking basis on the food properties (i.e. intrinsic factors), food matrices can be
classified as proposed in Table 2.
Predicting bacterial growth and shelf life appraisal: Predictive modelling does not solely address pathogenic
microorganisms. Based on the same approach, models for microbial spoilage of different foods and for spoilage by
specific organisms examine the effects of the preservative factors to predict the spoilage process. Based on and validated
with actual experimental data, these models can provide useful information for product development and modification,
shelf-life estimates, processing requirements and quality assurance programs. Food spoilage is a complex process
involving a variety of organisms, food matrices, food preservatives and additives. Depending on their objective, models
are constructed to focus on probability of growth/no growth, time required to initiate growth, growth rate or survival of
spoilage organisms under a particular set of parameters. Inactivation and destruction of microbes exposed to different
preservatives or preservation techniques can also be modelled. However, models cannot incorporate every factor that may
affect the spoilage process and processors should validate models for their own products to account for different
variables3,10. Detection of microbial spoilage: Microbial spoilage can be detected by organoleptic, microbiological and
chemical investigations. Biogenic amines from proteolysis of the food matrix provoke typical off note odours and flavours
that are easily recognised by consumers to consider a food product unfit for consumption. These molecules can be a topic
of safety concern on certain fermented food products5.
Spoiled foods usually have microbial counts over 107 CFU/g from a quite limited number of species (except for
fermented foods)6. Therefore, only qualitative investigations are conducted generally on spoiled products. To assess the
incipient spoilage population before it becomes organoleptically detectable, conventional microbiological testing such as
total mesophilic count, thermoresistant count or yeast and moulds count are sufficient.
A chemical method can also be used when the spoilage of food is already characterised, such as pH measurements for acid
producers or specific detection of spoilage metabolites, e.g. with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Risk
management options In order to control or at least minimise contamination, a risk management from farm to fork is
mandatory, with actions that should be focused on:
 GMP, good manufacturing practices and good management processes
 GHP, good hygienic practices, acceptable sanitary practices
 Rapid movement of food through processing plant
 Well-tested preservation procedures
 Microbial specifications of raw materials and end products
 Good hygienic design following EHEDG Guidelines
Though HACCP plans apply to food safety, the same approach is to be conducted for the microbial quality versus
microbial food spoilers. The food process can be modified as following to reduce potential of microbial spoilage:
 Removal of microorganisms: partial or complete through heat inactivation, physical filtration, irradiation
 Minimising microbial growth potential through refrigeration, freezing, lyophilisation and inhibitory compounds
(e.g. chemically with preservatives, biologically with bacteriocins)
One might be aware of relevant changes in the food process and its implications on spoilage. For example, a change of
suppliers for raw materials with a natural occurring flora can have no consequence on the safety of the product but major
ones on its quality. On the other hand, improving safety by a new bactericidal treatment can modify the ecological niche
and therefore the possibility of spoilage, both type of and microorganisms of concern. The shelf life of a food product
therefore needs continuous monitoring to verify that GMP/GHP does not vary from initial validation.
Adulteration Among man’s everyday needs, food plays a major sustaining role. From the simple dish to the most
elaborate haute cuisine, food preparation is as varied and rich as man’s taste. The lure of riches and general apathy
towards mankind has led to adulterants being added to food from the simple stones in rice to the more harmful brick and
boric powder.
Adulteration of food commonly defined as “the addition or subtraction of any substance to or from food, so that the
natural composition and quality of food substance is affected". Adulteration is either intentional by either removing
substances to food or altering the existing natural properties of food knowingly. Unintentional adulteration is usually
attributed to ignorance’s, carelessness or lack of facilities for maintaining food quality. Incidental contamination during
the period of growth, harvesting, storage, processing, transport and distribution of foods are also considered. “Adulterant”
means any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or
containing extraneous matter.
Food is declared adulterated if: A substance is added which depreciates or injuriously affects it. Cheaper or inferior
substances are substituted wholly or in part. Any valuable or necessary constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted. It
is an imitation. It is colored or otherwise treated, to improve its appearance or if it contains any added substance injurious
to health. For whatever reasons its quality is below the Standard
Adulterated food is dangerous because it may be toxic and can affect health and it could deprive nutrients essential for
proper growth and development.
Common adulterated foods: Some of the common adulterated foods are milk and milk products, atta, edible oils,
cereals, condiments (whole and ground), pulses, coffee, tea, confectionary, baking powder, non - alcoholic beverages,
vinegar, besan and curry powder.
Types of adulterants

Type Substances Added

Intentional Sand, marble chips, stones, mud, other filth, talc, chalk powder, water, mineral oil and harmful
Adulterants colour.

Incidental adulterants Pesticide residues, droppings of rodents, larvae in foods.

Metallic contaminants Arsenic from pesticides, lead from water, effluent from chemical industries, tin from cans.

Poisonous or Deleterious Substances: Generally, if a food contains a poisonous or deleterious substance that may render
it injurious to health, it is adulterated. For example, apple cider contaminated with E.coli O157:H7 and Brie cheese
contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes are adulterated. If a food contains a poisonous substance in excess of a
tolerance, regulatory limit, or action level, mixing it with "clean" food to reduce the level of contamination is not allowed.
The deliberate mixing of adulterated food with good food renders the finished product adulterated
Filth and Foreign Matter: Filth and extraneous material include any objectionable substances in foods, such as foreign
matter (for example, glass, metal, plastic, wood, stones, sand, cigarette butts), undesirable parts of the raw plant material
(such as stems, pits in pitted olives, pieces of shell in canned oysters), and filth (namely, mold, rot, insect and rodent parts,
excreta, decomposition.
Economic Adulteration: A food is adulterated if it omits a valuable constituent or substitutes another substance, in whole
or in part, for a valuable constituent (for instance, olive oil diluted with tea tree oil); conceals damage or inferiority in any
manner (such as fresh fruit with food coloring on its surface to conceal defects); or any substance has been added to it or
packed with it to increase its bulk or weight, reduce its quality or strength, or make it appear bigger or of greater value
than it is (for example, scallops to which water has been added to make them heavier).
Microbiological Contamination and Adulteration: The fact that a food is contaminated with pathogens (harmful
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, or protozoa) may, or may not, render it adulterated. Generally, for ready -to-eat
foods, the presence of pathogens will render the food adulterated. For example, the presence of Salmonella on fresh fruits
or vegetables or in ready-to-eat meat or poultry products (such as luncheon meats) will render those products adulterated.
Ready -to- eat meat and poultry products contaminated with pathogens, such as Salmonella or Listeria monocytogenes,
are adulterated. For raw meat or poultry products, the presence of pathogens will not always render a product adulterated
(because raw meat and poultry products are intended to be cooked and proper cooking should kill pathogens).
Food Adulteration is the act of intentionally debasing the quality of food offered for sale either by the admixture or
substitution of inferior substances or by the removal of some valuable ingredient.
Since food adulteration is a huge concern in all parts of the globe, there is voluminous literature on various aspects of food
adulteration including its detection. In fact, methodological procedures of food adulteration detection have been reviewed
extensively. Many of the methods for detection of food adulteration require elaborate steps of sample preparation prior
analysis involving high-end technologies and that makes the whole process difficult to perform and time consuming.
Therefore, considerable interest has emerged in developing rapid methods for food-adulteration detection. Thus, rapid
online detection of food quality, in a nondestructive manner becomes even more relevant. The need of the hour is to
develop composite in silico tools and computer-vision systems with minimal analytical technology for rapid,
nondestructive, highly efficient, and economic food-adulteration detection maneuvers that may be used in the field/at
point of use by less trained personnel to generate data with significant reproducibility.
Food adulteration occurs globally and in many facets and affects almost all food commodities. Adulteration not only
constitutes a considerable economic problem but also may lead to serious health issues for consumers. As the methods of
adulterating foods have become more sophisticated, very efficient and reliable techniques for the detection of fraudulent
manipulations are required. Based mainly on relevant review articles, this chapter provides a brief overview of the history
of food adulteration and reviews select analytical methods that have been used for food authentication, including
chromatography, spectroscopy, stable isotope analysis, metabolomics, proteomics, enzymatic methods, and DNA-based
techniques. For each method, recent applications in food authenticity control are presented. As studies indicate that
adulteration is even increasing, it is concluded that more research efforts need to be made to protect consumers from
health risks and honest producers from economic loss.
Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards. One form of adulteration is an
addition of another substance to a food item in order to increase the quantity of the food item in raw form or prepared
form, which may result in the loss of actual quality of food item. These substances may be either available food items or
non-food items. Among meat and meat products some of the items used to adulterate are water or ice, carcasses, or
carcasses of animals other than the animal meant to be consumed.
History: Historians have recognized cases of food adulteration in Ancient Rome and the Middle Ages. Contemporary
accounts of adulteration date from the 1850s to the present day.
Legislative: In the US, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), regulates and enforces laws on food safety as well
as Food Defense. The FDA provides some technical definitions of adulterated food in various US laws.
 1906 (21 U.S.C. 601 et. seq.)
 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 321 et seq.)
 1957 Poultry Products Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.)
 2011 Food Safety and Modernization Act
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act: The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act 1988)[2] provides that food
is "adulterated" if it meets any one of the following criteria:
 (1) it bears or contains any "poisonous or deleterious substance" which may render it injurious to health;
 (2) it bears or contains any added poisonous or added deleterious substance (other than a pesticide residue, food
additive, color additive, or new animal drug, which are covered by separate provisions) that is unsafe;
 (3) its container is composed, in whole or in part, of any poisonous or deleterious substance which may render the
contents injurious to health;
 or (4) it bears or contains a pesticide chemical residue that is unsafe. (Note: The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) establishes tolerances for pesticide residues in foods, which are enforced by the FDA.)
Food also meets the definition of adulteration if:
 (5) it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe food additive;
 (6) it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe new animal drug;
 (7) it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe colour additive;
 (8) it consists, in whole or in part, of "any filthy, putrid, or decomposed substance" or is otherwise unfit for food;
 or (9) it has been prepared, packed, or held under unsanitary conditions (insect, rodent, or bird infestation)
whereby it may have become contaminated with filth or rendered injurious to health.
Further, food is considered adulterated if:
 (10) it has been irradiated and the irradiation processing was not done in conformity with a regulation permitting
irradiation of the food in question (the FDA has approved irradiation of a number of foods,
 including refrigerated or frozen uncooked meat, fresh or frozen uncooked poultry, and seeds for sprouting [21
C.F.R. Part 179].);
 (11) it contains a dietary ingredient that presents a significant or unreasonable risk of illness or injury under the
conditions of use recommended in labeling (for example, foods or dietary supplements containing aristolochic
acids, which have been linked to kidney failure, have been banned.);
 (12) a valuable constituent has been omitted in whole or in part or replaced with another substance; damage or
inferiority has been concealed in any manner; or a substance has been added to increase the product's bulk or
weight, reduce its quality or strength, or make it appear of greater value than it is (this is "economic
adulteration");
 or (13) it is offered for import into the United States and is a food that has previously been refused admission,
unless the person reoffering the food establishes that it is in compliance with U.S. law [21 U.S.C. § 342].
Federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products Inspection Act The Federal Meat Inspection Act and
the Poultry Products Inspection Act of 1957 contain similar provisions for meat and poultry products. [21 U.S.C. § 453(g),
601(m).
Poisonous or deleterious substances: Generally, if a food contains a poisonous or deleterious substance that may render
it injurious to health, it is considered to be adulterated. For example, apple cider contaminated with E.
coli O157:H7 and Brie cheese contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes are adulterated. There are two exceptions to this
general rule. First, if the poisonous substance is inherent or naturally occurring and its quantity in the food does not
ordinarily render it injurious to health, the food will not be considered adulterated. Thus, a food that contains a natural
toxin at very low levels that would not ordinarily be harmful (for instance, small amounts of amygdalin in apricot kernels)
is not adulterated. Second, if the poisonous or deleterious substance is unavoidable and is within an established tolerance,
regulatory limit, or action level, the food will not be deemed to be adulterated. Tolerances and regulatory limits are
thresholds above which a food will be considered adulterated. They are binding on FDA, the food industry, and the courts.
Action levels are limits at or above which FDA may regard food as adulterated. They are not binding on FDA. FDA has
established numerous action levels (for example, one part per million methylmercury in fish), which are set forth in its
booklet Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed. If a food contains a
poisonous substance in excess of a tolerance, regulatory limit, or action level, mixing it with "clean" food to reduce the
level of contamination is not allowed. The deliberate mixing of adulterated food with good food renders the finished
product adulterated (FDA, Compliance Policy Guide [CPG § 555.200]).
Filth and foreign matter of adulteration Filth and extraneous material include any objectionable substances in foods,
such as foreign matter (for example, glass, metal, plastic, wood, stones, sand, cigarette butts), undesirable parts of the raw
plant material (such as stems, pits in pitted olives, pieces of shell in canned oysters), and filth (namely, mold, rot, insect
and rodent parts, excreta, decomposition). Under a strict reading of the FD&C Act, any amount of filth in a food would
render it adulterated. FDA regulations, however, authorize the agency to issue Defect Action Levels (DALs) for natural,
unavoidable defects that at low levels do not pose a human health hazard [21 C.F.R. § 110.110]. These DALs are advisory
only; they do not have the force of law and do not bind FDA. DALs are set forth in FDA's Compliance Policy Guides and
are compiled in the FDA and Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) Defect Action Level Handbook. In
most cases, DALs are food-specific and defect-specific. For example, the DAL for insect fragments in peanut butter is an
average of thirty or more insect fragments per 100 grams (g) [CPG § 570.300]. In the case of hard or sharp foreign
objects, the DAL, which is based on the size of the object and the likelihood it will pose a risk of choking or injury,
applies to all foods.
Economic-adulteration A food is adulterated if it omits a valuable constituent or substitutes another substance, in whole
or in part, for a valuable constituent (for instance, olive oil diluted with tea tree oil); conceals damage or inferiority in any
manner (such as fresh fruit with food coloring on its surface to conceal defects); or any substance has been added to it or
packed with it to increase its bulk or weight, reduce its quality or strength, or make it appear bigger or of greater value
than it is (for example, scallops to which water has been added to make them heavier).
Microbiological contamination and adulteration of food The fact that a food is contaminated
with pathogens (harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, or protozoa) may, or may not, render it adulterated.
Generally, for ready-to-eat foods, the presence of pathogens will render the food adulterated. For example, the presence
of Salmonella on fresh fruits or vegetables or in ready-to-eat meat or poultry products (such as luncheon meats) will
render those products adulterated. For meat and poultry products, which are regulated by USDA, the rules are more
complicated. Ready-to-eat meat and poultry products contaminated with pathogens, such as Salmonella or Listeria
monocytogenes, are adulterated. (Note that hotdogs are considered ready-to-eat products.) For raw meat or poultry
products, the presence of pathogens will not always render a product adulterated (because raw meat and poultry products
are intended to be cooked, and proper cooking should kill pathogens). Raw poultry contaminated with Salmonella is not
adulterated. However, USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has ruled that raw meat or poultry products
contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 are adulterated. This is because normal cooking methods may not reduce E. coli
O157:H7 below infectious levels. E. coli O157:H7 is the only pathogen that is considered an adulterant when present in
raw meat or poultry products.
Enforcement actions: If a food is adulterated, FDA and FSIS have a broad array of enforcement tools.They are of
various types. These include seizing and condemning the product, detaining imported product, enjoining persons
from manufacturing or distributing the product, or requesting a recall of the product. Enforcement action is usually
preceded by a Warning Letter from FDA to the manufacturer or distributor of the adulterated product. In the case of an
adulterated meat or poultry product, FSIS has certain additional powers. FSIS may suspend or withdraw federal inspection
of an official establishment. Without federal inspection, an establishment may not produce or process meat or poultry
products, and therefore must cease operations. With the exception of infant formula, neither FDA nor FSIS has the
authority to require a company to recall an adulterated food product. However, the ability to generate negative publicity
gives them considerable powers of persuasion. State regulators generally have similar enforcement tools at their disposal
to prevent the manufacture and distribution of adulterated food. In addition, many states have the authority to
immediately embargo adulterated food and to impose civil fines. Federal agencies often will coordinate with state or local
authorities to remove unsafe food from the market as quickly as possible.
Food Adulteration, Types of Food Adulteration and Mitigation Measures
INTRODUCTION:
 Food Adulteration refers to the process by which the quality or the nature of a given food is reduced through
addition of adulterants or removal of vital substance.
 Food adulterants refer to the foreign and usually inferior chemical substance present in food that cause harm or is
unwanted in the food.
 Basically, during food adulteration, small quantity of non-nutritious substances are added intentionally to improve
the appearance, texture or storage properties of the food.
 Food adulteration is quite common in the developing countries.
FOOD IS ADULTERATED IF:
 The food sold does not meet the nature of the substance or quality as per the demand of consumer.
 The food contains inferior or cheaper substance
 The food has been prepared, packed or kept under unclean conditions leading to contamination.
 Food contains substances that depreciates or injuriously affects the health.
 If the food’s original nature is substituted wholly or partially by abstracting a portion of vital substance from food.
 If it is an imitation of some other food substance.
CAUSES OF FOOD ADULTERATION:
 Profit motive of traders: Done as a part of the business strategy
 Food insecurity: To increase quantity of food production and sales.
  Increased Urbanization: To make maximum profit from food items by fewer investments.
 High population demands: Increased food demand of the population and its changing trends.
 Illiteracy of general public: Lack of consciousness of proper food consumption.
 Lack of effective food laws
 Lack of government in initiative
TYPES OF FOOD ADULTERATION:
1. Intentional adulteration: The adulterants are added as a deliberate act with intention to increase profit. E.G. sand,
marble chips, stones, chalk powder, etc.
2. Incidental Adulteration: Adulterants are found in food due to negligence, ignorance or lack of proper facilities.
E.G. Packaging hazards like larvae of insects, droppings, pesticide residues, etc.
3. Metallic adulteration: When the metallic substances are added intentionally or accidentally. Eg: arsenic,
pesticides, lead from water, mercury from effluents, tins from cans, etc.
METHODS OF FOOD ADULTERATION:
1. Mixing: Mixing of clay, stones, pebbles, sand, marble chips, etc.
2. Substitution: Cheaper and inferior substances being replaced wholly or partially with good ones.
3. Concealing quality: Trying to hide the food standard. E.G. adding captions of qualitative food to low quality for
selling.
4. Decomposed food: Mainly in fruits and vegetables. The decomposed ones are mixed with good ones
5. Misbranding/ False labels: Includes duplicate food stuffs, changing of manufacture and expiry dates.
6. Addition of toxicants: adding non-edible substances like argemone in mustard oil, low quality preservatives,
colouring agents, etc.
FOOD ADULTERATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
 Fresh vegetables and fruits, the main part of our meal is adulterated by the self applied fertilizers and pesticides
by the farmers to increase the production and to avoid the attacks of insects and diseases.
 Wax coating/ dipping in chemical water like copper sulphate (CuSO4) is used for increasing the marketing by
making them attractive and fresh looking.
 Nowadays, vegetables producing fields are irrigated with sewerage water which included detergents, human
faeces, factory wastes having high concentrations of toxic heavy metals i.e. lead and arsenic which can cause
damage to liver, kidney and cancer.
 Vegetables and fruits are also openly sold at roads which cause the free fallen smoke and dust particles resulting
in contamination.
 Screen is used as sweetening agent in many confectionary products, instead of sucrose, which is harmful for
health
 The storage room are cleaned and fumigated to protect the storage products from insects which contain hazardous
substances affecting the health.
 Brick dust is added in chilli powder on the other hand lead chromate and metanil yellow is added in turmeric
powder that deteriorates health condition.
 Sugar and salt is adulterated with calcium carbonate, similarly urea is mixed in parched rice.
  The saw dust is added in coriander powder and cumin powder.
 The sodium bicarbonate in jaggery, coal tar dye in tea leaves, metanil yellow colour in gram powder.

HEALTH HAZARDS OF FOOD ADULTERATION: Some health hazards associated with specific food adulteration
incudes;
 Mineral oil if added to edible oil and fats can cause cancers.
 Lead chromate when added to turmeric powder and spices can cause anaemia, paralysis, brain damage and
abortions.
  Lead added to water, natural and processed food can lead to lead poisoning, foot drop, insomnia, constipation,
anaemia, and mental retardation.
 Cobalt added to water and liquors and can cause cardiac damage also copper, tin, and zinc can cause colic,
vomiting and diarrhoea.
 Mercury in mercury fungicide treated grains, or mercury-contaminated fish can cause brain damage, paralysis,
and death.
 Non-permitted colour or permitted food colour like metal yellow, beyond the safe limit in coloured food can
cause allergies, hyperactivity, liver damage, infertility, anaemia, cancer and birth defects.
MITIGATION MEASURES FOR ADDRESSING FOOD ADULTERATION:
 There must be proper surveillance of the implementation food laws.
 There should be monitoring of the activities with periodical records of hazards regarding food adulteration.
 There should be periodical training programmes for Senior Officer/Inspector/Analysts for food safety
 There should be consumer awareness programmes organized by holding exhibitions/seminars/training
programmes and publishing pamphlets.
 There should be strict actions regarding the punishment for those who are involved in food adulteration.
 There should be help and support from International INGOs for implementation of food laws.
Milk and Milk Products

S.No Food Article Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

1 Milk water The presence of water can be by putting a drop of

milk on a polished slanting surface. The drop of pure
milk either or flows lowly leaving a white trail
behind it, whereas milk adulterated water will flow
immediately without leaving a mark

2 Starch Add a few drops of tincture of Iodine or Iodine Iodine solution is easily
solution. Formation of blue colour indicates the available in the medical
presence of starch. stores.

3 Urea Take a teaspoon of milk in a test tube. Add ½

teaspoon of soybean or arhar powder. Mix up the
contents thoroughly by shaking the test tube. After 5
minutes, dip a red litmus paper in it. Remove the
paper after ½ a minute. A change in colour from red
to blue indicates the presence of urea in the milk.

4 Vanaspati Take 3 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 10 drops of

hydrochloric acid. Mix up one teaspoonful of sugar.
After 5 minutes, examine the mixture.The red
colouration indicates the presence of vanaspati in the
milk.
5 Formalin Take 10 ml of milk in a tests tube and add 5 ml of Formalin enhances the
conc. sulphuric acid from the sides of the wall life of milk and thus is
without shaking. If a violet or blue ring appears at the added for preservation
intersection of two layers then it shows presence of purpose.
formalin.

6 Detergent Shake 5-10 ml. of sample with an equal amount of

water lather indicates the presence of detergent.

7 Milk Synthetic milk Synthetic milk has a bitter after taste, gives a soapy
feeling on rubbing between the fingers and turns
yellowish on heating.

8 Synthetic milk-test for protein The milk can easily be tested by Urease strips
(available in the Medical stores) because Synthetic
milk is devoid of protein.

9 Test for Milk does not contain glucose /invert sugar, if test for If it is made
Glucose/ glucose with urease strip found positive.It means synthetically by adding
inverted sugar milk is adulterated. while colour water
paint. Oils, alkali,
urea and detergent
etc. Glucose, inverted
sugar syrup is added in
milk to increase the
consistency and test

10 Ghee, cottage Coal Tar Dyes Add 5 ml of dil. H2SO4 or conc. HCL to one teaspoon
cheese, full of melted sample in a test tube. Shake well. Pink
condensed colour (in case of H2SO4) or crimson colour (in case
milk, khoa, of HCl) indicates coal tar dyes. If HCl does not give
milk colour dilute it with water to get the colour.
powder etc,

11 Sweet Curd Vanaspati Take1 teaspoon full of curd in a test tube. Add 10
drops of hydrochloric acid. Mix up the contents
shaking the test tube gently. After 5 minutes, examine
the mixture. The red colouration indicates the
presence of vanaspati in the curd.

12 Rabri Blotting paper Take a teaspoon of rabri in a test tube. Add 3 ml of

hydrochloric acid and 3 ml of distilled water. Stir the
content with a glass rod. Remove the rod and
examine. Presence of fine fibres to the glass rod will
indicate the presence of blotting paper in rabri.

13 Khoa and Starch Boil a small quantity of sample with some water, cool
its products and add a few drops of Iodine solution. Formation of
blue colour indicates the presence of starch.
14 Chhana or Starch Boil a small quantity of sample with some water, cool
Paneer and add a few drops of Iodine solution. Formation of
blue colour indicates the presence of starch.

Oil and Fats

S. Food Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

No Article

1 Ghee Vanaspathy or Margarine Take about one tea spoon full
of melted sample of Ghee
with equal quantity of
concentrated Hydrochloric
acid in a stoppered test tube
and add to it a pinch of sugar.
Shake for one minute and let
it for five minutes.
Appearance of crimson colour
in lower (acid) of Vanaspati
or Margarine.
The test is specific for
seasame oil
Which is compulsorily added
to Vanaspati and Margarine.
Some coal tar colours also
give a positive test.
If the test is positive i.e. red
colour develops only by
adding strong
Hydrochloric acid (without
adding crystals of sugar)
then the sample is
adulterated with coal tar dye.
If the crimson or red colour
develops after adding and
shaking with sugar, then
alone Vanaspati or
Margarine is present

2 Mashed Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes The presence of mashed

and other starches.
potatoes and sweet potatoes in
a sample of ghee can easily be
detected by adding a few
drops of Iodine, which is
brownish in colour turns to
blue if mashed potatoes/sweet
potatoes/other starches are
present.
3 Butter Vanaspati or Margarine Take about one teaspoon full
of melted sample of butter
with equal quantity of
concentrated Hydrochloric
acid in a stoppered test tube
and add to it a pinch of sugar.
Shake for one minute and let
it for five minutes.
Appearance of crimson colour
in lower (acid) of Vanaspati
or Margarine.
The test is specific for
seasame oil which is
compulsorily added to
Vanaspati and Margarine.
Some coal tar colours also
give a positive test.
If the testis positive i.e. red
colour develops only by
adding strong Hydrochloric
acid (without adding crystals
of sugar) then the sample is
adulterated with coal tar dye.
If the crimson or red colour
develops after adding and
shaking with sugar, then
alone Vanaspati or
Margarine is present

4 Mashed Potatoes and other The presence of mashed

starches potatoes and sweet potatoes in
a sample of butter can easily e
detected by adding a few
drops of iodine (which is
brownish in colour), turns to
blue.

5 Edible oil Prohibited colour Take 5 ml of sample in a test

tube and add 5 ml of
concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Shake gently, let it stand
for 5 minutes. Colour will
separate in the upper layer of
the solution.

6 Coconut oil Any other oil Place a small bottle of oil in

refrigerator. Coconut oil
solidifies leaving the
adulterant as a Separate layer.

Sweetening Agents

S. Food Article Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

No

1 Sugar Chalk powder Dissolve 10 gm of sample in a glass of

water, allow settling, Chalk will settle down
at the bottom.
2 Urea Dissolve 10 gm of sample in a glass of
water, allow settling, Chalk will settle down
at the bottom.

3 Chalk powder Dissolve 10 gm of sample in a glass of water,

allow to settle,chalk will settle down at the
bottom.

4 Yellow colour Take 5 ml in a tests tube from the above

(Non -permitted) solution and add a few drops of conc. HCl. A
pink colour in lower acid layers shows the
presence of non- permitted colour.

5 Honey Sugar solution A cotton wick dipped in pure honey when

lighted with a match stick burns and shows
the purity of honey. If adulterated, the
presence of water will not allow the honey to
burn, If it does; it will produce a cracking
sound.

6 Jaggery Washing soda Add a few drops of solution HCl.

Effervesence shows presence of washing
soda.

7 Jaggery Chalk powder Dissolve a little amount sample in water in a

test tube,chalk powder settles down.-Or- Add a
few drops of conc HCl solution,effervescence
indicates the presence of adulterant.

8 Metanil yellow Take ¼ of a teaspoon of the jaggery in a test

colour tube. Add 3 ml of alcohol and shake the tube
vigorously to mix up the content.
Pour 10 drops of hydrochloric acid in it. A
pink colouration indicates the presence of
metanil yellow colours in jaggery.

9 Sugar Solution Add a drop of honey to a glass if water, if the

drop does not disperse in water it indicates that
the honey is pure. However, if the drop
disperses in water it indicates presence of
added sugar.

10 Bura sugar Washing soda Add 1 ml of HCl to a little of bura sugar.

Effervescence occurs if washing soda is
present. Dissolve 2 gm of sugar in water; dip a
red litmus paper in the solution. If washing
soda is present, it will turn blue.
11 Sweetmeats, Ice-cream Metanil yellow (a Extract colour with luke-warm water from food
and beverages non - permitted articles. Add few drops of concentrated Hydro
coal tar colour) chloric acid. If magenta red colour develops the
presence of metanil yellow is indicated.

12 Saccharin i. Taste a small quantity. Saccharin leaves a

lingering sweetness on tongue for a
considerable time and leaves a bitter taste at the
end.

Food grains and their products

S.N Food Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

o Article

1 Wheat, Dust, These may be examined visually to see foreign matter, damaged Damaged/discolo
Rice, pebble, grains, discoloured grains, insect, rodent contamination etc. ured grains should
Maize, Stone, be as low as
Jawar, Straw,weed possible since
Bajra, seeds,damag they may be
Chana, ed affected by fungal
Barley etc. grain,weevil toxins, argemone
led grain, seeds, Dhatura
insects, hair seeds etc. In
and excreta moderately
of rodent excessive amount
can result in risk
to health, Discard
the damaged
undesirable grains
before use

2 Maida Resultant When dough is prepared from resultant or left out atta, more water
atta or cheap has to be used. The normal taste of chapattis prepared out of wheat
flour is somewhat sweetish whereas those prepared out of adulterate
d wheat will taste insipid.

3 Maida/ Boric Acid Take a small amount of sample in a test tube, add some water
Rice and shake. Add a few drops of HCl. Dip a turmeric paper strip if it
turns red, boric acid is present.
4 Wheat, Ergot (a (i) Purple black longer sized grains in Bajra show the presence of
bajra a fungus Ergots.
nd other containing (ii) Put some grains In a glass tumbler containing 20 per cent salt
grains poisonous solution(20 gm common salt to 100 ml water)purple black longer
substance) size grain Ergot floats over the surface while sound grains settle
down.

5 Wheat, Dhatura Dhatura seeds are flat with edges with blackish brown colour
bajra and which can be separated out by close examination.
other grain

6 Wheat, Karnal Bunt The affected wheat kernel have a dull appearance, blackish in
bajra and colour and rotten fish smell,
other grain

7 Sella Rice Metanil Rub a few grains in the palms of two hands. Yellow would get
(Parboiled yellow(a reduced or disappear. Add a few drops of
Rice) non- dilute Hydrochloric acid to a few rice grains mixed with little
permitted water, presence of pink colour indicates presence of Metanil yellow
coal tar
colour)

8 Turmeric Take a small amount of sample in a test tube, add some water
(colouring and shake. Dip Boric acid paper (filter paper dipped in Boric acid
for golden solution) If it turns pink turmeric is present
appearance) (ii) Take some rice and sprinkle on it a small amount of soaked
lime for some time, grains will turn red if turmeric is present.

9 Parched Urea Take 30 numbers of parched rice in a test tube. Add 5ml of distilled
rice water in it.Mix up the contents thoroughly, by shaking the test tube.
After 5 minutes, filter the water -contents, and add ½ teaspoon of
powder of arhar or soybean in it. Leave it for 5 minutes, and then
dip a red litmus paper in the mixture. Take out the litmus paper after
30 seconds and examine it. A blue colouration indicates the
presence of urea in the parched rice.

10 Wheat Excess bran Sprinkle on water surface. Bran will float on the surface.
flour

11 Wheat Chalk Shake sample with dil.HCl Effervescence indicates chalk Chalk powder is
flour powder used as an
adulterant due to
its weight.
12 Dal whole Khesari Dal (i) Khesari dal has edged type appearance showing a slant on one The test is only
and spilt side and square in appearance in contrast to other daIs. for Khesari
(ii) Add 50 ml of dilute Hydrochloric acid to the sample and keep dal.(Metanil
on simmering water for about 15minutes.The pink color developed yellow if present
indicates the presence of Khesari dal. will give a similar
colour
immediately even
without
simmering).

13 Clay, stone, Visual examination will detect these adulterants Reject if the
gravels, number of Insects
webs, is large or if the
insects, odour is
rodent hair unpleasant and
and excreta taste bitter or
gritty

14 Metanil Take 5 gms of the sample with 5ml. Of water in a test tube and add
yellow (a a few drops of concentrated Hydrochloric acid. A pink colour shows
non presence o Metanil yellow
permitted
coaltar
colour)

15 Atta, Sand, soil, These can be identified by visual examination.

Maida Suji insects,
(Rawa) webs,
lumps.
rodent hair
and excrete

16 Iron filings By moving a magnet through the sample, iron filings can be
separated.

17 Bajra Ergot Soak bajra in water, swollen and black Ergot infested grains will
infested turn light in weight and will float in water
Bajra.

18 Sago Sand or Put a little quantity of sago in mouth,it will have a gritty feel, if
talcum adulterated.Burn the sago,if pure, it will swell and leave hardly any
ash. Adulterated sago will leave behind appreciable quantity of ash.

19 Besan Metanil Take ½ teaspoon of the besan in a test tube. Pour 3 ml of alcohol in
Yellow the test tube. Mix up the contents thoroughly by shaking the test
tube. Add 10 drops of hydrochloric acid it. A pink colouration
indicates presence of metanil yellow in the gram powder.
20 Khesari Add 50 ml of dilute Hydrochloric acid to 10 gms of s ample and The test is only
Flour keep on simmering water for about 15 minutes. The pink colour, if for Khesari dal
developed, indicates, the presence of Khesari flour (Metanil yellow,
if present will
give a similar
colour even
without
simmering).

21 Pulses Lead Shake 5 gm.Of pulse with 5 ml. Of water and add a few drops of
Chromate HCl. Pink colour indicates Lead Chromate.

Spices

S.N Food Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

o Article

1 Whole Dirt, dust, straw, These can be examined visually

spices insect, damaged
seeds, other
seeds, rodent hair
and
excrete

2 Black Papaya seeds Papaya seeds can be separated out from pepper as they are shrunken,
pepper oval in shape and greenish brown or brownish black in colour.

3 Light black Float the sample of black pepper in alcohol (rectified spirit). The
pepper black pepper berries sink while the papaya seeds and light
black pepper float.
(ii) Press the berries with the help of
fingers light peppers will break easily while black berries of pep
per will not break.

4 Coated with Black pepper coated with mineral oil gives Kerosene like smell.
mineral oil

5 Cloves Volatile oil Exhausted cloves can be identified by its small size and shrunken
extracted appearance.The characteristic pungent of genuine cloves is less
(exhausted pronounced in exhausted cloves
cloves)

6 Cloves Coated with Cloves coated with mineral oil gives kerosene like smell
mineral
oil
7 Mustard Argemone seed Mustard seeds have a smooth surface The argemone seed have grainy Use
seed and rough surface and are black and hence can be separated out by magnifying gl
close examination. When Mustard seed is pressed inside it is yellow ass for
while for Argemone seed it is white identification.

8 Powder Added starch Add a few drops of tincture of Iodine or Iodine solution. Indication of Iodine test for
ed blue colour shows the presence of starch. added starch is
spices not applicable
for Turmeric
powder

9 Powder Common Salt Taste for addition of common salt.

ed
spices

10 Turmeri Coloured saw Take a tea spoon full of turmeric powder in a test tube. Add a few This test is
c dust drops of concentrated Hydrochloric acid. Instant appearance of pink only for
powder colour which disappears on dilution with water shows the presence of Metanil yellow
turmeric If the colour persists, metanil yellow (an artificial colour) a
not permitted coal tar colour is present.

11 Turmeri Lead chromate Appears to be bright in colour which leaves colour immediately in
c whole water.

12 Chalk powder or Take a small quantity of turmeric powder in a test tube containing
yellow soap stone small quantity of water. Add a few drops of concentrated
powder Hydrochloric acid, effervescence (give off bubbles) will indicate the
presence of chalk or yellow soap stone powder

13 Chillies Brick powder, Take a teaspoon full of chillies powder in a glass of water. Coloured This test is
powder salt powder or water extract will show the presence of artificial colour. Any grittiness only for earthy
talc,powder. that may be felt on rubbing the sediment at the bottom of glass material
confirms the presence of brick powder/sand, soapy and smooth touch
of the white residue at the bottom indicates the presence of soap stone.
To a little powder of chilli add small amount of conc HCl and mix to
the consistency of paste,dip the rear end of the match stick into the
paste and hold over the flame,brick red flame colour due to the
presence of calcium slats in brick powder.

14 Artificial colours Sprinkle the chilli powder on a glass of water. Artificial colorants
descend as coloured streaks.
15 Water soluble Water soluble artificial color can be detected by sprinkling a small
coal tar colour quantity of chillies or turmeric powder on the surface of water
contained in a glass tumbler.
The water soluble colour will immediately start descending in colour
streaks

16 Asafoet Soap stone or Shake little portion of the sample with water and allow to settle.Soap In
ida other stone or other earthy mailer will settle down at the bottom. compounded
(Hing) earthy material asafoetida due
to presence of
starch, a slight
turbid solution
may be
produced.How
ever, this will
settle down
after keeping

17 Starch Add tincture of iodine, appearance of blue colour shows the presence Compound of
of starch. asafoetida
contains
starch which
is
declared on the
label. This test
is not
applicable for
compound
asafoetida.

18 Foreign resin Burn on a spoon, if the sample burns like camphor, it indicates the Pure hing
sample is pure. burns like
aromatic
camphor

19 Spices Powdered bran Sprinkle on water surface. Powdered

and saw dust bran and sawdust float on the surface.

20 Cinnam Cassia bark Cinnamon barks are very thin and can be rolled. It can be rolled
on around a pencil or pen. It has a distinct smell. Whereas cassia ark
comprise of several layers in between the rough outer and inner most
smooth layers. On examination of the ark loosely, a clear distinction
can be made.

21 Cumin Grass seeds colo Rub the cumin seeds on palms. If palms turn black adulteration is
seeds ured indicated.
with charcoal
dust
22 Green Malachite green Take a cotton piece soaked in liquid paraffin and rub the outer green
chilli surface of a small part of green vegetable. If the cotton turns, green,
and we can say the vegetable is adulterated with malachite green.
green
vegetab
les

23 Green Artificially Take a little amount of green peas in a 250 ml beaker add water to it
peas coloured and mix well. Let it stand for half an hour. Clear separation of colour
in water indicates adulteration.

24 Saffron Dried tendrils of Genuine saffron will not break easily like artificial.Artificial saffron is
maizecob prepared by soaking maize cob in sugar and colouring it with coal tar
colour. The colour dissolves in water if artificially coloured. A bit of
pure saffron when allowed to dissolved in water will continue to give
its saffron colour so long as it lasts

Miscellaneous Products

S.No Food Article Adulterant Method for Detection Remarks

1 Common salt White powdered Stir a spoonful of sample of salt in a glass of water.The
presence of chalk will make solution white and other
insoluble impurities will settle down.

2 Iodized salt Common salt Cut a piece of potato, add salt and wait
minute and add two drops of lemon juice. If iodized
salt blue colour will develop. In case of common salt,
there will be no blue colour.

3 Tea leaves Exhausted tea Take a filter paper and spread a few tea leaves.Sprinkle
with water to wet the filter paper. If coal tar colour is
present it would immediately stain the filter paper.
Wash the filter paper under tap water and observe the
stains against light

Spread a little slaked lime on white porcelain tile or

glass plate; sprinkle a little tea dust on the lime.
Red,orange or other shades of colour spreading on the
lime will show the presence of coal tar colour. In case
of genuine tea, There will be only a slight greenish
yellow colour due to chlorophyll, which appear after
some time.

4 Iron fillings By moving a magnet through the sample,iron filling can

be separated.
5 Chicory Gently sprinkle the coffee powder sample on the
surface of water in a glass.The coffee floats over the
water but chicory begins to sink down within a few
seconds.The falling chicory powder particles leave
behind them a trail of colour, due to large amount of
caramel

6 Supari Pan Colour Colour dissolves in water

Masala

7 Saccharin Saccharin gives excessive and lingering sweet taste and

leaves bitter taste at the end.

8 Catachu Chalk Chalk gives effervescence (gives off bubbles) with This test is only
powder concentrated Hydrochloric acid for Chalk.

9 Lemonade soda Mineral acid
Pour 2 drops of the lemonade soda on a metanil
yellow paper - strip. A violet colouration indicates
the presence of mineral acid in aerated water. The
colour impression gets retained even after drying the
paper (you can prepare metanil yellow paper strips by
soaking filter paper strips in 0.1 % aqueous solution
and then drying the paper – strips)

10 Sweet Potato Rhodamine B Take a cotton piece soaked in liquid paraffin, and rub
colour the outer red surface of the sweet potato. If the cotton
absorb colour, it indicates the use of rhodamine B
colours on the outer surface of the sweet potato.

11 Pulses Lead Chromate Shake 5 gm. Of pulse with 5 ml. Of water and add a
few drops of HCl. Pink colour indicates Lead
Chromate.

12 Iodized salt Common salt Cut a piece of potato, add salt and wait minute and
add two drops of lemon juice. If iodized salt blue
colour will
develop. In case of common salt, there will be no blue
colour.
13 Silver leaves Aluminium leaves (i)On ignition,genuine silver leaves burn away
completely leaving glistering white spherical ball of the
same mass whereas aluminium leaves are reduced to
ashes of dark grey blackish colour.

(ii)Take silver leaves in test tube,add diluted

Hydrochloric acid. Appearance of turbidity to white
precipitate indicates the presence of silver leaves.
Aluminium leaves do not give any turbidity or
precipitate.

(iii) Take aluminium leaves in palm and rub between

both the palms of the hand, silver leaves completely
disappear in the hand; however presence of small ball
in the palm indicates adulteration with aluminium
leaves.

14 Vinegar Mineral Acid Test with the Metanil yellow indicator paper, in case,
the colour changes from yellow to pink,mineral acid is
present

Adulteration in food has been a concern since the beginning of civilization, as it not only decreases the quality of food
products but also results in a number of ill effects on health. Authentic testing of food and adulterant detection of various
food products is required for value assessment and to assure consumer protection against fraudulent activities. Through
this review we intend to compile different types of adulterations made in different food items, the health risks imposed by
these adulterants and detection methods available for them. Concerns about food safety and regulation have ensured the
development of various techniques like physical, biochemical/immunological and molecular techniques, for adulterant
detection in food. Molecular methods are more preferable when it comes to detection of biological adulterants in food,
although physical and biochemical techniques are preferable for detection of other adulterants in food.
Food Preservation. The term food preservation refers to any one of a number of techniques used to prevent food from
spoiling. It includes methods such as canning, pickling, drying and freeze-drying, irradiation, pasteurization, smoking, and
the addition of chemical additives. Food preservation has become an increasingly important component of the food
industry as fewer people eat foods produced on their own lands, and as consumers expect to be able to purchase and
consume foods that are "out of season." Smoking Early humans probably discovered by accident that certain foods
exposed to smoke seem to last longer than those that are not. Meats, fish, fowl, and cheese were among such foods. It
appears that compounds present in wood smoke have anti-microbial actions that prevent the growth of organisms that
cause spoilage. Today, the process of smoking has become a sophisticated method of food preservation with both hot and
cold forms in use. Hot smoking is used primarily with fresh or frozen foods, while cold smoking is used most often with
salted products. The most advantageous conditions for each kind of smoking—air velocity, relative humidity, length of
exposure, and salt content, for example–are now generally understood and applied during the smoking process. For
example, electrostatic precipitators can be employed to attract smoke particles and improve the penetration of the particles
into meat or fish. So many alternative forms of preservation are now available that smoking no longer holds the position
of importance it once did with ancient peoples. More frequently the process is used to add interesting and distinctive
flavors to foods.
Drying Since most disease-causing organisms require a moist environment in which to survive and multiply, drying is a
natural technique for preventing spoilage. Indeed, the act of simply leaving foods out in the sun and wind to dry out is
probably one of the earliest forms of food preservation. Evidence for the drying of meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables go
back to the earliest recorded human history. At some point, humans also learned that the drying process could be hastened
and improved by various mechanical techniques. For example, the Arabs learned early on that apricots could be preserved
almost indefinitely by macerating them, boiling them, and then leaving them to dry on broad sheets. The product of this
technique, quamaradeen, is still made by the same process in modern Muslim countries.
Today, a host of dehydrating techniques are known and used. The specific technique adopted depends on the properties of
the food being preserved. For example, a traditional method for preserving rice is to allow it to dry naturally in the fields
or on drying racks in barns for about two weeks. After this period of time, the native rice is threshed and then dried again
by allowing it to sit on straw mats in the sun for about three days. Modern drying techniques make use of fans and heaters
in controlled environments. Such methods avoid the uncertainties that arise from leaving crops in the field to dry under
natural conditions. Controlled temperature air drying is especially popular for the preservation of grains such as
maize, barley, and bulgur. Vacuum drying is a form of preservation in which a food is placed in a large container from
which air is removed. Water vapor pressure within the food is greater than that outside of it, and water evaporates more
quickly from the food than in a normal atmosphere. Vacuum drying is biologically desirable since some enzymes that
cause oxidation of foods become active during normal air drying. These enzymes do not appear to be as active under
vacuum drying conditions, however.
Two of the special advantages of vacuum drying is that the process is more efficient at removing water from a food
product, and it takes place more quickly than air drying. In one study, for example, the drying time of a fish fillet was
reduced from about 16 hours by air drying to six hours as a result of vacuum drying. Coffee drinkers are familiar with the
process of dehydration known as spray drying. In this process, a concentrated solution of coffee in water is sprayed
though a disk with many small holes in it. The surface area of the original coffee grounds is increased many times, making
dehydration of the dry product much more efficient. Freeze-drying is a method of preservation that makes use of the
physical principle known as sublimation. Sublimation is the process by which a solid passes directly to the gaseous phase
without first melting. Freeze-drying is a desirable way of preserving food since it takes place at very low temperatures
(commonly around 14°F to -13°F [-10°C to -25°C]) at which chemical reactions take place very slowly and pathogens
survive only poorly. The food to be preserved by this method is first frozen and then placed into a vacuum chamber.
Water in the food first freezes and then sublimes, leaving a moisture content in the final product of as low as 0.5%.
Salting The precise mechanism by which salting preserves food is not entirely understood. It is known that salt binds with
water molecules and thus acts as a dehydrating agent in foods. A high level of salinity may also impair the conditions
under which pathogens can survive. In any case, the value of adding salt to foods for preservation has been well known
for centuries. Sugar appears to have effects similar to those of salt in preventing spoilage of food. The use of either
compound (and of certain other natural materials) is known as curing. A desirable side effect of using salt or sugar as a
food preservative is, of course, the pleasant flavor each compound adds to the final product. Curing can be accomplished
in a variety of ways. Meats can be submerged in a salt solution known as brine, for example, or the salt can be rubbed on
the meat by hand. The injection of salt solutions into meats has also become popular. Food scientists have now learned
that a number of factors relating to the food product and to the preservative conditions affect the efficiency of curing.
Some of the food factors include the type of food being preserved, the fat content, and the size of treated pieces.
Preservative factors include brine temperature and concentration and the presence of impurities. Curing is used with
certain fruits and vegetables, such as cabbage (in the making of sauerkraut), cucumbers (in the making of pickles), and
olives. It is probably most popular, however, in the preservation of meats and fish. Honey-cured hams, bacon, and corned
beef ("corn" is a term for a form of salt crystals) are common examples.
Freezing: is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not
grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques
such as boiling because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures than hot temperatures. In fact,
one of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens
deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws. A number of factors
are involved in the selection of the best approach to the freezing of foods, including the temperature to be used, the rate at
which freezing is to take place, and the actual method used to freeze the food. Because of differences in cellular
composition, foods actually begin to freeze at different temperatures ranging from about 31°F (-0.6°C) for some kinds of
fish to 19°F (-7°C) for some kinds of fruits. The rate at which food is frozen is also a factor, primarily because of aesthetic
reasons. The more slowly food is frozen, the larger the ice crystals that are formed. Large ice crystals have the tendency to
cause rupture of cells and the destruction of texture in meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits. In order to deal with this
problem, the technique of quick-freezing has been developed. In quick-freezing, a food is cooled to or below its freezing
point as quickly as possible. The product thus obtained, when thawed, tends to have a firm, more natural texture than is
the case with most slow-frozen foods.
About a half dozen methods for the freezing of foods have been developed. One, described as the plate, or contact,
freezing technique, was invented by the American inventor Charles Birdseye in 1929. In this method, food to be frozen is
placed on a refrigerated plate and cooled to a temperature less than its freezing point. Or, the food may be placed between
two parallel refrigerated plates and frozen. Another technique for freezing foods is by immersion in very cold liquids. At
one time, sodium chloride brine solutions were widely used for this purpose. A 10% brine solution, for example, has a
freezing point of about 21°F (-6°C), well within the desired freezing range for many foods. More recently,
liquid nitrogen has been used for immersion freezing. The temperature of liquid nitrogen is about -320°F (-195.5°C), so
that foods immersed in this substance freeze very quickly. As with most methods of food preservation, freezing works
better with some foods than with others. Fish, meat, poultry, and citrus fruit juices (such as frozen orange juice
concentrate) are among the foods most commonly preserved by this method.
Fermentation: is a naturally occurring chemical reaction by which a natural food is converted into another form by
pathogens. It is a process in which food "goes bad," but results in the formation of an edible product. Perhaps the best
example of such a food is cheese. Fresh milk does not remain in edible condition for a very long period of time. Its pH is
such that harmful pathogens begin to grow in it very rapidly. Early humans discovered, however, that the spoilage of milk
can be controlled in such a way as to produce a new product, cheese. Bread is another food product made by the process
of fermentation. Flour, water, sugar, milk, and other raw materials are mixed together with yeasts and then baked. The
addition of yeasts brings about the fermentation of sugars present in the mixture, resulting in the formation of a product
that will remain edible much longer than will the original raw materials used in the bread-making process.
Food preservation prevents the growth of microorganisms (such as yeasts), or other microorganisms (although some
methods work by introducing benign bacteria or fungi to the food), as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that
cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic
browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation. Many processes designed to preserve food involve
more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce
the fruit's moisture content and to kill bacteria, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar
(to prevent recontamination). Some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy
input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of food preservation are known to
create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified
processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as "carcinogenic to humans".
Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation
Traditional techniques: New techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn
of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.
Curing "curing salt" or "pink salt". It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to
distinguish it from ordinary salt. The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as
12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in
preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including
the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol. Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth
of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic
pink colour.
Cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that
causes the food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many
in the Western world by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods,
particularly during warm weather. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the
forms of root cellars and iceboxes. Rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often
relied on the ice trade. Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including local
food, heirloom crops, traditional home cooking techniques, family farming, frugality, self-sufficiency, organic farming,
and others.
Freezing: is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very
wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For
example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many
months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national
emergency in many countries.
Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that
may be present in them.
Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual
stews. Milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms.
Sugaring The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar
to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to
dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar. "Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes
(plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the food will remain safe
from microbial spoilage." Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such
as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to
the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit
(candied peel), angelica, and ginger. Also, sugaring can be used in the production of jam and jelly.
Pickling: is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified into two
categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling. In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that
inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol,
and vegetable oil. Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved
becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers, peppers, corned
beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli. In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid
produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence
of lactobacillales. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, and surströmming.
Lye: Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will
change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century
eggs also call for lye.
Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any
remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization. It was invented by the French confectioner Nicolas Appert. By 1806, this
process was used by the French Navy to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk. Although Appert had discovered
a new way of preservation, it wasn't understood until 1864 when Louis Pasteur found the relationship between
microorganisms, food spoilage, and illness. Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may
require that the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and
only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as carrots require longer boiling and addition of other acidic
elements. Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling
is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened. Lack of quality control in the canning process may
allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes
gas production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing)
and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum, which
produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste
and remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however. Cooked mushrooms, handled poorly
and then canned, can support the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by
canning or subsequent reheating.
Jellying; Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials
include gelatin, agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a protein gel when cooked, such as eels
and elvers, and sipunculid worms, which are a delicacy in Xiamen, in the Fujian province of the People's Republic of
China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the East End of London, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats
in aspic (a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until
the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied. A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularly shrimp) is by
setting it in a pot and sealing it with a layer of fat. Also common is potted chicken liver; jellying is one of the steps in
producing traditional pâtés.
Jugging: Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging is the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a
covered earthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed jug
with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid.
Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.
Burial; of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level,
or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be
preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen. Many root vegetables are
very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in
the ground, such as in a storage clamp. Century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other
alkaline substance), resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation
preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful
ones. Cabbage was traditionally buried during Autumn in northern US farms for preservation. Some methods keep it
crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut. A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi.
Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill
pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth
is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator. In Orissa, India, it is practical to store rice by burying it underground. This
method helps to store for three to six months during the dry season. Butter and similar substances have been preserved
as bog butter in Irish peat bogs for centuries.
Confit Meat can be preserved by salting it, cooking it at or near 100 °C in some kind of fat (such as lard or tallow), and
then storing it immersed in the fat. These preparations were popular in Europe before refrigerators became ubiquitous.
They are still popular in France, where they are called confit. The preparation will keep longer if stored in a cold cellar or
buried in cold ground.
Fermentation: Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage
from other less-benign organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for
themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited
to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of
oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that
produce food fit for human consumption. Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not
only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make
foods more nutritious and palatable. For example, drinking water in the Middle Ages was dangerous because it often
contained pathogens that could spread disease. When the water is made into beer, the boiling during the brewing process
kills any bacteria in the water that could make people sick. Additionally, the water now has the nutrients from the barley
and other ingredients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.[7]
Modern industrial techniques: Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial
applications.
Pasteurization; is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local
wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about 70 °C (158 °F) for
15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to 10 °C (50 °F) to prevent the remaining bacteria
from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis
Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.
Vacuum packing: stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment
strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor
from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform
contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.
Artificial food additives; Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial—which inhibit the growth
of bacteria or fungi, including mold—or antioxidant, such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food
constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate, sodium
nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.),
and EDTA. Antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Other
preservatives include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (insecticide), ethanol,
and methylchloroisothiazolinone.
Irradiation; Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation. Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be
used, including beta particles (high-energy electrons) and gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources such as cobalt-
60 or cesium-137). Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect pests, reduce the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at
higher doses induce sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called "cold
pasteurization", as the product is not heated. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered
marketable. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of
the UN, such as the WHO and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation. Consumers may have a
negative view of irradiated food based on the misconception that such food is radioactive; in fact, irradiated food does not
and cannot become radioactive. Activists have also opposed food irradiation for other reasons, for example, arguing that
irradiation can be used to sterilize contaminated food without resolving the underlying cause of the
contamination. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to a
full ban. Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are
mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.
Pulsed electric field electroporation: Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by
means of brief pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization
process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed
electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases their
contents. PEF for food processing is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited industrial
applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices. To date, several PEF treated juices are available on
the market in Europe. Furthermore, for several years a juice pasteurization application in the US has used PEF. For cell
disintegration purposes especially potato processors show great interest in PEF technology as an efficient alternative for
their preheaters. Potato applications are already operational in the US and Canada. There are also commercial PEF potato
applications in various countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, India, and China.
Modified atmosphere: Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad
crops that are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to
reduce the oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that,
although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not
retain nutrients, especially vitamins. There are two methods for preserving grains with carbon dioxide. One method is
placing a block of dry ice in the bottom and filling the can with the grain. Another method is purging the container from
the bottom by gaseous carbon dioxide from a cylinder or bulk supply vessel. Carbon dioxide prevents insects and,
depending on concentration, mold and oxidation from damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can remain edible for
approximately five years. Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher is also used effectively to kill insects in
the grain through hypoxia. However, carbon dioxide has an advantage in this respect, as it kills organisms
through hypercarbia and hypoxia (depending on concentration), but it requires concentrations of above 35%, or so. This
makes carbon dioxide preferable for fumigation in situations where a hermetic seal cannot be maintained. Controlled
Atmospheric Storage (CA): "CA storage is a non-chemical process. Oxygen levels in the sealed rooms are reduced,
usually by the infusion of nitrogen gas, from the approximate 21 percent in the air we breathe to 1 percent or 2 percent.
Temperatures are kept at a constant 0–2 °C (32–36 °F). Humidity is maintained at 95 percent and carbon dioxide levels
are also controlled. Exact conditions in the rooms are set according to the apple variety. Researchers develop specific
regimens for each variety to achieve the best quality. Computers help keep conditions constant." "Eastern Washington,
where most of Washington’s apples are grown, has enough warehouse storage for 181 million boxes of fruit, according to
a report done in 1997 by managers for the Washington State Department of Agriculture Plant Services Division. The
storage capacity study shows that 67 percent of that space—enough for 121,008,000 boxes of apples—is CA
storage." Air-tight storage of grains (sometimes called hermetic storage) relies on the respiration of grain, insects, and
fungi that can modify the enclosed atmosphere sufficiently to control insect pests. This is a method of great antiquity, as
well as having modern equivalents. The success of the method relies on having the correct mix of sealing, grain moisture,
and temperature. A patented process uses fuel cells to exhaust and automatically maintain the exhaustion of oxygen in a
shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.
Nonthermal plasma This process subjects the surface of food to a "flame" of ionized gas molecules, such as helium or
nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface.
High-pressure food preservation High-pressure food preservation or pascalization refers to the use of a food
preservation technique that makes use of high pressure. "Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square inch
(480 MPa) or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients while
disabling harmful microorganisms and slowing spoilage." By 2005, the process was being used for products ranging
from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.
Biopreservation; is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and
extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in
biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food. It is a benign ecological approach which is
gaining increasing attention. Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic
properties that make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients,
their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide,
and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effective preservative. These
days, LAB bacteriocins are used as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in combination with other
preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit the activities of a
wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.
Hurdle technology: is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by
combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as "hurdles" the pathogen has to overcome if it is
to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered
harmless in the final product. Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of
hurdles that secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and nutritional quality and the economic
viability of food products. The organoleptic quality of the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell,
and texture. Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during
storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, and the presence
of preservatives or biopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the
hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of
the product.

Principal hurdles used for food preservation (after Leistner, 1995)

Parameter Symbol Application

High temperature F Heating

Low temperature T Chilling, freezing

Reduced water activity aw Drying, curing, conserving

Increased acidity pH Acid addition or formation

Reduced redox potential Eh Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate

Biopreservatives Competitive flora such as microbial fermentation

Other preservatives Sorbates, sulfites, nitrites

Science behind food preservation methods: While many food preservation methods that have been used in the past are
still used today, some have been updated to follow the latest food preservation science. When preserving food, first you
need to decide what you are preserving, which will help you decide what method will be used. So let’s talk about methods
of food preservation.
Dehydrating is one of the first forms of food preservation. This method removes moisture from food. Removing moisture
from the product reduces the ability of bacterial growth by taking away the element it needs to grow.
Water bath canning is used when putting your high acid foods, such as fruits and tomatoes, in a jar. One thing science has
dictated is that we need to add acid to tomatoes when canning them. Jams and Jellies can be safely water bathed for safe
preservation. Because of science, the length of time produce is in the water bath canner has also increased to ensure that
the heat has reached the center of the jar to kill any bacteria or enzymes in the product.
Pressure canning is another preservation process that requires putting product in a jar. However, these items are
considered low acid and need to be processed using a pressure canner. Science has changed the length of time and the
amount of pressure used when canning in a pressure canner.
Pickling is a method of preservation that has a high concentration of acid. Pickled products are saturated with acid to
smother out most bacteria. Heat treating these products is also important to kill any remaining bacteria in the jar.
Freezing food is a quick and easy method of food preservation. Many things can be frozen which slows growth of
enzymes but does not eliminate them. When foods are removed from the freezer microorganisms begin to grow once they
reach a thawed state.
Fermentation is a method of preservation the can add a little bit of healthy nutrition to a diet. It is an old way of food
preservation that adds flavor after the fermenting process is done. Fermenting is a process done in a warm environment
using salts, sugars or grains creating a brine, which covers the produce. Time is another important factor when fermenting.
Michigan State University recommends using only science based methods to preserve foods that are intended for later use.
For more information on methods of food preservation refer to USDA national food preservation website, So Easy to
Preserve or the All New Ball Blue Book of Canning and Preserving.
Food preservation consists of the application of science-based knowledge through a variety of available technologies and
procedures, to prevent deterioration and spoilage of food products and extend their shelf-life, while assuring consumers a
product free of pathogenic microorganisms. Shelf-life may be defined as the time it takes a product to decline to an
unacceptable level. Deterioration of foods will result in loss of quality attributes, including flavor, texture, color, and
other sensory properties. Nutritional quality is also affected during food deterioration. Physical, biological,
microbiological, chemical, and biochemical factors may cause food deterioration. Preservation methods should be applied
as early as possible in the food production pipeline and therefore include appropriate postharvest handling before
processing of both plant and animal foods (Figure 1). Processing techniques usually rely on appropriate packaging
methods and materials to assure continuity of preservation. Handling of processed foods during storage, transportation,
retail, and by the consumer also influences the preservation of processed foods. Because food is so important to survival,
food preservation is one of the oldest technologies used by human beings. In this article, we'll look at all of the different
preservation techniques commonly used today, including: Refrigeration and freezing, Canning, Irradiation, Dehydration,
Freeze-drying, Salting, Pickling, Pasteurizing, Fermentation, Carbonation, Cheese-making, Chemical preservation
The basic idea behind all forms of food preservation is either: To slow down the activity of disease-causing bacteria, To
kill the bacteria altogether
In certain cases, a preservation technique may also destroy enzymes naturally found in a food that cause it to spoil or
discolor quickly. An enzyme is a special protein that acts as a catalyst for a chemical reaction, and enzymes are fairly
fragile. By increasing the temperature of food to about 150 degrees Fahrenheit (66 degrees Celsius), enzymes are
destroyed.
A food that is sterile contains no bacteria. Unless sterilized and sealed, all food contains bacteria. For example, bacteria
naturally living in milk will spoil the milk in two or three hours if the milk is left out on the kitchen counter at room
temperature. By putting the milk in the refrigerator you don't eliminate the bacteria already there, but you do slow down
the bacteria enough that the milk will stay fresh for a week or two.
Refrigeration and freezing are probably the most popular forms of food preservation in use today. In the case of
refrigeration, the idea is to slow bacterial action to a crawl so that it takes food much longer (perhaps a week or two,
rather than half a day) to spoil. In the case of freezing, the idea is to stop bacterial action altogether. Frozen bacteria are
completely inactive. Refrigeration and freezing are used on almost all foods: meats, fruits, vegetables, beverages, etc. In
general, refrigeration has no effect on a food's taste or texture. Freezing has no effect on the taste or texture of most meats,
has minimal effects on vegetables, but often completely changes fruits (which become mushy). Refrigeration's minimal
effects account for its wide
Since 1825 or so, canning has provided a way for people to store foods for extremely long periods of time. In canning,
you boil the food in the can to kill all the bacteria and seal the can (either before or while the food is boiling) to prevent
any new bacteria from getting in. Since the food in the can is completely sterile, it does not spoil. Once you open the can,
bacteria enter and begin attacking the food, so you have to "refrigerate the contents after opening" (you see that label on
all sorts of food products -- it means that the contents are sterile until you open the container). We generally think of
"cans" as being metal, but any sealable container can serve as a can. Glass jars, for example, can be boiled and sealed. So
can foil or plastic pouches and boxes. Milk in a box that you can store on the shelf is "canned" milk. The milk inside the
box is made sterile (using ultra high temperature (UHT) pasteurization) and sealed inside the box, so it does not spoil
even at room temperature. One problem with canning, and the reason why refrigeration or freezing is preferred to canning,
is that the act of boiling food in the can generally changes its taste and texture (as well as its nutritional content).
Dehydrating Food Many foods are dehydrated to preserve them. If you walk through any grocery store you may notice
the following dehydrated products: Powdered milk, Dehydrated potatoes in a box, Dried fruits and vegetables, Dried
meats (like beef jerky), Powdered soups and sauces, Pasta, Instant rice. Since most bacteria die or become completely
inactive when dried, dried foods kept in air-tight containers can last quite a long time.
Normally, drying completely alters the taste and texture of the food, but in many cases a completely new food is created
that people like just as much as the original!
Freeze-drying is a special form of drying that removes all moisture and tends to have less of an effect on a food's taste
than normal dehydration does. In freeze-drying, food is frozen and placed in a strong vacuum. The water in the food then
sublimates -- that is, it turns straight from ice into vapor. Freeze-drying is most commonly used to make instant coffee, but
also works extremely well on fruits such as apples.
Salting, especially of meat, is an ancient preservation technique. The salt draws out moisture and creates an environment
inhospitable to bacteria. If salted in cold weather (so that the meat does not spoil while the salt has time to take effect),
salted meat can last for years. The following passage from John Steinbeck's "The Grapes of Wrath" describes the process
briefly: Noah carried the slabs of meat into the kitchen and cut it into small salting blocks, and Ma patted the course salt
in, laid it piece by piece in the kegs, careful that no two pieces touched each other. She laid the slabs like bricks, and
pounded salt in the spaces. this technique creates a keg (a wooden barrel) full of salt and meat. This technique is ancient.
You can read about its use during the sailing voyages around the time of Columbus. Many accounts of the Revolutionary
War and especially the Civil War talk about meat preserved in this way. Salting was used to preserve meat up through the
middle of this century, and was eventually replaced by refrigeration and freezing. Today, salting is still used to create salt-
cured "country ham" found widely in the southern United States, dried beef (which you can buy in jars at most grocery
stores), and corned beef and pastrami, which are made by soaking beef in a 10-percent salt water brine for several weeks.
Pickling was widely used to preserve meats, fruits and vegetables in the past, but today is used almost exclusively to
produce "pickles," or pickled cucumbers. Pickling uses the preservative qualities of salt (see above) combined with the
preservative qualities of acid, such as acetic acid (vinegar). Acid environments inhibit bacteria. To make pickles,
cucumbers are soaked in a 10-percent salt water brine for several days, then rinsed and stored in vinegar to preserve them
for years.
Pasteurizing, Fermenting, Carbonating
Pasteurizing: is a compromise. If you boil a food you can kill all bacteria and make the food sterile, but you often
significantly affect the taste and nutritional value of the food. When you pasteurize a food (almost always a liquid), what
you are doing is heating it to a high enough temperature to kill certain (but not all) bacteria and to disable certain
enzymes, and in return you are minimizing the effects on taste as much as you can. Commonly pasteurized foods include
milk, ice cream, fruit juices, beer and non-carbonated beverages. Milk, for example, can be pasteurized by heating to 145
degrees F (62.8 degrees C) for half an hour or 163 degrees F (72.8 degrees C) for 15 seconds. Ultra high temperature
(UHT) pasteurization completely sterilizes the product. It is used to created "boxes of milk" that you see on the shelf at
the grocery store. In UHT pasteurization, the temperature of the milk is raised to about 285 degrees F (141 degrees C) for
one or two seconds, sterilizing the milk.
Fermenting: Fermentation uses yeast to produce alcohol. Alcohol is a good preservative because it kills bacteria. When
you ferment grape juice you create wine, which will last quite a long time (decades if necessary) without refrigeration.
Normal grape juice would mold in days.
Carbonating: Carbonated water is water in which carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved under pressure. By eliminating
oxygen, carbonated water inhibits bacterial growth. Carbonated beverages (soft drinks) therefore contain a natural
preservative.
Cheese Making: Cheese is way of preserving milk for long periods of time. In the process, the milk in cheese becomes
something completely unlike milk, but cheese has its own interesting and delicious properties. Cheese-making is a long
and involved process that makes use of bacteria, enzymes and naturally formed acids to solidify
milk proteins and fat and preserve them. Once turned into cheese, milk can be stored for months or years. The main
preservatives that give cheese its longevity are salt and acids. The basic steps in cheese making go something like this (for
most common cheeses like cheddar):
 First, milk is inoculated with lactic acid bacteria and rennet. The lactic acid bacteria convert the sugar in milk
(lactose) to lactic acid. The rennet contains enzymes that modify proteins in milk. Specifically, rennet contains
rennin, an enzyme that converts a common protein in milk called caseinogen into casein, which does not dissolve
in water. The casein precipitates out as a gel-like substance that we see it as curd. The casein gel also captures
most of the fat and calcium from the milk. So the lactic acid and the rennet cause the milk to curdle, separating
into curds (the milk solids, fats, proteins, etc.) and whey (mostly water). A gallon of milk (about 8 pounds) yields
only about 1.25 pounds of cheese -- the weight that is lost is all the water in milk.
 The curds and whey are allowed to soak until the lactic acid bacteria create a lactic acid concentration that is just
right. At that point, the whey is drained off and salt is added.
 Now the curds are pressed in a cheese press -- lightly at first to allow the escape of the remaining whey, then
severely (up to a ton of pressure) to solidify the cheese.
 Finally, the cheese is allowed to age (ripen) for several months in a cool place to improve its taste and
consistency. A sharp cheddar cheese has been aged a year or more. During this time, enzymes and bacteria
continue to modify proteins, fats and sugars in the cheese. The holes in Swiss cheese occur during ripening --
Swiss cheese is ripened in a cool place for several weeks, then put in a warm place (70 degrees F, 21 degrees C or
so) for four to six weeks, where special bacteria ferment the remaining lactose and produce carbon dioxide
bubbles in the cheese.
As you can see, cheese-making is complicated. It produces a product that preserves milk proteins and sugars with acids
and salt. There are three classes of chemical preservatives commonly used in foods:
 Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate)
 Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite)
 Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide)
Food Preservation: The term food preservation refers to any one of a number of techniques used to prevent food from
spoiling. It includes methods such as canning, pickling, drying and freeze-drying, irradiation, pasteurization, smoking, and
the addition of chemical additives. Food preservation has become an increasingly important component of the food
industry as fewer people eat foods produced on their own lands, and as consumers expect to be able to purchase and
consume foods that are out of season. The vast majority of instances of food spoilage can be attributed to one of two
major causes: (1) the attack by pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) such as bacteria and molds, or (2) oxidation
that causes the destruction of essential biochemical compounds and/or the destruction of plant and animal cells. The
various methods that have been devised for preserving foods are all designed to reduce or eliminate one or the other (or
both) of these causative agents. For example, a simple and common method of preserving food is by heating it to some
minimum temperature. This process prevents or retards spoilage because high temperatures kill or inactivate most kinds of
pathogens. The addition of compounds known as BHA and BHT to foods also prevents spoilage in another different way.
These compounds are known to act as antioxidants, preventing chemical reactions that cause the oxidation of food that
results in its spoilage. Almost all techniques of preservation are designed to extend the life of food by acting in one of
these two ways. The search for methods of food preservation probably can be traced to the dawn of human civilization.
People who lived through harsh winters found it necessary to find some means of insuring a food supply during seasons
when no fresh fruits and vegetables were available. Evidence for the use of dehydration (drying) as a method of food
preservation, for example, goes back at least 5,000 years. Among the most primitive forms of food preservation that are
still in use today are such methods as smoking, drying, salting, freezing, and fermenting.
Early humans probably discovered by accident that certain foods exposed to smoke seem to last longer than those that are
not. Meats, fish, fowl, and cheese were among such foods. It appears that compounds present in wood smoke have anti-
microbial actions that prevent the growth of organisms that cause spoilage. today, the process of smoking has become a
sophisticated method of food preservation with both hot and cold forms in use. Hot smoking is used primarily with fresh
or frozen foods, while cold smoking is used most often with salted products. The most advantageous conditions for each
kind of smoking—air velocity, relative humidity, length of exposure, and salt content, for example—are now generally
understood and applied during the smoking process. For example, electrostatic precipitators can be employed to attract
smoke particles and improve the penetration of the particles into meat or fish. So many alternative forms of preservation
are now available that smoking no longer holds the position of importance it once did with ancient peoples. More
frequently, the process is used to add interesting and distinctive flavors to foods.
Because most disease-causing organisms require a moist environment in which to survive and multiply, drying is a natural
technique for preventing spoilage. Indeed, the act of simply leaving foods out in the sun and wind to dry out is probably
one of the earliest forms of food preservation. Evidence for the drying of meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables go back to the
earliest recorded human history. At some point, humans also learned that the drying process could be hastened and
improved by various mechanical techniques. For example, the Arabs learned early on that apricots could be preserved
almost indefinitely by macerating them, boiling them, and then leaving them to dry on broad sheets. The product of this
technique, quamar-adeen, is still made by the same process in modern Muslim countries.
Today, a host of dehydrating techniques are known and used. The specific technique adopted depends on the properties of
the food being preserved. For example, a traditional method for preserving rice is to allow it to dry naturally in the fields
or on drying racks in barns for about two weeks. After this period of time, the native rice is threshed and then dried again
by allowing it to sit on straw mats in the sun for about three days. Modern drying techniques make use of fans and heaters
in controlled environments. Such methods avoid the uncertainties that arise from leaving crops in the field to dry under
natural conditions. Controlled temperature air drying is especially popular for the preservation of grains such as maize,
barley, and bulgur.
Vacuum drying is a form of preservation in which a food is placed in a large container from which air is removed.
Water vapor pressure within the food is greater than that outside of it, and water evaporates more quickly from the food
than in a normal atmosphere. Vacuum drying is biologically desirable since some enzymes that cause oxidation of foods
become active during normal air drying. These enzymes do not appear to be as active under vacuum drying conditions,
however. Two of the special advantages of vacuum drying are that the process is more efficient at removing water from a
food product, and it takes place more quickly than air drying. In one study, for example, the drying time of a fish fillet was
reduced from about 16 hours by air drying to six hours as a result of vacuum drying.
Coffee drinkers are familiar with the process of dehydration known as spray drying. In this process, a concentrated
solution of coffee in water is sprayed though a disk with many small holes in it. The surface area of the original coffee
grounds is increased many times, making dehydration of the dry product much more efficient. Freeze-drying is a method
of preservation that makes use of the physical principle known as sublimation. Sublimation is the process by which a solid
passes directly to the gaseous phase without first melting. Freeze-drying is a desirable way of preserving food because at
low temperatures (commonly around 14°F to –13°F [–10°C to –25°C]) chemical reactions take place very slowly and
pathogens have difficulty surviving. The food to be preserved by this method is first frozen and then placed into a vacuum
chamber. Water in the food first freezes and then sublimes, leaving a moisture content in the final product of as low as
0.5%.
The precise mechanism by which salting preserves food is not entirely understood. It is known that salt binds with water
molecules and thus acts as a dehydrating agent in foods. A high level of salinity may also impair the conditions under
which pathogens can survive. In any case, the value of adding salt to foods for preservation has been well known for
centuries. Sugar appears to have effects similar to those of salt in preventing spoilage of food. The use of either compound
(and of certain other natural materials) is known as curing. A desirable side effect of using salt or sugar as a food
preservative is, of course, the pleasant flavor each compound adds to the final product.
Curing can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Meats can be submerged in a salt solution known as brine, for example,
or the salt can be rubbed on the meat by hand. The injection of salt solutions into meats has also become popular. Food
scientists have now learned that a number of factors relating to the food product and to the preservative conditions affect
the efficiency of curing. Some of the food factors include the type of food being preserved, the fat content, and the size of
treated pieces. Preservative factors include brine temperature and concentration, and the presence of impurities.
Curing is used with certain fruits and vegetables, such as cabbage (in the making of sauerkraut), cucumbers (in the making
of pickles), and olives. It is probably most popular, however, in the preservation of meats and fish. Honey-cured hams,
bacon, and corned beef (“corn” is a term for a form of salt crystals) are common examples.
Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not
grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques
such as boiling because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures than hot temperatures. In fact,
one of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens
deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.
A number of factors are involved in the selection of the best approach to the freezing of foods, including the temperature
to be used, the rate at which freezing is to take place, and the actual method used to freeze the food. Because of
differences in cellular composition, foods actually begin to freeze at different temperatures ranging from about 31°F (–
0.6°C) for some kinds of fish to 19°F (–7°C) for some kinds of fruits.
The rate at which food is frozen is also a factor, primarily because of aesthetic reasons. The more slowly food is frozen,
the larger the ice crystals that are formed. Large ice crystals have the tendency to cause rupture of cells and the destruction
of texture in meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits. In order to deal with this problem, the technique of quick-freezing has
been developed. In quick-freezing, a food is cooled to or below its freezing point as quickly as possible. The product thus
obtained, when thawed, tends to have a firm, more natural texture than is the case with most slow-frozen foods.
About a half dozen methods for the freezing of foods have been developed. One, described as the plate, or contact,
freezing technique, was invented by the American inventor Charles Birdseye in 1929. In this method, food to be frozen is
placed on a refrigerated plate and cooled to a temperature less than its freezing point. Alternatively, the food may be
placed between two parallel refrigerated plates and frozen. Another technique for freezing foods is by immersion in very
cold liquids. At one time, sodium chloride brine solutions were widely used for this purpose. A 10% brine solution, for
example, has a freezing point of about 21°F (–6°C), well within the desired freezing range for many foods. More recently,
liquid nitrogen has been used for immersion freezing. The temperature of liquid nitrogen is about –320°F (–195.5°C), so
that foods immersed in this substance freeze very quickly.
As with most methods of food preservation, freezing works better with some foods than with others. Fish, meat, poultry,
and citrus fruit juices (such as frozen orange juice concentrate) are among the foods most commonly preserved by this
method.
Fermentation is a naturally occurring chemical reaction by which a natural food is converted into another form by
pathogens. It is a process in which food spoils, but results in the formation of an edible product. Perhaps the best example
of such a food is cheese. Fresh milk does not remain in edible condition for a very long period of time. Its pH is such that
harmful pathogens begin to grow in it very rapidly. Early humans discovered, however, that the spoilage of milk can be
controlled in such a way as to produce a new product, cheese.
Bread is another food product made by the process of fermentation. Flour, water, sugar, milk, and other raw materials are
mixed together with yeasts and then baked. The addition of yeasts brings about the fermentation of sugars present in the
mixture, resulting in the formation of a product that will remain edible much longer than will the original raw materials
used in the bread-making process.
Heating food is an effective way of preserving it because the great majority of harmful pathogens are killed at
temperatures close to the boiling point of water. In this respect, heating foods is a form of food preservation comparable to
that of freezing but much superior to it in its effectiveness. A preliminary step in many other forms of food preservation,
especially forms that make use of packaging, is to heat the foods to temperatures sufficiently high to destroy pathogens.
In many cases, foods are actually cooked prior to their being packaged and stored. In other cases, cooking is neither
appropriate nor necessary. The most familiar example of the latter situation is pasteurization. During the 1860s, the
French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) discovered that pathogens in foods could be destroyed by heating those
foods to a certain minimum temperature. The process was particularly appealing for the preservation of milk since
preserving milk by boiling is not a practical approach. Conventional methods of pasteurization called for the heating of
milk to a temperature between 145 and 149°F (63-65°C) for a period of about 30 minutes, and then cooling it to room
temperature. In a more recent revision of that process, milk can also be “flash-pasteurized” by raising its temperature to
about 160°F (71°C) for a minimum of 15 seconds, with equally successful results. A process known as ultra-high-
pasteurization uses even higher temperatures, of the order of 194-266° F (90-130° C), for periods of a second or more.
One of the most common methods for preserving foods today is to enclose them in a sterile container. The
term “canning” refers to this method although the specific container can be glass, plastic, or some other material as well as
a metal can, from which the procedure originally obtained its name. The basic principle behind canning is that a food is
sterilized, usually by heating, and then placed within an airtight container. In the absence of air, no new pathogens can
gain access to the sterilized food. In most canning operations, the food to be packaged is first prepared—cleaned, peeled,
sliced, chopped, or treated in some other way—and then placed directly into the container. The container is then placed in
hot water or some other environment where its temperature is raised above the boiling point of water for some period of
time. This heating process achieves two goals at once. First, it kills the vast majority of pathogens that may be present in
the container. Second, it forces out most of the air above the food in the container.
After heating has been completed, the top of the container is sealed. In home canning procedures, one way of sealing the
(usually glass) container is to place a layer of melted paraffin directly on top of the food. As the paraffin cools, it forms a
tight solid seal on top of the food. Instead of or in addition to the paraffin seal, the container is also sealed with a metal
screw top containing a rubber gasket. The first glass jar designed for this type of home canning operation, the Mason jar,
was patented in 1858.
The commercial packaging of foods frequently makes use of tin, aluminum, or other kinds of metallic cans. The
technology for this kind of canning was first developed in the mid-1800s, when individual workers hand-sealed cans after
foods had been cooked within them. At this stage, a single worker could seldom produce more than 100 “canisters” (from
which the word “can” later came) of food a day. With the development of far more efficient canning machines in the late
nineteenth century, the mass production of canned foods became a reality.
As with home canning, the process of preserving foods in metal cans is simple in concept. The foods are prepared and the
empty cans are sterilized. The prepared foods are then added to the sterile metal can, the filled can is heated to a sterilizing
temperature, and the cans are then sealed by a machine. Modern machines
The majority of food preservation operations used today also employ some kind of chemical additive to reduce spoilage.
Of the many dozens of chemical additives available, all are designed either to kill or retard the growth of pathogens or to
prevent or retard chemical reactions that result in the oxidation of foods. Some familiar examples of the former class
of food additives are sodium benzoate and benzoic acid; calcium, sodium propionate, and propionic acid; calcium,
potassium, sodium sorbate, and sorbic acid; and sodium and potassium sulfite. Examples of the latter class of additives
include calcium, sodium ascorbate, and ascorbic acid (vitamin C); butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and buty-lated
hydroxytoluene (BHT); lecithin; and sodium and potassium sulfite and sulfur dioxide.
A special class of additives that reduce oxidation is known as the sequestrants. Sequestrants are compounds
that “capture” metallic ions, such as those of copper, iron, and nickel, and remove them from contact with foods. The
removal of these ions helps preserve foods because in their free state they increase the rate at which oxidation of foods
takes place. Some examples of sequestrants used as food preservatives are ethylenediamine-tetraacetic acid (EDTA), citric
acid, sorbitol, and tartaric acid.
Food preservation, any of a number of methods by which food is kept from spoilage after harvest or slaughter. Such
practices date to prehistoric times. Among the oldest methods of preservation are drying, refrigeration, and fermentation.
Modern methods include canning, pasteurization, freezing, irradiation, and the addition of chemicals. Advances in
packaging materials have played an important role in modern food preservation.
Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. These changes may be
caused by various factors, including contamination by microorganisms, infestation by insects, or degradation by
endogenous enzymes (those present naturally in the food). In addition, physical and chemical changes, such as the tearing
of plant or animal tissues or the oxidation of certain constituents of food, may promote food spoilage. Foods obtained
from plant or animal sources begin to spoil soon after harvest or slaughter. The enzymes contained in the cells of plant
and animal tissues may be released as a result of any mechanical damage inflicted during postharvest handling. These
enzymes begin to break down the cellular material. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the
degradation of food quality, such as the development of off-flavours, the deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients.
The typical microorganisms that cause food spoilage are bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus), yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces), and
molds (e.g., Rhizopus).
Microbial contamination: Bacteria and fungi (yeasts and molds) are the principal types of microorganisms that cause
food spoilage and food-borne illnesses. Foods may be contaminated by microorganisms at any time during harvest,
storage, processing, distribution, handling, or preparation. The primary sources of microbial contamination are soil,
air, animal feed, animal hides and intestines, plant surfaces, sewage, and food processing machinery or utensils.
Bacteria are unicellular organisms that have a simple internal structure compared with the cells of other organisms. The
increase in the number of bacteria in a population is commonly referred to as bacterial growth by microbiologists. This
growth is the result of the division of one bacterial cell into two identical bacterial cells, a process called binary fission.
Under optimal growth conditions, a bacterial cell may divide approximately every 20 minutes. Thus, a single cell can
produce almost 70 billion cells in 12 hours. The factors that influence the growth of bacteria include nutrient availability,
moisture, pH, oxygen levels, and the presence or absence of inhibiting substances (e.g., antibiotics).
The nutritional requirements of most bacteria are chemical elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and iron. The bacteria obtain these elements by utilizing
gases in the atmosphere and by metabolizing certain food constituents such as carbohydrates and proteins.
Temperature and pH play a significant role in controlling the growth rates of bacteria. Bacteria may be classified into
three groups based on their temperature requirement for optimal growth: thermophiles (55–75 °C, or 130–170 °F),
mesophiles (20–45 °C, or 70–115 °F), or psychrotrophs (10–20 °C, or 50–70 °F). In addition, most bacteria grow best in a
neutral environment (pH equal to 7).
Bacteria also require a certain amount of available water for their growth. The availability of water is expressed as water
activity and is defined by the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the food to the vapour pressure of pure water at a
specific temperature. Therefore, the water activity of any food product is always a value between 0 and 1, with 0
representing an absence of water and 1 representing pure water. Most bacteria do not grow in foods with a water activity
below 0.91, although some halophilic bacteria (those able to tolerate high salt concentrations) can grow in foods with a
water activity lower than 0.75. Growth may be controlled by lowering the water activity—either by adding solutes such
as sugar, glycerol, and salt or by removing water through dehydration.
The oxygen requirements for optimal growth vary considerably for different bacteria. Some bacteria require the presence
of free oxygen for growth and are called obligate aerobes, whereas other bacteria are poisoned by the presence of oxygen
and are called obligate anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes are bacteria that can grow in both the presence or absence of
oxygen. In addition to oxygen concentration, the oxygen reduction potential of the growth medium influences bacterial
growth. The oxygen reduction potential is a relative measure of the oxidizing or reducing capacity of the growth medium.
When bacteria contaminate a food substrate, it takes some time before they start growing. This lag phase is the period
when the bacteria are adjusting to the environment. Following the lag phase is the log phase, in which population grows in
a logarithmic fashion. As the population grows, the bacteria consume available nutrients and produce waste products.
When the nutrient supply is depleted, the growth rate enters a stationary phase in which the number of viable bacteria cells
remains the same. During the stationary phase, the rate of bacterial cell growth is equal to the rate of bacterial cell death.
When the rate of cell death becomes greater than the rate of cell growth, the population enters the decline phase.
A bacterial population is expressed either per gram or per square centimetre of surface area. Rarely does the total bacterial
population exceed 1010 cells per gram. A population of less than 106 cells per gram does not cause any noticeable spoilage
except in raw milk. Populations of between 106 and 107 cells per gram cause spoilage in some foods; for example, they
can generate off-odours in vacuum-packaged meats. Populations of between 107 and 108 cells per gram produce off-
odours in meats and some vegetables. At levels above 5 × 107 cells per gram, most foods exhibit some form of spoilage.
When the conditions for bacterial cell growth are unfavourable (e.g., low or high temperatures or low moisture content),
several species of bacteria can produce resistant cells called endospores. Endospores are highly resistant to heat,
chemicals, desiccation (drying out), and ultraviolet light. The endospores may remain dormant for long periods of time.
When conditions become favourable for growth (e.g., thawing of meats), the endospores germinate and produce viable
cells that can begin exponential growth.
Fungi The two types of fungi that are important in food spoilage are yeasts and molds. Molds are multicellular fungi that
reproduce by the formation of spores (single cells that can grow into a mature fungus). Spores are formed in large
numbers and are easily dispersed through the air. Once these spores land on a food substrate, they can grow and reproduce
if conditions are favourable. Yeasts are unicellular fungi that are much larger than bacterial cells. They reproduce by cell
division (binary fission) or budding. The conditions affecting the growth of fungi are similar to those affecting bacteria.
Both yeasts and molds are able to grow in an acidic environment (pH less than 7). The pH range for yeast growth is 3.5 to
4.5 and for molds is 3.5 to 8.0. The low pH of fruits is generally unfavourable for the growth of bacteria, but yeasts and
molds can grow and cause spoilage in fruits. For example, species of the fungal genus Colletotrichum cause crown rot in
bananas. Yeasts promote fermentation in fruits by breaking down sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The amount of
available water in a food product is also critical for the growth of fungi. Yeasts are unable to grow at a water activity of
less than 0.9, and molds are unable to grow at a water activity below 0.8.
Control of microbial contamination The most common methods used either to kill or to reduce the growth of
microorganisms are the application of heat, the removal of water, the lowering of temperature during storage, the
reduction of pH, the control of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations, and the removal of the nutrients needed for
growth. The use of chemicals as preservatives is strictly regulated by governmental agencies such as the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) in the United States. Although a chemical may have preservative functions, its safety must be
proved before it may be used in food products. To suppress yeast and mold growth in foods, a number of chemical
preservatives are permitted. In the United States, the list of such chemicals, known as GRAS (Generally Recognized as
Safe), includes compounds such as benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, propionic acid, sorbic acid, and sodium diacetate.
Chemical deterioration
Enzymatic reactions: Enzymes are large protein molecules that act as biological catalysts, accelerating chemical
reactions without being consumed to any appreciable extent themselves. The activity of enzymes is specific for a certain
set of chemical substrates, and it is dependent on both pH and temperature. The living tissues of plants and animals
maintain a balance of enzymatic activity. This balance is disrupted upon harvest or slaughter. In some cases, enzymes that
play a useful role in living tissues may catalyze spoilage reactions following harvest or slaughter. For example, the
enzyme pepsin is found in the stomach of all animals and is involved in the breakdown of proteins during the normal
digestion process. However, soon after the slaughter of an animal, pepsin begins to break down the proteins of the organs,
weakening the tissues and making them more susceptible to microbial contamination. After the harvesting of fruits,
certain enzymes remain active within the cells of the plant tissues. These enzymes continue to catalyze the biochemical
processes of ripening and may eventually lead to rotting, as can be observed in bananas. In addition, oxidative enzymes in
fruits continue to carry out cellular respiration (the process of using oxygen to metabolize glucose for energy). This
continued respiration decreases the shelf life of fresh fruits and may lead to spoilage. Respiration may be controlled by
refrigerated storage or modified-atmosphere packaging. Table 1 lists a number of enzymes involved in the degradation of
food quality.

enzyme food spoilage action

ascorbic acid oxidase vegetables destruction of vitamin C

lipase cereals Discoloration

milk hydrolytic rancidity

oils hydrolytic rancidity

lipoxygenase vegetables destruction of vitamin A, off-flavour

pectic enzyme citrus juices destruction of pectic substances

fruits excessive softening

peroxidase fruits Browning

polyphenoloxidase fruits, vegetables browning, off-flavour, vitamin loss

protease eggs reduction of shelf life of fresh and dried whole eggs

crab, lobster Overtenderization

flour reduction of gluten formation

thiaminase meats, fish destruction of thiamine

Enzymes that cause food spoilage

Autoxidation: The unsaturated fatty acids present in the lipids of many foods are susceptible to chemical breakdown
when exposed to oxygen. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is autocatalytic; that is, it proceeds by a free-
radical chain reaction. Free radicals contain an unpaired electron (represented by a dot in the molecular formula) and,
therefore, are highly reactive chemical molecules. The basic mechanisms in a free-radical chain reaction
involve initiation, propagation, and termination steps (Figure 1). Under certain conditions, in initiation a free-radical
molecule (X · ) present in the food removes a hydrogen (H) atom from a lipid molecule, producing a lipid radical (L · ).
This lipid radical reacts with molecular oxygen (O2) to form a peroxy radical (LOO · ). The peroxy radical removes a
hydrogen atom from another lipid molecule and the reaction starts over again (propagation). During the propagation steps,
hydroperoxide molecules (LOOH) are formed that may break down into alkoxy (LO · ) and peroxy radicals plus water
(H2O). The lipid, alkoxy, and peroxy radicals may combine with one another (or other radicals) to form stable,
nonpropagating products (termination). These products result in the development of rancid off-flavours. In addition to
promoting rancidity, the free radicals and peroxides produced in these reactions may have other negative effects, such as
the bleaching of food colour and the destruction of vitamins A, C, and E. This type of deterioration is prevalent in fried
snacks, nuts, cooking oils, and margarine.
Maillard reaction: Another chemical reaction that causes major food spoilage is nonenzymatic browning, also known as
the Maillard reaction. This reaction takes place between reducing sugars (simple monosaccharides capable of carrying out
reduction reactions) and the amino group of proteins or amino acids present in foods. The products of the Maillard
reaction lead to a darkening of colour, reduced solubility of proteins, development of bitter flavours, and reduced
nutritional availability of certain amino acids such as lysine. The rate of this reaction is influenced by the water activity,
temperature, and pH of the food product. Nonenzymatic browning causes spoilage during the storage of dry milk, dry
whole eggs, and breakfast cereals.
Light-induced reactions: Light influences a number of chemical reactions that lead to spoilage of foods. These light-
induced reactions include the destruction of chlorophyll (the photosynthetic pigment that gives plants their green colour),
resulting in the bleaching of certain vegetables; the discoloration of fresh meats; the destruction of riboflavin in milk; and
the oxidation of vitamin C and carotenoid pigments (a process called photosensitized oxidation). The use of packaging
material that prevents exposure to light is one of the most effective means of preventing light-induced chemical spoilage.
Low-Temperature Preservation Storage at low temperatures prolongs the shelf life of many foods. In general, low
temperatures reduce the growth rates of microorganisms and slow many of the physical and chemical reactions that occur
in foods.
Refrigeration The life of many foods may be increased by storage at temperatures below 4 °C (40 °F). Commonly
refrigerated foods include fresh fruits and vegetables, eggs, dairy products, and meats. Some foods, such as tropical fruits
(e.g., bananas), are damaged if exposed to low temperatures. Also, refrigeration cannot improve the quality of decayed
food; it can only retard deterioration. One problem of modern mechanical refrigeration—that of dehydration of foods due
to moisture condensation—has been overcome through humidity control mechanisms within the storage chamber and by
appropriate packaging techniques.
Freezing and frozen storage provide an excellent means of preserving the nutritional quality of foods. At subfreezing
temperatures the nutrient loss is extremely slow for the typical storage period used in commercial trade.
History: Early freezing methods were based on the principle that mixing salt with ice results in temperatures well below 0
°C (32 °F). By the end of the 19th century, this method was being used commercially in the United States to
freeze fish and poultry. By the 1920s Clarence Birdseye had developed two processes for freezing fish based on his quick
freezing theory. His first patent, describing a method for preserving piscatorial products, involved placing food between
two metal plates that were chilled by a calcium chloride solution to approximately −40 °C (−40 °F). The second process
utilized two hollow metal plates that were cooled to −25 °C (−13 °F) by vaporization of ammonia. This freezing apparatus
was the forerunner of the multiple plate freezer that is widely used in the modern food industry.
The freezing process: The freezing of food involves lowering its temperature below 0 °C, resulting in the gradual
conversion of water, present in the food, into ice. Freezing is a crystallization process that begins with a nucleus or a seed
derived from either a nonaqueous particle or a cluster of water molecules (formed when the temperature is reduced below
0 °C). This seed must be of a certain size to provide an adequate site for the crystal to begin to grow. If physical
conditions are conducive to the presence of numerous seeds for crystallization, then a large number of small ice crystals
will form. However, if only a few seeds are initially available, then a few ice crystals will form and each will grow to a
large size. The size and the number of ice crystals influence the final quality of many frozen foods; for example, the
smooth texture of ice cream indicates the presence of a large number of small ice crystals. In pure water, the freezing
process is initiated by lowering the temperature to slightly below 0 °C, called supercooling. As ice crystals begin to grow,
the temperature returns to the freezing point. During the conversion of liquid water to ice, the temperature of the system
does not change. The heat removed during this step is called the latent heat of fusion (equivalent to 333 joules per gram of
water). Once all the water is converted to ice, any additional removal of heat will result in a decrease in the temperature
below 0 °C.
The freezing of foods exhibits a number of important differences from the freezing of pure water. Foods do not freeze at 0
°C. Instead, owing to the presence of different soluble particulates (solutes) in the water present in foods, most foods
begin to freeze at a temperature between 0 and −5 °C (32 and 23 °F). In addition, the removal of latent heat in foods
during freezing does not occur at a fixed temperature. As the water present in the food freezes into ice, the remaining
water becomes more concentrated with solutes. As a result, the freezing point is further depressed. Therefore, foods have
a zone of maximum ice crystal formation that typically extends from −1 to −4 °C (30 to 25 °F). Damage to food quality
during freezing can be minimized if the temperature of the product is brought below this temperature range as quickly as
possible.
Industrial freezers: The rate at which heat is removed from a food during freezing depends on how fast heat can travel
within the food and how efficiently it can be liberated from the surface of the food into the surrounding atmosphere.
Industrial freezers remove heat from the surface of a food as rapidly as possible. There are several types of industrial
freezers, including air-blast tunnel freezers, belt freezers, fluidized-bed freezers, plate freezers, and cryogenic freezers.
In air-blast tunnel freezers and belt freezers, precooled air at approximately −40 °C is blown over the food products.
Packaged foods, such as fruits, vegetables, bakery goods, poultry, meats, and prepared meals, are usually frozen in air-
blast tunnels. The packages are placed onto dollies or hand trucks and then rolled into the freezer tunnels. In a belt freezer,
food is placed on a conveyor belt that moves through a freezing zone. Bakery goods, chicken parts, and meat patties are
frozen using a belt freezer.
Fluidized-bed freezers are used to freeze particulate foods such as peas, cut corn, diced carrots, and strawberries. The
foods are placed on a mesh conveyor belt and moved through a freezing zone in which cold air is directed upward through
the mesh belt and the food particulates begin to tumble and float. This tumbling exposes all sides of the food to the cold
air and minimizes the resistance to heat transfer at the surface of the food.
Plate freezers are used to freeze flat products, such as pastries, fish fillets, and beef patties, as well as irregular-shaped
vegetables that are packaged in brick-shaped containers, such as asparagus, cauliflower, spinach, and broccoli. The food is
firmly pressed between metal plates that are cooled to subfreezing temperatures by internally circulating refrigerants.
Cryogenic freezing is used to freeze food at an extremely fast rate. The food is moved through a spray of liquid
nitrogen or directly immersed in liquid nitrogen. The liquid nitrogen boils around the food at a temperature of −196 °C
(−321 °F) and extracts a large amount of heat.
Quality of frozen foods: Improper freezing or storage of foods may result in detrimental quality changes. When foods
with high amounts of water are frozen slowly, they may experience a loss of fluid, called drip, upon thawing. This fluid
loss causes dehydration and nutrient loss in frozen food products. During frozen storage, the ice crystals present in foods
may enlarge in size, producing undesirable changes in texture. This phenomenon is commonly observed when the storage
temperature is allowed to fluctuate. For example, ice cream stored in an automatic defrosting domestic freezer becomes
sandy in texture because the ice crystals increase in size as the temperature of the system fluctuates. Improperly packaged
frozen foods lose small amounts of moisture during storage, resulting in surface dehydration (commonly called freezer
burn). Frozen meats with freezer burn have the appearance of brown paper and quickly become rancid. Freezer burn can
be minimized by the use of tightly wrapped packages and the elimination of fluctuating temperatures during storage.
Thermal Processing: Thermal processing is defined as the combination of temperature and time required to eliminate a
desired number of microorganisms from a food product.
Canning Nicolas Appert, a Parisian confectioner by trade, is credited with establishing the heat processing of foods as
an industry. In 1810 he received official recognition for his process of enclosing food in bottles, corking the bottles, and
placing the bottles in boiling water for various periods of time. In the same year Peter Durand received a British patent for
the use of containers made of glass, pottery, tin, or other metals for the heat preservation of foods. In 1822 Ezra Daggett
and Thomas Kensett announced the availability of preserved foods in tin cans in the United States. Tin-coated steel
containers, made from 98.5 percent sheet steel with a thin coating of tin, soon became common. These cans had a double
seamed top and bottom to provided an airtight seal and could be manufactured at high speeds.
The establishment of the canning process on a more scientific basis did not occur until 1896, when the
microorganism Clostridium botulinum, with its lethal toxin causing botulism, was discovered by Émile van Ermengem.
Presterilization procedures: Selected crop varieties are grown specially for canning purposes. The harvesting schedules
of the crops are carefully selected to conform to the cannery operations. A typical canning operation involves cleaning,
filling, exhausting, can sealing, heat processing, cooking, labeling, casing, and storage. Most of these operations are
performed using high-speed, automatic machines. Cleaning involves the use of shakers, rotary reel cleaners, air blasters,
water sprayers (as shown in Figure 2), or immersion washers. Any inedible or extraneous material is removed before
washing, and only potable water is used in the cleaning systems. Automatic filling machines are used to place the cleaned
food into cans or other containers, such as glass jars or plastic pouches. When foods containing trapped air, such as leafy
vegetables, are canned, the air must be removed from the cans prior to closing and sealing the lids by a process
called exhausting. Exhausting is accomplished using steam exhaust hoods or by creation of a vacuum. Immediately after
exhausting, the lids are placed on the cans and the cans are sealed. An airtight seal is achieved between the lid and the rim
of the can using a thin layer of gasket or compound. The anaerobic conditions prevent the growth of oxygen-requiring
microorganisms. In addition, many of the spores of anaerobic microorganisms are less resistant to heat and are easily
destroyed during the heat treatment.
Sterilization: The time and temperature required for the sterilization of foods are influenced by several factors, including
the type of microorganisms found on the food, the size of the container, the acidity or pH of the food, and the method of
heating. The thermal processes of canning are generally designed to destroy the spores of the bacterium C. botulinum.
This microorganism can easily grow under anaerobic conditions, producing the deadly toxin that causes botulism.
Sterilization requires heating to temperatures greater than 100 °C (212 °F). However, C. botulinum is not viable in acidic
foods that have a pH less than 4.6. These foods can be adequately processed by immersion in water at temperatures just
below 100 °C. The sterilization of low-acid foods (pH greater than 4.6) is generally carried out in steam vessels
called retorts at temperatures ranging from 116 to 129 °C (240 to 265 °F). The retorts are controlled by automatic devices,
and detailed records are kept of the time and temperature treatments for each lot of processed cans. At the end of the
heating cycle, the cans are cooled under water sprays or in water baths to approximately 38 °C (100 °F) and dried to
prevent any surface rusting. The cans are then labeled, placed in fibreboard cases either by hand or machine, and stored in
cool, dry warehouses.
Quality of canned foods: The sterilization process is designed to provide the required heat treatment to the slowest
heating location inside the can, called the cold spot. The areas of food farthest from the cold spot get a more severe heat
treatment that may result in overprocessing and impairment of the overall quality of the product. Flat, laminated pouches
can reduce the heat damage caused by overprocessing. A significant loss of nutrients, especially heat-labile vitamins, may
occur during the canning process. In general, canning has no major effect on the carbohydrate, protein, or fat content of
foods. Vitamins A and D and beta-carotene are resistant to the effects of heat. However, vitamin B1 is sensitive to thermal
treatment and the pH of the food. Although the anaerobic conditions of canned foods have a protective effect on the
stability of vitamin C, it is destroyed during long heat treatments. The ends of processed cans are slightly concave because
of the internal vacuum created during sealing. Any bulging of the ends of a can may indicate a deterioration in quality due
to mechanical, chemical, or physical factors. This bulging may lead to swelling and possible explosion of the can.
Pasteurization is the application of heat to a food product in order to destroy pathogenic (disease-producing)
microorganisms, to inactivate spoilage-causing enzymes, and to reduce or destroy spoilage microorganisms. The
relatively mild heat treatment used in the pasteurization process causes minimal changes in the sensory and nutritional
characteristics of foods compared to the severe heat treatments used in the sterilization process. The temperature and time
requirements of the pasteurization process are influenced by the pH of the food. When the pH is below 4.5, spoilage
microorganisms and enzymes are the main targets of pasteurization. For example, the pasteurization process for fruit
juices is aimed at inactivating certain enzymes such as pectinesterase and polygalacturonase. The typical processing
conditions for the pasteurization of fruit juices include heating to 77 °C (171 °F) and holding for 1 minute, followed by
rapid cooling to 7 °C (45 °F). In addition to inactivating enzymes, these conditions destroy any yeasts or molds that may
lead to spoilage. Equivalent conditions capable of reducing spoilage microorganisms involve heating to 65 °C (149 °F)
and holding for 30 minutes or heating to 88 °C (190 °F) and holding for 15 seconds.
When the pH of a food is greater than 4.5, the heat treatment must be severe enough to destroy pathogenic bacteria. In the
pasteurization of milk, the time and temperature conditions target the pathogenic bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Coxiella burnetti, and Brucella abortus. The typical heat treatment used for pasteurizing milk is 72 °C (162 °F) for 15
seconds, followed by rapid cooling to 7 °C. Other equivalent heat treatments include heating to 63 °C (145 °F) for 30
minutes, 90 °C (194 °F) for 0.5 second, and 94 °C (201 °F) for 0.1 second. The high-temperature–short-time (HTST)
treatments cause less damage to the nutrient composition and sensory characteristics of foods and therefore are preferred
over the low-temperature–long-time (LTLT) treatments. Since the heat treatment of pasteurization is not severe enough to
render a product sterile, additional methods such as refrigeration, fermentation, or the addition of chemicals are often used
to control microbial growth and to extend the shelf life of a product. For example, the pasteurization of milk does not kill
thermoduric bacteria (those resistant to heat), such as Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, or thermophilic bacteria (those that
grow at high temperatures), such as Bacillus and Clostridium. Therefore, pasteurized milk must be kept under refrigerated
conditions. Liquid foods such as milk, fruit juices, beers, wines, and liquid eggs are pasteurized using plate-type heat
exchangers. Wine and fruit juices are normally deaerated prior to pasteurization in order to remove oxygen and minimize
oxidative deterioration of the products. Plate-type heat exchangers consist of a large number of thin, vertical steel plates
that are clamped together in a frame. The plates are separated by small gaskets that allow the liquid to flow between each
successive plate. The liquid product and heating medium (e.g., hot water) are pumped through alternate channels, and the
gaskets ensure that the liquid product and heating or cooling mediums are kept separate. Plate-type heat exchangers are
effective in rapid heating and cooling applications. After the pasteurization process is completed, the product is packaged
under aseptic conditions to prevent recontamination of the product.
Aseptic processing The aseptic process involves placing a sterilized product into a sterilized package that is then sealed
under sterile conditions. It began in 1914 with the development of sterile filters for use in the wine industry. However,
because of unreliable machinery, it remained commercially unsuccessful until 1948 when William McKinley Martin
helped develop the Martin system, which later became known as the Dole Aseptic Canning System. This system involved
the sterilization of liquid foods by rapidly heating them in tubular heat exchangers, followed by holding and cooling steps.
The cans and lids were sterilized with superheated steam, and the sterilized containers were filled with the sterile
liquid food. The lids were then sealed in an atmosphere of superheated steam. By the 1980s hydrogen peroxide was being
used throughout Europe and the United States for the sterilization of polyethylene surfaces.
Commercial sterility: In aseptic processing the thermal process is based on achieving commercial sterility—i.e., no more
than 1 nonsterile package for every 10,000 processed packages. The aseptic process uses the high-temperature–short-time
(HTST) method in which foods are heated at a high temperature for a short period of time. The time and temperature
conditions depend on several factors, such as size, shape, and type of food. The HTST method results in a higher retention
of quality characteristics, such as vitamins, odour, flavour, and texture, while achieving the same level of sterility as the
traditional canning process in which food is heated at a lower temperature for a longer period of time. The heating and
cooling of liquid foods can be performed using metal plate heat exchangers. These heat exchangers have large surface
areas that result in improved heating and cooling rates. Other types of heat exchangers involve surrounding the food with
steam or directly injecting steam into the food. Products sterilized with steam are then pumped into a vacuum chamber,
where they are cooled rapidly. Liquid foods that contain large solid particles are heated in scraped-surface heat
exchangers. These heat exchangers use blades to continuously scrape the inside surface of the heating chamber. The
scraping action protects highly viscous foods from being burned on the heating surface. An alternate method for heating
foods, called ohmic heating, passes a low-frequency electric current of 50 to 60 hertz directly through the food. A liquid
food containing solids, such as diced fruit, is pumped through a pipe surrounded by electrodes. The product is heated as
long as the electrical conductivity of the food is uniform throughout the entire volume. This uniform rate of heating
prevents the overprocessing of any individual region of the food. Ohmic heating yields a food product of higher quality
than those processed using conventional systems.
Packaging aseptically processed products: The packaging containers used in aseptic processing are sterilized separately
before they are used. The packaging machinery is sterilized using steam, sterile gases, or hydrogen peroxide. The
sterilization process is generally monitored by culturing a test organism. For example, the remaining presence of the
highly heat-resistant bacterium Bacillus subtilis globigii can be used as a marker to measure the completeness of
sterilization. Packages must be sealed under sterile conditions, usually using high-temperature sealing plates. Foods that
are aseptically processed do not require refrigeration for storage.
Blanching is a thermal process used mostly for vegetable tissues prior to freezing, drying, or canning. Before canning,
blanching serves several purposes, including cleaning of the product, reducing the microbial load, removing any
entrapped gases, and wilting the tissues of leafy vegetables so that they can be easily put into the containers. Blanching
also inactivates enzymes that cause deterioration of foods during frozen storage. Blanching is carried out at temperatures
close to 100 °C (212 °F) for two to five minutes in either a water bath or a steam chamber. Because steam blanchers use a
minimal amount of water, extra care must be taken to ensure that the product is uniformly exposed to the steam. Steam
blanching leafy vegetables is especially difficult because they tend to clump together. The effectiveness of the blanching
treatment is usually determined by measuring the residual activity of an enzyme called peroxidase.
Controlling Water Activity: Foods containing high concentrations of water are generally more susceptible to
deterioration by microbial contamination and enzymatic activity. The water content of foods can be controlled by
removing water through dehydration or by adding solutes to the food. In both cases the concentration of solutes in the
food increases and the concentration of water decreases.
Dehydration: or drying, of foods has long been practiced commercially in the production of spaghetti and other starch
products. As a result of advances made during World War II, the technique has been applied to a growing list
of food products, including fruits, vegetables, skim milk, potatoes, soup mixes, and meats. Pathogenic (toxin-
producing) bacteria occasionally withstand the unfavourable environment of dried foods, causing food poisoning when the
product is rehydrated and eaten. Control of bacterial contaminants in dried foods requires high-quality raw materials
having low contamination, adequate sanitation in the processing plant, pasteurization before drying, and storage
conditions that protect from infection by dust, insects, and rodents or other animals. Foodstuffs may be dried
in air, superheated steam, vacuum, or inert gas or by direct application of heat. Air is the most generally used drying
medium, because it is plentiful and convenient and permits gradual drying, allowing sufficient control to avoid
overheating that might result in scorching and discoloration. Air may be used both to transport heat to the food being dried
and to carry away liberated moisture vapour. The use of other gases requires special moisture recovery systems.
Loss of moisture content produced by drying results in increased concentration of nutrients in the remaining food mass.
The proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in dried foods are present in larger amounts per unit weight than in their fresh
counterparts, and the nutrient value of most reconstituted or rehydrated foods is comparable to that of fresh items. The
biological value of dried protein is dependent, however, on the method of drying. Prolonged exposure to high
temperatures can render the protein less useful in the diet. Low-temperature treatment, on the other hand, may increase the
digestibility of protein. Some vitamins are sensitive to the dehydration process. For example, in dried meats significant
amounts of vitamin C and the B vitamins—riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin—are lost during dehydration.
Dried eggs, meat, milk, and vegetables are ordinarily packaged in tin or aluminum containers. Fibreboard or other types of
material may be employed but are less satisfactory than metal, which offers protection against insects and moisture loss or
gain and which permits packaging with an inert gas. In-package desiccants (drying agents) improve storage stability of
dehydrated white potatoes, sweet potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets, and onions and give substantial protection against
browning. Retention of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is markedly improved by packaging at temperatures up to 49 °C (120
°F); the packaging gas may be either nitrogen or air. A related technique, freeze-drying, employs high vacuum conditions,
permitting establishment of specific temperature and pressure conditions. The raw food is frozen, and the low
pressure conditions cause the ice in the food to sublimate directly into vapour (i.e., it does not transit through the liquid
state). Adequate control of processing conditions contributes to satisfactory rehydration, with substantial retention of
nutrient, colour, flavour, and texture characteristics.
Concentration of moist foods: Foods with substantial acidity, when concentrated to 65 percent or more soluble solids,
may be preserved by mild heat treatments. High acid content is not a requirement for preserving foods concentrated to
over 70 percent solids. Fruit jelly and preserve manufacture, an important fruit by-product industry, is based on the high-
solids–high-acid principle, with its moderate heat-treatment requirements. Fruits that possess excellent qualities but are
visually unattractive may be preserved and utilized in the form of concentrates, which have a pleasing taste and substantial
nutritive value. Jellies and other fruit preserves are prepared from fruit by adding sugar and concentrating by evaporation
to a point where microbial spoilage cannot occur. The prepared product can be stored without hermetic sealing, although
such protection is useful to control mold growth, moisture loss, and oxidation. In modern practice, vacuum sealing has
replaced the use of a paraffin cover.
The jelly-forming characteristics of fruits and their extracts are due to pectin, a substance present in varying amounts in all
fruits. The essential ingredients in a fruit gel are pectin, acid, sugar, and water. Flavouring and colouring agents may be
added, and additional pectin and acid may be added to overcome any deficiencies in the fruit itself. Candied and glacéed
fruits are made by slow impregnation of the fruit with syrup until the concentration of sugar in the tissue is sufficiently
high to prevent growth of spoilage microorganisms. The candying process is conducted by treating fruits with syrups of
progressively increasing sugar concentrations, so that the fruit does not soften into jam or become tough and leathery.
After sugar impregnation the fruit is washed and dried. The resulting candied fruit may be packaged and marketed in this
condition or may be dipped into syrup, becoming coated with a thin glazing of sugar (glacéed) and again dried.
Fermentation And Pickling: Although microorganisms are usually thought of as causing spoilage, they are capable
under certain conditions of producing desirable effects, including oxidative and alcoholic fermentation. The
microorganisms that grow in a food product, and the changes they produce, are determined by acidity, available
carbohydrates, oxygen, and temperature. An important food preservation method combines salting to control
microorganisms selectively and fermentation to stabilize the treated tissues.
Pickled fruits and vegetables: Fresh fruits and vegetables soften after 24 hours in a watery solution and begin a slow,
mixed fermentation-putrefaction. The addition of salt suppresses undesirable microbial activity, creating a
favourable environment for the desired fermentation. Most green vegetables and fruit may be preserved by pickling.
When the pickling process is applied to a cucumber, its fermentable carbohydrate reserve is turned into acid, its colour
changes from bright green to olive or yellow-green, and its tissue becomes translucent. The salt concentration is
maintained at 8 to 10 percent during the first week and is increased 1 percent a week thereafter until the solution reaches
16 percent. Under properly controlled conditions the salted, fermented cucumber, called salt stock, may be held for
several years. Salt stock is not a consumer commodity. It must be freshened and prepared into consumer items. In
cucumbers this is accomplished by leaching the salt from the cured cucumber with warm water (43–54 °C [110–130 °F])
for 10 to 14 hours. This process is repeated at least twice, and, in the final wash, alum may be added to firm the tissue and
turmeric to improve the colour.
Pickled meat: Meat may be preserved by dry curing or with a pickling solution. The ingredients used in curing and
pickling are sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium chloride, sugar, and citric acid or vinegar. Various methods are used:
the meat may be mixed with dry ingredients; it may be soaked in pickling solution; pickling solution may be pumped or
injected into the flesh; or a combination of these methods may be used. Curing may be combined with smoking. Smoke
acts as a dehydrating agent and coats the meat surfaces with various chemicals, including small amounts of formaldehyde.
Deterioration of fermented and pickled products: Fermented foods and pickled products require protection
against molds, which metabolize the acid developed and allow the advance of other microorganisms. Fermented and
pickled food products placed in cool storage can be expected to remain stable for several months. Longer storage periods
demand more complete protection, such as canning. Nutrient retention in fermented and pickled products is about equal to
retention for products preserved by other methods. Carbohydrates usually undergo conversion to acid or to alcohol, but
these are also of nutritive value. In some instances, nutrient levels are increased because of the presence of yeasts.
Chemical Preservation: Chemical food preservatives are substances which, under certain conditions, either delay the
growth of microorganisms without necessarily destroying them or prevent deterioration of quality during manufacture and
distribution. The former group includes some natural food constituents which, when added to foods, retard or prevent the
growth of microorganisms. Sugar is used partly for this purpose in making jams, jellies, and marmalades and in candying
fruit. The use of vinegar and salt in pickling and of alcohol in brandying also falls in this category. Some chemicals
foreign to foods are added to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The latter group includes some natural food
constituents such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which is added to frozen peaches to prevent browning, and a long list of
chemical compounds foreign to foods and classified as antioxidants, bleaching agents, acidulants, neutralizers, stabilizers,
firming agents, and humectants.
Organic chemical preservatives: Sodium benzoate and other benzoates are among the principal chemical preservatives.
The use of benzoates in certain products in prescribed quantity (usually not exceeding 0.1 percent) is permitted in most
countries, some of which require a declaration of its use on the label of the food container. Since free benzoic acid
actually is the active agent, benzoates must be used in an acid medium in order to be effective. The ability of cranberries
to resist rapid deterioration is attributed to their high benzoic acid content. Benzoic acid is more effective against yeasts
than against molds and bacteria. Other organic compounds used as preservatives include vanillic acid esters,
monochloroacetic acid, propionates, sorbic acid, dehydroacetic acid, and glycols.
Inorganic chemical preservatives: Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are perhaps the most important inorganic chemical
preservatives. Sulfites are more effective against molds than against yeasts and are widely used in the preservation of
fruits and vegetables. Sulfur compounds are extensively used in wine making and, as in most other instances when
this preservative is used, much care has to be exercised to keep the concentrations low in order to avoid undesirable
effects on flavour. Oxidizing agents such as nitrates and nitrites are commonly used in the curing of meats.
Food Irradiation: involves the use of either high-speed electron beams or high-energy radiation with wavelengths
smaller than 200 nanometres, or 2000 angstroms (e.g., X-rays and gamma rays). These rays contain sufficient energy to
break chemical bonds and ionize molecules that lie in their path. The two most common sources of high-energy radiation
used in the food industry are cobalt-60 (60Co) and cesium-137 (137Cs). For the same level of energy, gamma rays have a
greater penetrating power into foods than high-speed electrons. The unit of absorbed dose of radiation by a material is
denoted as the gray (Gy), one gray being equal to the absorption of one joule of energy by one kilogram of food. The
energy possessed by an electron is called an electron volt (eV). One eV is the amount of kinetic energy gained by an
electron as it accelerates through an electric potential difference of one volt. It is usually more convenient to use a larger
unit such as megaelectron volt (MeV), which is equal to one million electron volts.
Biological effects of irradiation: Irradiation has both direct and indirect effects on biological materials. The direct effects
are due to the collision of radiation with atoms, resulting in an ejection of electrons from the atoms. The indirect effects
are due to the formation of free radicals (unstable molecules carrying an extra electron) during the radiolysis (radiation-
induced splitting) of water molecules. The radiolysis of water molecules produces hydroxyl radicals, highly reactive
species that interact with the organic molecules present in foods. The products of these interactions cause many of the
characteristics associated with the spoilage of food, such as off-flavours and off-odours.
Positive effects: The bactericidal (bacteria-killing) effect of ionizing radiation is due to damage of the biomolecules of
bacterial cells. The free radicals produced during irradiation may destroy or change the structure of cellular membranes. In
addition, radiation causes irreversible changes to the nucleic acid molecules (i.e., DNA and RNA) of bacterial
cells, inhibiting their ability to grow. Pathogenic bacteria that are unable to produce resistant endospores in foods such as
poultry, meats, and seafood can be eliminated by radiation doses of 3 to 10 kilograys. If the dose of radiation is too low,
then the damaged DNA can be repaired by specialized enzymes. If oxygen is present during irradiation, the bacteria are
more readily damaged. Doses in the range of 0.2 to 0.36 kilograys are required to stop the reproduction of Trichinella
spiralis (the parasitic worm that causes trichinosis) in pork, although much higher doses are necessary to eliminate it from
the meat. The dose of radiation used on food products is divided into three levels. Radappertization is a dose in the range
of 20 to 30 kilograys, necessary to sterilize a food product. Radurization is a dose of 1 to 10 kilograys, that,
like pasteurization, is useful for targeting specific pathogens. Radicidation involves doses of less than 1 kilogray for
extending shelf life and inhibiting sprouting.
Negative effects; In the absence of oxygen, radiolysis of lipids leads to cleavage of the interatomic bonds in
the fat molecules, producing compounds such as carbon dioxide, alkanes, alkenes, and aldehydes. In addition, lipids are
highly vulnerable to oxidation by free radicals, a process that yields peroxides, carbonyl compounds, alcohols, and
lactones. The consequent rancidity, resulting from the irradiation of high-fat foods, is highly destructive to their sensory
quality. To minimize such harmful effects, fatty foods must be vacuum-packaged and held at subfreezing temperatures
during irradiation. Proteins are not significantly degraded at the low doses of radiation employed in the food industry. For
this reason irradiation does not inactivate enzymes involved in food spoilage, as most enzymes survive doses of up to 10
kilograys. On the other hand, the large carbohydrate molecules that provide structure to foods are depolymerized (broken
down) by irradiation. This depolymerization reduces the gelling power of the long chains of structural carbohydrates.
However, in most foods some protection against these deleterious effects is provided by other food constituents. Vitamins
A, E, and B1 (thiamine) are also sensitive to irradiation. The nutritional losses of a food product are high if air is not
excluded during irradiation.
Safety concerns: Based on the beneficial effects of irradiation on certain foods, several countries have permitted its use
for specific purposes, such as the inhibition of sprouting of potatoes, onions, and garlic; the extension of shelf life of
strawberries, mangoes, pears, grapes, cherries, red currants, and cod and haddock fillets; and the insect disinfestation of
pulses, peanuts, dried fruits, papayas, wheat, and ground-wheat products. The processing room used for irradiation of
foods is lined with lead or thick concrete walls to prevent radiation from escaping. The energy source, such as a
radioactive element or a machine source of electrons, is located inside the room. (Radioactive elements such as 60Co are
contained in stainless steel tubes. Because an isotope cannot be switched on or off, when not in use it is lowered into a
large reservoir of water.) Prior to the irradiation treatment, personnel vacate the room. The food to be irradiated is then
conveyed by remote means into the room and exposed to the radiation source for a predetermined time. The time of
exposure and the distance between the radiation source and the food material determine the irradiation treatment. After
treatment, the irradiated food is conveyed out of the room, and the radioactive element is again lowered into the water
reservoir. Large-scale studies conducted around the world have concluded that irradiation does not cause harmful
reactions in foods. In 1980 a joint committee of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that an overall average dose of radiation of
10 kilograys was safe for food products. The maximum energy emitted by 60Co and 137Cs is too low to induce
radioactivity in food. The energy output of electron-beam generators is carefully regulated, and the recommended energy
outputs are too low to cause radioactivity in foods.
Packaging Because packaging helps to control the immediate environment of a food product, it is useful in creating
conditions that extend the storage life of a food. Packaging materials commonly used for foods may be classified as
flexible (paper, thin laminates, and plastic film), semi-rigid (aluminum foil, laminates, paperboard, and thermoformed
plastic), and rigid (metal, glass, and thick plastic). Plastic materials are widely used in food packaging because they are
relatively cheap, lightweight, and easy to form into desired shapes. The selective permeability of polymer-based materials
to gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as light and moisture, has led to the development of modified-
atmosphere packaging. If the barrier properties are carefully selected, a packaging material can maintain a modified
atmosphere inside the package and thus extend the shelf life of the food product. Dehydrated foods must be protected
from moisture during storage. Packaging materials such as polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, and polypropylene
offer low moisture permeability. Similarly, packaging materials with low gas permeability are used for fatty foods in order
to minimize oxidation reactions. Because fresh fruits and vegetables respire, they require packaging materials, such as
polyethylene, that have high permeability to gases. Smart packages offer properties that meet the special needs of certain
foods. For example, packages made with oxygen-absorbing materials remove oxygen from the inside of the package, thus
protecting oxygen-sensitive products from oxidation. Temperature-sensitive films exhibit an abrupt change in gas
permeability when they are subjected to a temperature above or below a set constant. These films change from a
crystalline structure to an amorphous structure at a set temperature, causing the gas permeability to change substantially.
Storage: Food storage is an important component of food preservation. Many reactions that may deteriorate the quality of
a food product occur during storage. The nutrient content of foods may be adversely affected by improper storage. For
example, a significant amount of vitamin C and thiamine may be lost from foods during storage. Other undesirable quality
changes that may occur during storage include changes in colour, development of off-flavours, and loss of texture. A
properly designed food storage system allows fresh or processed foods to be stored for extended duration while
maintaining quality. The most important storage parameter is temperature. Most foods benefit from storage at a constant,
low temperature where the rates of most reactions decrease and quality losses are minimized. In addition, foods containing
high concentrations of water must be stored in high-humidity environments in order to prevent the excessive loss of
moisture. Careful control of atmospheric gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene, is important in extending
the storage life of many products. For example, in the United States and Canada the apple industry utilizes controlled-
atmosphere storage facilities in order to preserve the quality of the fruit. Use of controlled atmospheres to increase the
shelf life of fruits was first shown in 1819 by Jacques-Étienne Berard, a professor at the School of Pharmacy at
Montpellier, Fr. The commercial development of this technique occurred more than 100 years later with the pioneering
work of Franklin Kidd and Cyril West at the Low Temperature Research Station at Cambridge, Eng.
Food, substance consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and other nutrients used in the body of an organism to
sustain growth and vital processes and to furnish energy. The absorption and utilization of food by the body is
fundamental to nutrition and is facilitated by digestion. Plants, which convert solar energy to food by photosynthesis, are
the primary food source. Animals that feed on plants often serve as sources of food for other animals. To learn more about
the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to organism, see food chain.