ASSIGNMENT (PDE)

Galvonic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one
metal corrodes preferentially when it is in electrical contact with another, in the presence of an
electrolyte. A similar galvanic reaction is exploited in primary cells to generate a useful electrical
voltage to power portable devices.

Errosion Corrosion

Erosion corrosion is an acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in metal due to the relative
motion of a corrosive fluid and a metal surface. The increased turbulence caused by pitting
on the internal surfaces of a tube can result in rapidly increasing erosion rates and
eventually a leak. Erosion corrosion can also be aggravated by faulty workmanship. For
example, burrs left at cut tube ends can upset smooth water flow, cause localized turbulence
and high flow velocities, resulting in erosion corrosion. A combination of erosion and
corrosion can lead to extremely high pitting rates.

Pitting

Pitting corrosion, or pitting, is a form of extremely localized corrosion that leads to the creation of
small holes in the metal. The driving power for pitting corrosion is the depassivation of a small
area, which becomes anodic while an unknown but potentially vast area becomes cathodic,
leading to very localized galvanic corrosion. The corrosion penetrates the mass of the metal, with
a limited diffusion of ions. The mechanism of pitting corrosion is probably the same as crevice
corrosion.

Fatigue

Fatigue is a failure mechanism that involves the cracking of materials and structural components
due to cyclic (or fluctuating) stress. While applied stresses may be tensile, compressive or
torsional, crack initiation and propagation are due to the tensile component.

Reinforced Plastics

Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also called fiber-reinforced polymer, or fiber-reinforced plastic) is a

composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass
(in fibreglass), carbon (in carbon fiber reinforced polymer), aramid, or basalt. Rarely, other fibres
such as paper, wood, or asbestos have been used. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester,
or polyester thermosetting plastic, though phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use.

FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.
They are commonly found in ballistic armor as well.

Resilience

Resilience (materials science), the ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed, and
release that energy upon unloading.Resilience (engineering and construction), the ability of
buildings and infrastructure to absorb assaults without suffering complete failure

Discuss in brief the effect of temp. & pressure on the mechanical properties of
material.

Temperature Effects
 Mechanical characteristics of most materials are greatly influenced by the operating temperature.
Stress-strain diagrams are obtained at specific temperatures. High temperature reduces material
stiffness and strength, while low temperature increases material stiffness and strength. Almost all
materials creep over time if exposed to elevated temperatures under applied load. At "low"
temperatures, ductile materials behave like brittle materials, whereas at "high" temperatures,
brittle materials behave more like ductile materials.

Explain the use of design codes in process design.

A design code is a document that sets rules for the design of a new development in the
United Kingdom. It is a tool that can be used in the design and planning process, but goes
further and is more regulatory than other forms of guidance commonly used in the English
planning system over recent decades. It can be thought of as a process and document – and
therefore a mechanism – which operationalises design guidelines or standards which have
been established through a masterplan process. The masterplan or design framework is the
vision. It should be accompanied by a design rationale that explains the objectives, with the
design code providing instructions to the appropriate degree or precision of the more
detailed design work.

At a basic level, a Design Code combines text and diagrams explaining the precise
requirements for the physical elements, streets, buildings, landscape and infrastructure of
developments. By instructing the work of architects, engineers and developers they help to
deliver high quality developments by providing clarity, from the outset, on the ethos of the
development and the standards required of everyone, in turn streamlining the planning and
development process.

Producing a Design Code is complex and many different aspects relating to the design and
construction of infrastructure, streets, spaces and buildings need to be taken into
consideration. It’s important to understand good placemaking principles as well as the
technical and commercial requirements of building a large new settlement, such as highway
requirements, waste, utilities and phasing.

Discuss the various types of stainless steels with its composition and also
discuss the use of glass as construction material.

Ferritic stainless steel

Low carbon and nickel content

Good corrosion resistance

Magnetic

Good weldability and toughness

The standard ferritic grades are alloyed with chromium (11.2–19%), but with no, or a very small,
addition of nickel. As nickel is one of the most expensive alloying elements, and experiences high
price volatility, the low nickel content of the ferritic grades makes them more price stable
compared to grades with high nickel content. Molybdenum is added to some grades to improve
corrosion resistance, while alloying with niobium and/or titanium improves weldability. The ferritic
grades are magnetic due to their ferritic microstructure. There are also ferritic grades with
increased resistance to high temperatures (800–1,150 °C). These grades are typically alloyed
with more carbon than standard ferritic grades to increase creep strength, and with silicon and
aluminum to improve resistance to oxidation.

Martensitic and precipitation hardening stainless steel

High strength

High wear resistance

Limited corrosion resistance

Magnetic

The martensitic grades are the smallest group of stainless steels. For improved strength and
hardenability they have a higher carbon content compared to other grades, and nitrogen is
sometimes added to further improve strength.

These grades contain no, or small, amounts of nickel, and molybdenum is seldom added. Adding
some nickel and reducing the carbon content improves the poor weldability of martensitic grades.
Sometimes sulfur is added to improve the machinability.

The precipitation hardening grades are hardened by a special mechanism involving the formation
of precipitates within the microstructure. Both martensitic and precipitation hardening stainless
steels are magnetic.

Duplex stainless steel

High strength and toughness

Very good corrosion resistance

Good weldability

Lightweight

Magnetic

Duplex grades have a ferritic-austenitic microstructure that combines many of the beneficial
properties of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels. The duplex microstructure also contributes to
high strength and high resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

Duplex stainless steels are characterized by high chromium content (20.1–25.4%) and low nickel
content (1.4–7%) compared to austenitic grades. The low nickel content makes duplex grades
more price stable.

Molybdenum (0.3–4%) and nitrogen are added to improve corrosion resistance, while nitrogen
also increases strength. The duplex grades LDX 2101 and 2304 are sometimes referred to as
lean duplex grades, while the duplex grades 2507 and 4501 are also called 25Cr superduplex
grades. Due to their ferrite content the duplex grades are magnetic.

Austenitic stainless steel

Good to excellent corrosion resistance

Good weldability and formability

Good creep resistance

Non-magnetic

The austenitic grades are the largest type of stainless steels, and can be divided into five sub-
groups:

Cr-Mn grades – also referred to as 200-series grades have some of the nickel replaced with
manganese and nitrogen
Cr-Ni grades – general-purpose grades mainly alloyed with chromium and nickel, but with no
molybdenum

Cr-Ni-Mo grades – also general-purpose grades, but with increased corrosion resistance due to
alloying with molybdenum

High-performance grades – high alloying content for use in very demanding environments

High-temperature grades – high chromium and nickel content, but no molybdenum, for use at
temperatures exceeding 550 °C

The austenitic grades have good to excellent corrosion resistance, as well as good formability
and weldability. Their high impact strength at low temperatures is often exploited in cryogenic
applications. The austenitic grades are non-magnetic in the solution-annealed condition. Cold
working increases their strength and certain grades are therefore supplied in the temper rolled
condition and may then be magnetic due to the presence of some martensite.

What are the general design consideration of reaction vessel, write the
classification of reaction vessel also.

Explain what are different types of vessel codes.

Vessel Code Vessel Name Vessel Barge Vessel Escortable Vessel Power Tug

What are different types of Flanges? Write a short note on Flange design.

Weld Neck Flange

This flange type is designed to be connected by a butt weld connection to the pipe or equipment
requiring a flanged joint. Welding neck provides good service under variety of temperature and
pressure applications. A weld neck flange must specifiy the pipe schedule for the bore. Due to the
welding neck, it is a popular choice on pressure vessels and for creating man-holes etc. These
flanges are also knows as ANSI Flange or ASME B16.5 Flange

Slip On Flange

A slip on flange is designed to slip over the end of pipe. It allows for easy positioning before
welding. Both the inside and outside of the pipe is welded on the slip on flange. See picture on
the right. The pipe is generally inserted all the way, inside the slip on flange, leaving only the gap
equivalent to wall thickness of pipe. These flanges are also knows as ANSI Flange or ASME
B16.5 Flange

Lap Joint Flange

A lap joint flange is also knows as Van Stone Flange. This type of flange consists of both a stub
end and a flange.The flange itself is not welded but rather the stub end is inserted / slips over the
flange and is welded to pipe. This arrangement helps in flange alignment in conditions where
non-alignment may be an issue. In a lap joint flange, the flange itself is not in contact with the
fluid. The stub end is the piece which gets welded to the pipe and is in contact with the fluid. Stub
ends comes in type A and type B. Type A stub ends are most common. Lap joint flange only
comes in flat face. People confuse lap joint flange with slip on flange as they look very similar
with the exception that lap joint flange has round eges on the back side and a flat face.

Threaded Flange

Threaded flange is also called screwed flange or screwed-on flange. This type of flange is used
where welding is not an option. Threaded flange is most commonly used on low pressure
applications and smaller pipes (up to 4" nominal).
Blind Flange

A blind flange is a solid flange with no bore or threaded hole and is used to close the end of pipe,
fittings, valves or equipment. Blind pipe flange is also used for pressure testing equipment. Blind
flange comes both as raised face and flat face.

Line and Spectacle Blind Flange

Spectacle and line blind flanges are similar to a blind flange but different because they fit
between two flnges. Spectacle blind gets their name from similarity to pair or eye glasses. Once
side of spectacle blind is fully closed for complete flow shutt off, whereas the other end is open
for full flow. In this setup the blinds can be rotated without having to take the system apart. It also
gives visual confirmation if the line is open or close.

Orifice Flange

Orifice flange is a special flange and is always used in pairs. It is used in conjunction with orifice
plate for measure flow of liquids and gases in a piping system. Orifice flanges are pre-drilled with
tapped holes made in the flange rims to accommodate metering pipe. The flange that makes up
the orifice flange is usually a welding neck flange. Slip on and threaded flange are also used
sometimes as end connection. In an orifice flange, the pipe must be drilled to accommodate the
tapped hole through which the pressure is sensed. The picture above illustrates the working of
orifice flange in a welding neck flange arrangement.

Reducing Flange

A reducing flange changes the line size without adding an extra fitting. The reduction in a
reducing flange is always abrupt compared to a reduction that can be achieved by concentric butt
weld reducer. A reducing flange is commonly available as threaded reducing flange or slip on
reducing flange. A 6" by 4" reducing slip on flange will have the flange dimension (outer diameter,
bolt circle diameter) of an 6" flange but the hole of a 4" flange. This allows it to mate to an 6" pipe
via flanged connection but connect a 4" pipe instead.

Write down the various steps for the design of shell of Cylindrical storage
tank.

Write various mechanical properties of material to be considered in the

construction of cell process equipment.

Many factors have to be considered when selecting engineeringmaterials, but for chemical
process plant the overriding consideration is usually the ability to resist corrosion.The process
designer will be responsible for recommending materials that will be suitable for the process
conditions.The most important characteristics to be considered when

selecting a material of construction are:

Mechanical properties

(a) Strength-tensile strength

(b) Stiffness-elastic modulus (Young's modulus)

(c) Toughness-fracture resistance

(d) Hardness-wear resistance

(e) Fatigue resistance

(f) Creep resistance

Nozzles

A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially
to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe
or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid
(liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass,
shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid
increases at the expense of its pressure energy.

Ceramic Materials

Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders, and water
and shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high
temperature oven known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-
like substances known as glazes. There are three main types of pottery/ceramic. These are
earthenware, stoneware and porcelain.

UNIFORM CORROSION

Uniform corrosion is considered an even attack across the surface of a material and is the most
common type of corrosion. It is also the most benign as the extent of the attack is relatively easily
judged, and the resulting impact on material performance is fairly easily evaluated due to an
ability to consistently reproduce and test the phenomenon. This type of corrosion typically occurs
over relatively large areas of a material’s surface.

Corrosion Resistant Coatings

Corrosion resistant coatings for metal vary depending on the kind metal involved and the kind of
corrosion prevention needed. To prevent galvanic corrosion in iron and steel alloys, coatings
made from zinc and aluminum are helpful. Large components, such as bridges and energy
windmills, are often treated with zinc and aluminum corrosion resistant coatings because they
provide reliable long-term corrosion prevention. Steel and iron fasteners, threaded fasteners, and
bolts are often coated with a thin layer of cadmium, which helps block hydrogen absorption which
can lead to stress cracking.

In addition to cadmium, zinc, and aluminum coatings, often nickel-chromium and cobalt-
chromium are often used as corrosive coatings because of their low level of porosity. They are
extremely moisture resistant and therefore help inhibit the development of rust and the eventual
deterioration of metal. Oxide ceramics and ceramic metal mixes are examples of coatings that
are strongly wear resistant, in addition to being corrosion resistant.

What is the purpose of using baffles in shell and tube heat exchangers?

The main roles of a baffle in a shell and tube heat exchanger are to: Hold tubes in position
(preventing sagging), both in production and operation. Prevent the effects of steam starvation,
which is increased with both fluid velocity and the length of the exchanger. Direct shell-side fluid
flow along tube field. Baffles creates tubulance in the flow of the shell side liquid in a heat
exchanger. As turbulance increases it increases the rate of heat of heat transfer and that is
reason for existance of heat exchangers. Baffles indirectly support the tubes and thereby reduce
the vibration in tube.
What is the economy of an evaporator?

Economy of the evaporator is another important parameter which decides the performance of
evaporator. It may be defined as the amount of steam used and is expressed in terms of pounds
of vapor produced per pound of steam supplied to the evaporator train.

The logarithmic mean temperature difference (also known as log mean temperature
difference, LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow
systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the
temperature difference between the hot and cold feeds at each end of the double pipe
exchanger. For a given heat exchanger with constant area and heat transfer coefficient, the
larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from
the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties.