CELLS

– fundamental unit of living material the entrance and exit of substances into
showing a variety of functional specializations the cell, lipid bilayer,
which perform all the activities necessary for
2 MODELS
the survival, growth, and reproduction of the
organism 1. The Classical Model of Davson and
Danielli (Old Model) – this model
2 CELL TYPES
postulates a lipid center sandwiched by
1. Eukaryotic cell – presence of true a coat of protein on each surface
nucleus surrounded by a nuclear - This model cannot explain how
envelope (separates nuclear material this membrane regulate entry
from the rest of the cell material) and exit of even water-soluble
2. Prokaryotic cell – absence of nuclear substances
envelope, nuclear substance is mixed 2. The “Fluid Mosaic Model” of Singer and
with the rest of the cytoplasm (There is Nicholson – the membrane proteins are
no definite nuclear membrane that globular and float like icebergs in a sea
separates the nuclear material) of lipid; the more acceptable model; in
a dynamic state
PARTS OF A CELL
- It is not trilaminar, it is just a
1. Plasmalemma – the outer lining
lipid bilayer wherein the
membrane that serves as a selective
proteins are scattered all over
barrier (7.5 - 10 nm)
- Asymmetrical membrane
2. Cytoplasm – the protoplasm outside the
brought by proteins added to
nucleus which contains the different
them → Dynamic state
organelles and inclusions of the cell
- proteins may vary in size and
*Outside the nucleus there are position (transmembrane or
scattered structures classified into integral, peripheral proteins)
either organelle or inclusions
GLYCOCALYX
*Nucleus- biggest organelle
- Outer coat of cell membrane
3. Nucleus- Contains the genetic material, - Where antigens are located
controls all the metabolic process in the - Glycoprotein and polysaccharide
cell covering of the external surface of the
cell membrane; imparts a special
*Those without nucleus has a limited identity to each cell type, therefore,
life time plays an important role in
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE CELL histocompatibility → important in organ
transplant
CELL
MEMBRANE/PLASMALEMMA/CYTOLEMMA FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

- pertains to the outer trilaminar- 1. Filtration barrier

appearing membrane surrounding the 2. Allows sudden changes in ion
cell; a selective barrier that regulates permeability in response to changes in
the electrical potential (Neurons)
 3. Receptor site for hormones and
enzymes B. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
4. Cell recognition (Glycocalyx) - Non-granular
5. Communication with neighboring cells - Membranes are also arranged in an
anastomosing network of tubules
6. Forming junctional complexes between - Cisternae are more tubular
each other - May also connect with the RER, the
CYTOPLASM plasmalemma, and the Golgi complex
- Functions:
The ground substance (hyaloplasm) is ▪ Striated muscle: as sarcoplasmic
subdivided into: reticulum
1. Endoplasm – usually in soluble phase ▪ Lipid and Steroid Hormone
and manifest active streaming cellular Synthesis
components are carried along by ▪ Endocrine cells: biosynthesis o
directed movements steroid hormone
- contains organelles ▪ Intestinal villi: synthesis of neutral
2. Exoplasm – usually in gel state; fats
relatively free of cellular components; ▪ Parietal cells of the stomach:
occupies the periphery of the formation of HCl acid
plasmalemma ▪ Detoxification (liver) and membrane
synthesis and repair

GOLGI APPARATUS
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
- System of stacked saucer shaped
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM cisternae with concave (maturing/trans
face) facing the nucleus and a convex
- Consists of an anastomosing network of
(forming/cis face) adjacent to the RER
intercommunicating channels and sacs
formed by a continuous membrane - Similar to the structure of SER
- Could be flattened vesicles or saccules Functions:
2 forms: Packaging of secretory products in a membrane
capable of fusing with the plasma membrane
A. Granular / Rough Endoplasmic
during exocytosis
Reticulum
- Most typical 1. Glandular cells: site of accumulation
- Interconnecting network of membrane and concentration of secretory products
tubules, vesicles and flattened sacs 2. Concentrates and packages hydrolytic
which ramifies throughout the enzymes in cells as lysosomes
cytoplasm
- Presence of ribosomes (Site of Protein MITOCHONDRIA
Synthesis) on its membrane surface - Mobile “power plant of the cell” →
- Function: synthesis of secretory protein Source of Energy
and its storage within the intracisternal - Membrane-bound
space
 - Appear as slender rods, cigar-shaped 2. Function in the normal replacement of
organelles cellular components and organelles
- Inner Membrane- Cristae
*Heterophagocytosis- phagocytosis where
- Self-replicating (has its own DNA)
digestion of a substance coming from the
- Very in size, shape and number
outside of the body
depending on the cellular activity
*Autophagocytosis- engulf degenerating
- More Mitochondria→ More Cristae → organelles
More active the cell
*Residual Body- Remnant that can no longer be
Functions: digested
1. Synthesis of ATP as energy source of the *Lipofuscin- wear and tear pigment
cell

o Attached to the membrane –
respiratory and phosphorylating CENTRIOLE
enzymes
- centrioles/diplosome usually adjacent
o Those in the matrix – Kreb’s
to the nucleus
citric acid cycle and for protein
- Important for cell division
and lipid synthesis
2. Accumulation of calcium; synthesis of - Found in centrosome (Cell center)
- self-duplicating
nucleic acids and proteins; oxidation of
- pair of short rods considered as the
fatty acids
center of activities associated with cell
LYSOSOMES division
- Cross-section - nine triplets of
- These are small membrane bound
microtubules
bodies of varying shapes and sizes
- E/M
containing a number of hydrolytic
- hollow cylinder, open in one
enzymes for intracellular digestion (acid
end, closed in the other
hydrolases → they only do their
- Long axis
digestive activity in an acidic ph for cell
- perpendicular to each other
protection)
Functions
Types:
1. plays an important role in cell division
1. Primary lysosomes – resting lysosomes,
with amorphous granular content *spindle comes from microtubule not
2. Secondary lysosomes – actively from the centriole
engaged in digestion; has particulate
2. centrioles are essential for the
matter inside; site of existing digestion
formation of cells and flagella
Functions:
PEROXISOMES/MICROBODIES
1. Essential in the cellular defense
- membrane bound bodies with a finely
mechanism, being site of
deconstruction of foreign bodies granular homogenous content and
sometimes containing a crystalloid body
 - contain several enzymes in the ANNULATE LAMELLAE
production (oxidase) or destruction
- visible only with E/M: parallel arrays of
(catalases)of hydrogen peroxide
cisternae with small pores at regular
- Protection from too much production of intervals along their length
Hydrogen peroxide - resembles nuclear membrane
- functional significance is not known
CYTOSKELETON

FILAMENTS
CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS
A. Microfilaments
- diameter measure less than - lifeless accumulations of metabolites or
about 8nm cell products regarded as dispensable
- actin and myosin (contractile) and often temporary constituents; not
B. Intermediate filaments/tonofilament essential for survival of the cell
- diameter range from 8-12 (15) 1. Pigments
nm, adhesive properties a. endogenous
b. exogenous
Functions
2. lipid
1. maintain cellular shape and provide 3. glycogen
resiliency to forces tending to alter that 4. crystals
shape; prominent in cytoplasm of “wear 5. secretory granules
and tear” epithelia 6. vacuoles
2. found in the sites of adhesions between
PIGMENTS
adjacent cells of epithelial systems
important as supportive intracellular - materials with natural color that do not
network and in transmission of forces require staining by dyes
among adherent cells A. Exogenous
- formed outside of the body
*Cell shape and rigidity
- carotenes, dusts, carbon,
MICROTUBULES minerals (lead, silver)
- those used for tattooing
- widely occuring slender, cylindrical B. Endogenous
structures - formed within the body
- X/S: appear as a circle composed of 13 a. Melanin
globular subunits - dark brown/black
- 24 nm pigments found in
Functions melanocytes in the
epidermis and in the
1. are an important element of the spindle eye
apparatus in dividing cells; they form - used for protection
the mitotic spindle from the harmful
2. play a role in maintaining diverse cell effects of the sun
shape - located above the
3. axoplasmic transport in neurons nucleus
 b. Lipofuscin - found in all cells except RBC & platelets
- yellowish brown - shape, size & number vary
granules occurring in - stains blue because of its nucleic acids,
many cells particularly basic proteins and also acidic proteins
in older individuals - Basophilic
- referred to as “wear &
*Segmented Nucleus
tear” pigments
*Anucleated- No Nucleus

*Multinucleated
LIPIDS
*Vesicular- Fish Eye, pale nucleus with dark
- appear as round, clear areas
staining nucleolus
incytoplasm because the lipid is
extracted by solvents *Pyknosis- Nearing death
- appear as black spherical droplets of
varying sizes with osmium tetroxide Functions
- membrane bounded 1. archive of the cell; repository of the
Two types of Fat Cells hereditary factors
2. source of ribosomal, messenger and
● Brown transfer RNA
● Yellow- present in humans
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
GLYCOGEN
- E/M: consist of 2 parallel membranes
- E/M: appear as full cytoplasmic (Bilaminar) enclosing a narrow
particles perinuclear space that communicates
- Acidophilic with cisternae of the reticulum; with
- Liver pores
CRYSTALS - Nuclear Pores- control entry and exit
- continuous with the membranes of the
- crystals at crystalloids are protein in endoplasmic reticulum
nature - has ribosomes on its outer membrane
- not bound by membranes
- E/M: shows a regular lattice pattern NUCLEAR CHROMATIN

SECRETORY GRANULES - nuclear material that contains DNA and

proteins; the structural manifestation of
- Zymogen secretory granules as large chromosomes in interphase
dense granules A. Heterochromatin
- with limiting membranes - the condensed coiled part
- Found in glands - metabolically inert
*Transport Vesicles- carry - Dense aggregates-
metabolically inert (dark)
B. Euchromatin
- the dispersed less coiled
NUCLEUS
regions of the chromosome
 - active in protein synthesis - Daughter Cells is same as the parent
- light areas- metabolically active A. Prophase
- chromatin condenses into
NUCLEOLUS
chromosomes
- round conspicuous structure - nuclear envelope disappears
eccentrically located in the nucleus - Nucleolus moves in the
- rich in RNA and basic proteins opposite side
- intensely basophilic due to the presence - Nuclear membrane and
of ribonucleic proteins nucleolus disappears
- site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA B. Metaphase
- Mitotic Spindle Start to appear
3 regions (Nevermind) - chromosomes align at the
A. Pars amorpha/ pars fibrosa equatorial plate
- round masses of closely packed - Chromosomes are attached to
filaments in the interior of the the *Kinetochore (Metaphase
nucleolus Control Point)--> allows to align
B. Nucelo-lonema - pars granulosa first
- surrounds the pars amorpha C. Anaphase
- made up of a coarse reticulum - sister chromatids separate
of anastomosing strands - centromeres divide
C. Chromosomal portions D. Telophase
- consists of dispersed filaments - chromatin divides
of DNA - cytoplasm divides
- site of synthesis of ribosomal Cytokinesis- Cells divide into two
DNA
STAGES OF MEIOSIS
Dense fibrillar- Ribosomal Assembly
- Germ Cells (Spermatozoa and Ovum)
Granular- Ribosomal RNA Synthesis - Daughter Cells are different in number
CHROMOSOMES and chromosome content
A. Pairing begins
- may show irregular densities of staining B. pairing of chromatids
along their lengths C. chiasma formation
- small visible mass is the sex D. pulling apart of double-structured
chromatin/Barr bodies(Inactivated sex chromosomes
chromosome) E. anaphase of 1st meiotic division
- in female neutrophil granular F. cells contain 23 double-structured
leukocytes is seen as drumstick chromosomes
appendage G. cells contain 23 single chromosomes
- it has become possible to determine by
light microscopy the genetic sex of an
individual
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
STAGES OF MITOSIS
CELLS somatic cells germ cell
- Somatic Cells
 (ovum &
spermatozoa)

product cells exactly same cells with

as parent cell only half of
DNA and
chromosome
s as parent

character of diploid cell haploid cellS

daughter cell