Second Edition

Renewable
Energy Sources and
Emerging Technologies
D.P. Kothari
K.C. Singal Rakesh Ranjan

Ocean
waves
Earth
Geothermal
Renewable Energy Sources and
Emerging Technologies
Second Edition

D.P. KOTHARI
Director General
Vindhya Group of Institutions, Indore
Former Vice Chancellor
VIT University, Vellore
Former Director-in-Charge
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

K.C. SINGAL
Former Chief Engineer
Haryana State Electricity Board

RAKESH RANJAN
Director – Principal
International Institute of Technology and Business
Sonepat, Haryana

New Delhi-110001
2011
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES, Second Edition
D.P. Kothari, K.C. Singal, and Rakesh Ranjan

© 2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4470-9

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Fifth Printing (Second Edition) º º º November, 2011

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
To my wife Shobha
— D.P. Kothari

To my wife Brij Bala

— K.C. Singal

To my wife Jyoti
— Rakesh Ranjan
CONTENTS

Preface xix
Preface to the First Edition xxi

1. Energy Resources and Their Utilisation 1–23

1.1 A Perspective 1
1.2 Conservation and Forms of Energy 1
1.3 Electric Energy from Conventional Sources 2
1.3.1 Thermal Plants (Coal Fuelled) 3
1.3.2 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Power Generation 5
1.3.3 Gas Turbine Plant 6
1.4 Nuclear Power 7
1.4.1 Nuclear Fission 7
1.4.2 Nuclear Fusion 8
1.5 Energy Reserves of India 10
1.5.1 Coal 10
1.5.2 Oil 10
1.5.3 Natural Gas 11
1.5.4 National Grid for Gas Distribution 11
1.5.5 Gas Conservation 11
1.6 Hydroelectric Power Potential 11
1.7 India’s Power Scene 12
1.7.1 Gas-Based Generating Plants 13
1.7.2 Nuclear Power Programme 13
1.8 Renewable Energy Sources 14
1.9 Energy Parameters 16
1.9.1 Energy Intensity 16
1.9.2 Energy–GDP Elasticity 16
1.10 Cogeneration 17
1.11 Rational Use of Energy 17
1.12 Energy Efficiency and Conservation 17
1.13 New Technologies 18
1.13.1 Hydrogen Energy Systems 18
1.13.2 Fuel Cells 18
1.13.3 Biofuels 18

v
vi • Contents

1.14 Distributed Energy Systems and Dispersed Generation 19

1.14.1 Distributed Energy Systems 19
1.14.2 Dispersed Generation 20
Review Questions 23

2. Environmental Aspects of Electric Energy Generation 24–39

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Atmospheric Pollution 24
2.2.1 Oxides of Sulphur (SO2) 25
2.2.2 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 25
2.2.3 Oxides of Carbon (CO, CO2) 25
2.3 Hydrocarbons 25
2.4 Particulates (Fly Ash) 26
2.4.1 Control of Particulates 26
2.4.2 Upgrading ESPs by Pulse Energization 26
2.5 Thermal Pollution 26
2.6 Hydroelectric Projects 27
2.6.1 Terrestrial Effects 27
2.6.2 Wild Life 27
2.6.3 Aquatic Life 27
2.6.4 Social Problems 28
2.6.5 Submergence of Cultural Heritage 28
2.6.6 Health Concern 28
2.6.7 Economic Aspect 28
2.6.8 Physical Effects 28
2.7 Operational Phase of Hydropower Projects 29
2.8 Nuclear Power Generation and Environment 29
2.8.1 Natural Radiation 29
2.8.2 Radioactive Pollution 29
2.9 Operational Safety in Nuclear Power Plants 30
2.10 Disposal of Nuclear Waste 31
2.11 Global Environmental Awareness 32
2.11.1 Kyoto Protocol 32
2.11.2 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit 33
2.12 Impact of Renewable Energy Generation on Environment 34
2.12.1 Solar Energy 34
2.12.2 Wind Energy 34
2.12.3 Biomass Energy 35
2.12.4 Geothermal Energy 35
2.12.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) 36
2.13 GHG Emissions from Various Energy Sources 36
2.14 Cost of Electricity Production from Different Energy Sources 37
2.15 Electromagnetic Radiation from Extra High Voltage (EHV)
Overhead lines 37
2.15.1 Visual and Audible Impacts of EHV Lines and Substations 38
2.16 Energy Options for Indian Economy 38
Review Questions 38
 Contents • vii

3. Solar Radiation and Its Measurement 40–59

3.1 A Perspective 40
3.2 Solar Constant 40
3.3 Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial Radiation 41
3.4 Terrestrial Solar Radiation 42
3.5 Solar Radiation Geometry 43
3.6 Computation of cos q for any Location Having any Orientation 46
3.7 Sunrise, Sunset and Day Length 46
3.8 Empirical Equation for Estimating the Availability of Solar Radiation 48
3.9 Solar Radiation Measurements 54
3.10 Solar Radiation Data for India 55
Review Questions 59

4. Solar Thermal Energy Collectors 60–92

4.1 Introduction 60
4.2 Flat-Plate Collector 60
4.3 Effect of Design Parameters on Performance 61
4.3.1 Heat Transport System 61
4.3.2 Selective Surfaces 62
4.3.3 Number of Covers 62
4.3.4 Spacing 62
4.4 Laws of Thermal Radiation 63
4.5 Radiation Heat Transfer between Real Bodies 64
4.6 Radiation Optics 65
4.7 Transmissivity of the Cover System 65
4.7.1 Transmittance Considering Absorption Only 67
4.7.2 Transmissivity–Absorptivity Product 69
4.8 Performance Analysis of a Liquid Flat-plate Collector 70
4.9 Total Loss Coefficient and Heat Losses 71
4.9.1 Top Loss Coefficient (Ut) 71
4.9.2 Bottom Loss Coefficient (Ub) 73
4.9.3 Side Loss Coefficient (Us) 73
4.10 Solar Concentrating Collectors 74
4.11 Types of Concentrating Collectors 74
4.12 Thermodynamic Limits to Concentration 78
4.13 Performance Analysis of Cylindrical Parabolic Collector 78
4.14 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) 84
4.15 Tracking CPC and Solar Swing 86
4.16 Performance Analysis of CPC 88
4.17 Solar Thermal Energy Storage 89
4.17.1 Sensible Heat Storage 89
4.17.2 Latent Heat Storage (Phase Change Heat Storage) 90
4.17.3 Thermochemical Storage 91
Review Questions 91
viii • Contents

5. Solar Thermal Energy Conversion Systems 93–121

5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Solar Water Heating 93
5.3 Solar Distillation 95
5.4 Liquid Bath Solar Wax Melter 96
5.4.1 Solar Wax Melter 96
5.5 Heating of Swimming Pool by Solar Energy 97
5.6 Thermodynamic Cycles and Solar Plants 98
5.6.1 The Carnot Cycle 98
5.6.2 The Rankine Cycle 99
5.6.3 The Stirling Cycle 100
5.6.4 The Brayton Cycle 101
5.7 Combined Cycle Power Plant 101
5.8 Solar Thermal Power Plant 102
5.8.1 Low Temperature Solar Power Plant 102
5.8.2 Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant 102
5.8.3 High Temperature Solar Thermal Power Generator 104
5.9 Central Receiver Power Plants 104
5.10 Solar Ponds 105
5.11 Solar Pumping Systems 106
5.12 Solar Air Heaters 107
5.13 Solar Crop Drying 109
5.14 Solar Kilns 110
5.14.1 Integrated Solar Dryers 110
5.14.2 Distribution Solar Dryers 111
5.15 Solar Cookers 111
5.15.1 Box Solar Cooker 111
5.15.2 Dish Solar Cooker 112
5.15.3 Community Solar Cooker for Indoor Cooking 112
5.16 Energy Efficient Buildings 112
5.17 Solar Passive Techniques 113
5.17.1 Direct System Gain 113
5.17.2 Indirect Gain Systems (Thermal Storage Wall) 114
5.18 Solar Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration 115
5.18.1 Evaporative Cooling 115
5.18.2 Absorption Cooling System 115
5.18.3 Passive Desiccant Cooling 116
5.18.4 Energy-efficient Buildings in India 117
5.19 Solar Greenhouses 117
5.19.1 Light Intensity 118
5.19.2 Temperature 118
5.19.3 Humidity 118
5.19.4 Carbon Dioxide 118
5.20 Solar Furnace and Applications 118
5.21 1000 kW Solar Furnace with Multiple Heliostat 120
Review Questions 120
 Contents • ix

6. Solar Photovoltaic System 122–146

6.1 Introduction 122
6.2 Semiconductor Materials and Doping 122
6.3 n-Type and p-Type Semiconductors 123
6.4 Photon Energy 123
6.5 Fermi Level 124
6.6 p-n Junction 126
6.7 Photovoltaic Effect 127
6.8 Efficiency of Solar Cells 127
6.9 Limits to Cell Efficiency 128
6.10 Semiconductor Materials for Solar Cells 129
6.10.1 Single Crystal Silicon 129
6.10.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Cells 131
6.10.3 Amorphous Silicon Cells 132
6.11 Solar Photovoltaic System (SPS) 133
6.12 Standards for SPV 134
6.13 Application of PV Systems 134
6.13.1 Standalone PV Systems 134
6.13.2 SPV Water Pumping System 135
6.13.3 SPV Cell for Communication Equipment in Snow-bound Areas 136
6.14 Sea Water Desalination System Powered by a 25 kW
Photovoltaic Power 136
6.15 PV Hybrid System 136
6.16 Solar Electricity in Sagar Island 138
6.17 Grid Interactive Solar PV Power System 138
6.18 Solar Power Plant Using a Satellite 139
6.19 Plastic Solar Cells with Nanotechnology 140
6.20 Peltier Cooling 140
6.21 Solar Photovoltaics in India 144
6.22 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) 145
6.22.1 Solar-PV Cost is More and Reasons Thereof 145
6.22.2 Latest Achievement in Solar Power Development 146
6.22.3 Proposed Solar Plants 146
Review Questions 146

7. Wind Energy 147–185

7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Historical Development 147
7.3 Classification of Wind Turbines 148
7.3.1 Lift Type and Drag Type Wind Turbines 148
7.4 Types of Rotors 149
7.4.1 Multiblade Rotor 149
7.4.2 Propeller Rotor 150
7.4.3 Savonious Rotor 150
7.4.4 Darrieus Rotor 151
7.5 Terms Used in Wind Energy 151
x • Contents

7.6 Aerodynamic Operation of Wind Turbines 154

7.6.1 Drag 155
7.6.2 Lift 155
7.7 Wind Energy Extraction 156
7.8 Extraction of Wind Turbine Power 159
7.9 Wind Characteristics 159
7.10 Mean Wind Speed and Energy Estimation 160
7.11 Power Density Duration Curve 161
7.12 Weibull Probability Density Function 162
7.13 Field Data Analysis 163
7.14 Annual Percentage Frequency Distribution of Wind Speed 164
7.15 Direction of Wind and Windrose Data 165
7.16 Calculation for Air Density 166
7.17 Variation of Wind Speed with Elevation 166
7.18 Energy Pattern Factor in Wind Power Studies 167
7.19 Beaufort Wind Scale 168
7.20 Land for Wind Energy 169
7.20.1 Regions 169
7.20.2 Areas 169
7.20.3 Khals (Low Depressions) 171
7.21 Design of Wind Turbine Rotor 171
7.21.1 Thrust on Turbine Rotor 171
7.21.2 Torque on Turbine Rotor 172
7.21.3 Solidity 173
7.22 Design of Regulating System for Rotor 175
7.23 Wind Power Generation Curve 176
7.24 Sub-systems of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Generator 177
7.25 Modes of Wind Power Generation 179
7.25.1 Standalone Mode 179
7.25.2 Backup Mode Like Wind–Diesel 181
7.25.3 Grid Connected Wind Turbine Generators 182
7.26 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy System 182
Review Questions 185

8. Wind Energy Farms 186–202

8.1 Introduction 186
8.2 Wind Resource Surveys 186
8.3 Assessment of Wind Availability from Meteorological Data 187
8.4 Estimation of Wind Energy Potential 188
8.4.1 Methods of Calculations 188
8.4.2 Equations Used for Calculations 188
8.5 Wind Resource Assessment in India 189
8.5.1 Wind Power Potential and Achievements in India 189
8.6 Selection of Optimum Wind Energy Generator (WEG) 192
8.7 Grid Interfacing of a Wind Farm 193
8.8 Methods of Grid Connection 194
 Renewable Energy Sources And
Emerging Technologies

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Author : KOTHARI, D.P.,

Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 978812034 4 709 SINGAL, K. C., RANJAN,
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