Digital Control System-1

Digital Control System Dr.V.
Dharmalingam, Prof/SEEE, SASTRA
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Introduction
In recent years there has been a phenomenal growth in the use of digital controllers in control
systems. Discrete–time digital controls are widely used for increasing the productivity, profit
and to minimize the cost, energy and time. The application of computer control has made
possible intelligent motion control in robots, economical usage of energy in automobiles, and
refinements in the operation of household appliances and equipments such as microwave
ovens, sewing machines and in washing machines etc.
Decision-making capability and flexibilities, in the control program are major
advantages of digital control system. The current trend towards digital rather than analog
control of dynamic systems is mainly due to the availability of low–cost digital computers
and the advantages found in working with digital signals rather than continues–time signals.
2. Advantages of discrete–time or digital control system

1. The digital controllers can perform large and complex computation to any desired
degree of accuracy at very high speed.
2. Digital controllers are easily programmable and more versatile.
3. Digital controllers and digital transducers have better resolution and high sensibility.
4. Time sharing concept of digital computer results in economical cost and space.
5. Digital components are less affected by noise, non-linearities and transmission error.
6. Digital signals can be stored, transmitted, retransmitted, detected, analyzed or proceed as
desired.
3. Digital control system
Figure 1 Block diagram of a digital control system

The fig.1 depicts the block diagram of a typical digital control system. The basic functions
performed by each device are represented by a block. The output of the plant is a continuous–
time signal. The output is compared with the reference input and the difference is the error
signal. The error signal is then converted in to digital signal by analog–to–digital converter.
The digital computer processes the digital signal by means of an algorithm and produces an
output which is in digital form. Then the output from the digital computer is converted into
1
Digital Control System Dr.V.Dharmalingam, Prof/SEEE, SASTRA
analog signal by using a digital–to–analog converter and hold circuit, which actuates the
actuator. Then the actuator controls the input to the plant so as to give the desired output.
The operation that transforms continuous time signals into discrete time data is called
sampling or discretization. The reverse-operation, which transforms discrete-time data into a
continuous–time signal, is called data hold. The A/D conversion process is called coding or
encoding. The D/A conversion process is called decoding.
4. Principle of signal conversion
Figure 2 Sampling, quantization and coding of an analog signal.

An analog signal y(t) is shown in fig.2a. Such a signal cannot be processed or stored in digital
computer. To convert into discrete–time signal, the signal is sampled at every 10msec and the
discrete-time signal is shown in fig.2b. If we sample the signal for every 10msec, then the
sampling rate is 100 samples/second. The choice of the sampling rate is an importance one,
since it determines how accurately the discrete–time signal can represent the original signal.
Note that the time axis of the discrete time signal in fig.2b is marked by: sample number and
index k has been used to denote this number (k=0,1,2...). Corresponding to different values of
k, the discrete time signals assumes the value of y(t) at that instant. The sampled values can
be represented by a sequence of number ys.
ys = [1.7, 2.4, 1.4, 0.4,...];
In general ys = [y(k)] 0≤k<∞
where y(k) denotes the kth number in the sequence. The sequence defined above is one-sided
sequence; ys = 0 for k < 0. In digital control system application, we need one–sided sequence
only. If we adopt uniform sampling and the sampling interval is T seconds. The kth sampling
y(k) gives the value of the discrete–time signal at t = kT seconds. Therefore y(k) can be
represent as y(kT) to denote a sequence. A simplified hypothetical 2-bit machine can store
four numbers as given below:
Binary number Decimal equivalent
00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3
2
The signal shown in fig.2b can therefore be stored, if the sampled values are quantified to
four quantization levels. Fig.2c shows a quantified discrete–time signal. It is assumed that
any value between 0.5 and 1.5 is round to 1. The signals, for which both time and amplitude
are discrete, are called digital signals.
After sampling and quantization, it is converted into a form acceptable by the
computers, which is called as coding or encoding. Fig.2d gives coded digital signal
corresponding to the analog signal in fig.2a for a 2-bit machine .
The resolution of the converter can be improved by the number of digits. In an 8-bit
A/D converter an input signal can be resolved to one part in 28, or 1 in 256. If the input signal
has a range of 10V, the resolution is 10/256 or approximately 0.04V. Thus it is enough to
change at least by 0.04V, to make a change in the output.
5. Types of sampling
A sampling operation is basic in transforming a continuous–time signal into a discrete-time
signal. The different types of sampling are:
1. Periodic sampling: Here the sampling instants are equally spaced, i.e, tk = KT
(k = 0,1,2,...). Periodic sampling is the most conventional type of sampling operation.
2. Multiple order sampling: The pattern as the tk is repeated periodically, that is, tk+r - tk is
constant for all K.
3. Multiple rate sampling: In multiple loop control systems, the loop which has largest time
constant needs slow sampling rate, where as the loop which has smaller time constant needs
faster sampling. A digital control system many have different sampling periods for different
feedback paths or may have multiple sampling rates.
4. Random sampling: Here the sampling instants are random in nature or tk is a random
variable.
6. Impulse sampling
Figure 3 Impulse sampler

A pictorial diagram of the impulse sampler is shown in fig.3. The output of this impulse
sampler is considered to be a train of impulses, with the sampling period equal to ‘T’ starting
at t = 0. The strength of each impulse is equal to the sampled value of the analog signal at the
corresponding instant.
Figure 3a Impulse sampled signal
3
The sampling process is equivalent to multiplying the analog signal X(t), with an unit
impulse train to produce the sampled signal as shown in fig 3a.
χ * (t) = x(t ) δ (t − kT ) k=0, 1,2,3,4,………
*
Where χ (t) = impulse sampled signal
χ(t) = analog signal
δ(t-KT) = impulse train
∞
At t = kT, χ * (t) = ∑ χ (kT).δ (t − kT)
k =0
*
where X (t) is the sampled signal, which can be written as
χ*(t) = χ (0) δ(t) + χ (T) δ (t – T)... + χ (kT) (t – kT) + .......... (1)
Let the train of unit impulses be defined as
∞
δ T (t) = ∑ δ (t − kT)
k =0
Since the output is equal to the product of the continuous–time input χ(t) and the train of unit
impulses δT(t), the sampler may be considered as a modulator with the input χ(t) of the
modulator signal and the train of unit impulses δT(t) as the carrier as shown in fig.4
Figure 4 Impulse-sampler as a modulator
The Laplace transform of equation (1) is:

χ *(s) = £[χ * (t)] = χ (0) £[δ(t)] + χ (T) £[δ(t-T)] + χ (2T) £[δ(t-2T)] + ............
= χ (0) + χ (T) e-TS + χ (2T) e-2TS +.........
∞
= ∑ χ (kT) e
k =0
− kTS
(2)
1
Let eTS = z (or) s=
ln z
T
Substituting in equation (2), then the equation becomes,
∞ 1 ∞
− kT. .ln z
χ * (s) = ∑ χ (kT) e
k =0
T
= ∑ χ (kT). Z
k =0
−k
(3)
It is the z-transform of the sequence χ(0), χ(T), χ(2T),... generated from χ(t) at t = kT where k
= 0,1,2,.... Hence we may write
1
At s = ln z
T
χ *(s) = χ (z)
∞
⎛1 ⎞
Equation (3) become, χ * (s) = χ * ⎜ ln z ⎟ = χ (z) = ∑ χ (kT) z − k (4)
⎝T ⎠ k =0
4
7. Data–hold circuits
Data-hold is a process of generating a continuous-time signal h(t) from a discrete-time
sequence χ(kT). A hold circuits converts the sampled signal into a continuous-time signal,
which approximately reproduces the signal applied to the samples. The data-hold circuit
output signal h(t) during the time interval kT ≤ t < (k+1)T may be approximated by a
polynomial in τ as follows:
h(kT + τ) = an τn + an-1 τn-1 + ... + a1 τ + a0 (5)
where 0 ≤ τ < T. The signal h(kT) must equal χ(kT)

(or) h(kT) = χ(kT)
Hence equation (5) can be written as
h(kT + τ) = anτn + an-1τn-1 + ... + a1τ + χ (kT) (6)
If the data-hold circuit is an nth order polynomial extrapolator, it is called. nth order hold. Thus
if n = 1, it is called a first-order hold. The nth order hold uses the past n + 1 discrete data χ((k-
n)T), χ((k-n + 1)T) .... χ (kT) to generate a signal h(kt + τ).
Since a higher-order hold uses past samples to extrapolate a continuous time signal
between the present sampling instant and the next sampling instant, the accuracy of
approximating the continuous-time signal improves as the number of past samples used is
increased. But the better accuracy is obtained at cost of a greater time delay. In closed-loop
control system, any added time delay in the loop will decrease the stability of the system and
in some cases even cause system instability. The simplest data-hold is obtain when n = 0 in
equation (6) that is, when
h(kT + τ) = χ(kT) (7)
Higher order hold circuit offers no particular advantage over zero-order hold circuit. Equation
(7) implies that the circuit holds the amplitude of the sample from one sampling instant to the
next. Such a data- hold is called a zero-order hold or clamper or stair case generator and is as
shown in fig 5.
Figure 5 Output of zero-order hold circuit
5
8. Zero-order hold
Figure 5a Sampler and zero-order hold.

Figure 5b Mathematical model that consists of an impulse sampler and transfer
function Gh(1)(s).
Since the integral of an impulse function is a constant, we may assume that the zero-order
hold is an integrator and the input to the zero-order hold circuit is a train of impulses.
Consider the sampler and zero-order hold shown in fig 5a. Then the output h1(t) is related to
χ(t)as follows:
h1(t) = χ (o) [1(t) – 1 (t – T)] + χ(T) [1(t – T) – 1 (t – 2T)]
+ χ(2T) [1(t – 2T) – 1 (t – 3T) + ......
∞
= ∑ χ (kT )[1(t − kT ) − 1(t − (k + 1)T ]
k =0
(8)
Since
e − kTS
Laplace transform £ [1(t − kT ) =
s
The Laplace transform of equation (8) becomes
∞
e − kTS − e − ( k +1)TS
£ [h1 (t )] = H 1 ( s ) = ∑ χ (kT ).
k =0 s
∞
e − kTS − e − kTS .e −TS
= ∑ χ (kT ).
k =0 s
1 − e −TS ∞
= .∑ χ (kT ).e − kTS (9)
s k =0
∞
But ∑ χ (kT ).e
k =0
− kTS
= χ ( s ) [Laplace transform of input]
H 1 ( s ) 1 − e −TS
∴ = .
χ ( s) s
1 − e −Ts
Therefore transfer function of zero-order hold = (10)
s
8.1 Frequency response characteristic of zero-order hold.
1 − e − sT
The transfer function of ZOH GOh ( s ) =
s
Substituting s = jω
1 − e − jω T
The sinusoidal transfer function of ZOH Goh (jω) = (10a)
jω
6
− jω T jωT
Since e 2
.e 2
= 1 , equation (10a) becomes,
− jω T jωT − jω T jωT − jωT − jωT
e 2
.e 2
− e − jωT e 2
.e 2
−e 2
.e 2
Goh ( jω ) = =
jω jω
⎡ jω2T − jωT
⎤ − jωT
e −e 2 ⎥ 2
= ⎢ e (10b)
⎢ jω ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Since
e jθ − e − jθ
Sinθ = Equation (10b) becomes,
2j
− jωT
2 ωT
Goh ( jω ) = . sin .e 2
… (10c)
ω 2
ωT
Multiply the numerator and denominator by . Equation (10c) become
2
ωT
T . sin − jωT
Goh ( jω ) = 2 .e 2
(10d)
ωT
2
2π 2π
Since the sampling frequency ωs = , on substituting T = , equation (10d) becomes
T ωs
⎛ πω ⎞
sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ − jπω
2π ⎝ ω s ⎟⎠ ωs
Goh ( jω ) = . .e (10e)
ω s ⎛ πω ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωs ⎠
The magnitude part and phase angle part of equation (10e) is
⎛ πω ⎞
sin ⎜⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ ω s ⎟⎠
Goh ( jω ) = . ,
ω s ⎛ πω ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ω
⎝ s⎠
− πω
angle ∠Goh ( jω ) = .
ωs
The frequency response curves for the zero-order hold and the equivalent Bode diagram.
When T = 1 sec is shown in fig. 6.
Note that the magnitude curve approaches -∞ decibels of frequency points that are integral
multiples of sampling frequency. ωs = 2π/r = 6.28 rad/sec. Discontinuous of the phase curve
of ± 180° occurs at these frequency points.
7
Figure 6 (a) Frequency-response (b) Bode diagram of ZOH when T= 1sec.

9. Spectrum analysis of sampling process
The sampling process can be expressed as equivalent to multiplying the continuous time
signal with a periodic pulse train.
∞
x * (t ) = ∑ x(t ).δ (t − kT )
k = −α
(11)
The frequency contents of a signal can be obtained from the fourier transform of the signal.
Hence the frequency response of the impulse sampled signal can be obtained by taking
fourier transform of equation (11).
α
− jωt
f [ x (t )] = F * (ω ) = ∫ x ∗ (t ).e
∗
dt
−α
α α
∫ x (t ).∑ δ (t − kT ) e
− jω t
= . dt (12)
−α −α
Mathematically the equation (12) is the convolution of χ(t) and δ(t – kT). By convolution
theorem of fourier transform, the convolution of two time domain signals is equivalent to the
produce of their individual Fourier transform. Therefore
1 ⎡ α ⎤
∴ F * (ω ) = .F ( x(t )).F ⎢ ∑ δ (t − kT )⎥ (13)
2π ⎣ k = −α ⎦
Let F(χ(t)) = F(ω). (14)
⎡ α ⎤ α
and F ⎢ ∑ δ (t − kT )⎥ = ωs ∑ δ (ω − kωs ) (15)
⎣k = −α ⎦ k = −α
2π
Where ω S = = Sampling frequency in rad/sec.
T
Substituting equation (14) and (15) in equation (13), the equation becomes
8
α
1
F * (ω ) = .F (ω ) × ω s ∑ δ (ω − kω s ).
2π k =α
1 2π α
= . . ∑ F (ω ).δ (ω − kω s ) .
2π T k = −α
Since F(ω). δ(ω - kωs) = F(ω - kωs).
1 α
F * (ω ) = ∑ F (ω − kωs ).
T k = −α
(16)
The equation (16) gives the frequency spectrum of the impulse sampled signal.
Figure 7 Fourier spectra of input signal and its impulse sampled version.
If F(ω) is a band-limited signal with a maximum frequency ωm, the frequency spectrum of
F(ω) is shows in fig 7a, which is plot of | F(ω) | VS ω. The frequency spectrum of impulse
sampled signal is shown in fig 7b, which is a plot of | F*(ω) | VS ω, when ωs > 2 ωm. Fig 7c is
a frequency spectrum plot when ωs < 2 ωm.
Shanon’s sampling theorem: Shanon’s sampling theorem states that a band limited
continuous time signal with highest frequency ωm, can be uniquely recovered from its
samples provided the sampling rate ωs is greater than or equal to 2ωm samples per second. (In
practice ωs should be 10–20 times of ωm).
9. The z-transform
The z transform of a time function χ(t), where ‘t’ is non-negative, or of sequence of values
χ(kT), where k takes zero or positive integers and T is the sampling period is defined by the
following equation:
α
X ( z ) = Z [( x(t )] = Z [ x(kT ) = ∑ x(kT ) z − k (17)
k =0
For sequence of numbers x(k), the z transform is defined by
∞
X ( z ) = Z [ x(k )] = ∑ x(k ) z − k (18)
k =0
10. Transforms of elementary functions
9
The z-transfer of some elementary functions are given below:
10.1 unit-step function

⎧1(t ) t ≥ 0
x(t ) = ⎨ (19)
⎩ 0 t<0
Then
∞ ∞
x( z ) = Z [ f (t )] = ∑1 × Z − k = ∑ z − k
k =0 k =0
-1 -2 -3
= 1 + z + z + z +....
By Taylor’s series
1 z
x( z ) = −1
= . (20)
1− z z −1
Unit-step sequence is defined by
⎧⎪1 k = 0,1,2...
1(k ) = ⎨ (21)
⎪⎩0 k <0
10.2 Unit-ramp function
⎧⎪ t t ≥ 0
x(t ) = ⎨ (22)
⎪⎩0 t < 0
(or) χ(kT) = kT, K = 0, 1, 2....
∞ ∞
X ( z ) = Z [ x(t )] = ∑ x(kT ) z − k =∑ kTz −k
k =0 k =0
∞
= T ∑ kz − k
k =0
= T(z-1 + 2z-2 + 3z-3 +....) (23)
Now consider the z-transfer of units step function shown in equation (20)
∞
z
∑ z −k = z − 1
k =0
Expanding the summation of the above equation.
z
1 + z −1 + z − 2 + z −3 + ..... =
z −1
On differentiating both the side of the equation, we get
( z − 1) × 1 − z × 1 −1
− z − 2 − 2 z −3 − 3z − 4 + ... = 2
=
( z − 2) ( z − 1) 2
Multiplying the above equation by (-z) on both sides
z
z −1 + 2 z − 2 + 3z −3 + .... = (24)
( z − 1) 2
Substitute equation (24) in equation (23), it becomes
Tz
X ( z) = (25)
( z − 1) 2
The sampled unit-ramp signal is as shown in fig. 7.
10
Figure 7 Sampled unit-ramp signals
10.3 Polynomial function ak

⎧a k k = 0,1,2,...
x(k ) = ⎨ (26)
⎩0 k<0
Where ‘a’ is a constant
∞ ∞
X ( z ) = Z [a k ] = ∑ x(k ) z − k = ∑ a k z − k
k =0 k =0
= 1 + a1z-1 + a2 z-2 + a3 z-3 +....
1 z
= = (27)
1 − az −1 z−a
10.4 Exponential function
⎧⎪e − at t≥0
x(t ) = ⎨ (28)
⎪⎩ 0 t<0
Substitute t = kT
χ(kT) = e-akT. K = 0, 1, 2,.....
∞ α
X ( z ) = Z [e − at ] = ∑ x(kT ) z − k = ∑ e − akT .z − k
k =0 k =0
− aT −1 −2 aT −2 −3 aT
= 1+ e z +e z +e z −3 + ...
1 z
= = (29)
1 − e .z −1
− aT
z − e − aT
10.5 Sinusoidal function
⎧ sin ωt t ≥ 0
x(t ) = ⎨ (30)
⎩ 0 t<0
1 jωt
sin ωt = ( e − e − jωt ) ejωt = cos ωt + j sin ωt
2j e-jωt = cos ωt – j sin ωt
⎡1 ⎤
X ( z ) = Z [sin ωt] = Z ⎢ (e jωt − e − jωt )⎥
⎣ 2j ⎦
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ z z ⎞
= ⎜ jωT −1
− − jωT −1 ⎟ = ⎜ jω T
− − jω T ⎟
2 j ⎝1− e z 1− e z ⎠ 2j⎝z−e z−e ⎠
z ⎡ z − e − jωT − z + e jωT ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
2 j ⎣ ( z − e jωT )( z − e − jωT ) ⎦
11
z ⎡ e jωT − e − jωT ⎤ z (e jωT − e − jωT ) / 2 j

= ⎢ 2 jωT − jωT jωT − jωT ⎥ =
2 j ⎣ z − ze − ze + e .e jωT
⎦ z − z (e + e ) + 1
2 − jω T
z. sin ωT
X(z) = 2 (31)
z − 2 z cos ωT + 1
10.6 Cosine function
⎧ cos ωt t ≥ 0
x(t ) = ⎨ (32)
⎩ 0 t<0
1
X(z) = Z[cos ωt] = Z ( e jωt + e − jωt )
2
1⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ +
2 ⎣1 − e j ω T
z −1
1− e − j ω T
z ⎥⎦
−1
1⎡ z z ⎤
= ⎢ ω
+ − ω ⎥
2 ⎣z − e j t
z−e j T
⎦
z ⎡ z − e − jωT + z − e jωT ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ ( z − e jωT )( z − e − jωT ) ⎦
z 2 − z (e jωT + e − jωT ) / 2
=
z 2 − ze jωT − ze − jωT + e − jωT e jωT
z 2 − z cos ωT z ( z − cos ωT )
= 2 jω T − jω T
= 2
(33)
z − z (e +e ) +1 z − 2 z cos ωT + 1
Table of z transforms
X(s) x(t) x(kT) or x(k) X(z)
1. - - Kronecker delta 1
δ0(k)
1 k=0
0, k≠0
2. - - δ0(n-k) z-k
1, n=k
0, n≠k
3. 1 1(t) 1(k) 1
s 1 − z −1
4. 1 e-at e-akT 1
s+a − aT −1
1− e z
5. 1 t kT Tz −1
2
s (1 − z −1 ) 2
6. 2 t2 (kT)2 T 2 z −1 (1 + z −1 )
s3 (1 − z −1 ) 3
12
7. 6 t3 (kT)3 T 3 z −1 (1 + 4 z −1 + z −2 )
s4 (1 − z −1 ) 4
8. a 1-e-at 1-e-akT (1 − e − aT ) z −1
s( s + a)
(1 − z −1 )(1 − e −aT z −1 )
9. b−a e-at – e-bt e-akT – e-bkT (e − aT − e −bT ) z −1
( s + a )( s + b)
(1 − e −aT z −1 )(1 − e −bT z −1 )
10. 1 te-at kTe-akT Te − aT z −1

( s + a) 2 (1 − e −aT z −1 ) 2
11. s (1 – at)e-at (1 – akT)e-akT 1 − (1 + aT )e − aT z −1
( s + a) 2
(1 − e −aT z −1 ) 2
12. 2 t2 e-at (kT)2e-akT T 2 e − aT (1 + e − aT z −1 ) z −1
3
( s + a) (1 + e − aTz −1 ) 3
13. a2 at-1+e-at akT– 1+ e-akT [(aT − 1 + e − aT ) + (1 − e − aT − aTe − aT ) z −1 ]z −1
s 2 (s + a) (1 − z −1 ) 2 (1 − e −aT z −1 )
14. ω sin ωt sin ωkT z −1 sin ωT

s2 + ω2 1 − 2 z −1 cos ωT + z −2
15. s cos ωt cos ωkT 1 − z −1 cos ωT
s2 + ω2 1 − 2 z −1 cos ωT + z −2
16. ω e-at sin ωt e-akT sin ωkT e − aT z −1 sin ωT
( s + a) 2 + ω 2 1 − 2e −aT z −1 cos ωT + e −2aT z −2
17. s+a e-at cos ωt e-akT cos ωkT 1 − e − aT z −1 cos ωT

( s + a) + ω 2 1 − 2e −aT z −1 cos ωT + e −2aT z −2
18. ak 1
1 − az −1
19. ak – 1 z −1
k = 1, 2, 3...
1 − az −1
20. kak -1 z −1
(1 − az −1 ) 2
21. k2ak -1 z −1 (1 + az −1 )
(1 − az −1 ) 3
13
22. k3ak -1 z −1 (1 + 4az −1 + a 2 z −2 )

(1 − az −1 ) 4
23. k4ak-1 z −1 (1 + 11az −1 + 11a 2 z −2 + a 3 z −3 )
(1 − az −1 ) 5
24. ak cos kπ 1
1 + az −1
25. k (k − 1) z −2
2!
(1 − z −1 ) 3
26. k (k − 1)...(k − m + 2) z − m +1
(m − 1)!
(1 − z −1 ) m
27. k (k − 1) k −2 z −2
a
2!
(1 − az −1 ) 3
Example 1
Obtain the z-transfer of
1
X ( s) =
s ( s + 1)
Solution
By partial fraction
1 A B
= +
s ( s + 1) s s + 1
1 1
A= × s s =0 = s =0 = 1
s ( s + 1) s +1
1 1
B= × ( s + 1) s = −1 = s = −1 = −1
s ( s + 1) s
Substituting
⎡1 1 ⎤
X ( s) = ⎢ −
⎣ s s + 1⎥⎦
The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is
x(t) = 1 – e-t
1 1
X ( z ) = Z [1 − e −t ] = −1
−
1− 2 1 − e −T z −1
z z
= −
z −1 z − e −T
z[ z − e −T − z + 1] z (1 − e −T )
= =
( z − 1)( z − e −T ) ( z − 1)( z − e −T )
11. Z-transform properties and theorems.
14
11.1 Multiplication by a constant.

If X(z) is the z-transform of x(t), then
Z[ax(t)] = aZ[x(t)] = a X(z).
∞ ∞
Proof: Z [ax(t )] = ∑ ax(kT ) z − k = a ∑ x(kT ) z − k = aX ( z ). (34)
k =0 k =0
11.2 Linearity of the z-transform
If x(k) = αf(k) + βg(k). (35)
Then the z-transform is
X (z) = αF(z) + βG(z).
Proof:
X(z) = Z[x(k)]= Z[αf(k) + β g(k)]
∞ α α
= ∑ [αf (k ) + βg (k )]z −k = α ∑ f (k ).z −k + β ∑ g (k ) z −1
k =0 k =0 k =0
= αF ( z ) + β G ( z ) (36)
11.3 Multiplication by ak
If X(z) is the z-transfer of x(k), then z transform of akx(k) is given by X(a-1z).
Z[akx(k)] = X (a-1z) (37)
Proof:
α α
Z [ a k x(k )] = ∑ a k x(k ).z − k = ∑ x(k ).(a −1z )− k = X(a-1z).
k =0 k =0
11.4 Shifting Theorem
If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and X(z) is the z-transform of x(t)
Then Z[x(t – nT)] = z -n X(z) (38)
⎡ n −1
⎤
And Z[x(t + nT)] = z n ⎢ X ( z ) − ∑ x(kT ) z − k ⎥ (39)
⎣ k =0 ⎦
Proof:
α
Z [ x(t − nT ) = ∑ x(kT − nT ) z − k
k =0
∞
= z − n ∑ x( kT − nT ) z − ( k − n ) (40)
k =0
put m = k – n in equation (40)
Then
α
Z [ x(t − nT )] = z − n ∑ x(mT ) z
m=− n
−m
(41)
Since x(mT) = 0 for m < 0 we may change the lower limit of the summation from m = -n to
m = 0, then
∞
Z [ x(t − nT )] = z − n ∑ x(mT ) z − m = z − n X ( z )
m=0
Multiplication of a z-transform by z -n has the effect of delaying the time function x(t) by time
nT. Further, by comparing equation (40)
∞
Z [ x(t + nT )] = ∑ x(kT + nT ) z −k
k =0
∞
= zn ∑ x(kT + nT ) z −( k + n)
k =0
15
∞ n −1 n −1
= zn[ ∑ x(kT + nT ) z −( k +n) + ∑ x(kT ) z −k − ∑ x(kT ) z −k ]
k =0 k =0 k =0
⎡∞ n −1 ⎤
= z n ⎢ ∑ x( kT ) z − k − ∑ x( kT ) z − k ⎥
⎣k =0 k =0 ⎦
⎡ n −1 ⎤
= z n ⎢ x( z ) − ∑ x(kT ) z − k ⎥ .
⎣ k =0 ⎦
Example 2
Find the z transform of unit step functions that are delayed by 1 sampling period and 4
sampling periods, as shown in fig. 8a and 8b.
Figure 8 (a) Unit – step function delayed by 1 sampling period:

(b) unit-step function delayed by 4 sampling periods.
Solution
By shifting theorem
1 z −1
Z [1(t − T )] = z −1 x[1(t )] = z −1 . =
1 − z −1 1 − z −1
and
1 z −4
z[1(t − 41)] = z − 4 . = .
1 − z −1 1 − z −1
Example 3
Obtain the z-transform of
⎧⎪a k −1 k = 1,2,3...
f (a) = ⎨ ’
⎪⎩ 0 k ≤0
We know Z[χ(k – 1)] = z-1 χ (z)

1
and Z [a k ] =
1 − az −1
1 z −1
Z [a k −1 ] = z −1 . =
1 − az −1 1 − az −1
Example 4
Obtain the function y(k), which is a sum of function χ(h), where h = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……k such
that
16
∞
y (k ) = ∑ x(h), k = 0,1,2,...
h =0
Solution
y(k) = χ(o) + χ(1) + .... χ(k-1) + (k)
y(k – 1) = x(0) + x(1) + ... x(k-1)
Therefore
y(k) – y(k – 1) = x(k) .... k = 0, 1, 2.....
Z[y(k) – y(k – 1)] = Z[x(k)]
Y(z) – z-1 Y(z) = χ (z).
Y(z) [1 – z-1] = χ (z)
1
y(z) = . χ (z).
1 − z −1
11.6 Complex translation theorem
If χ(z) is the z-transfer of χ(t), then χ(zeaT) is the z transfer of e-at χ(t).
∞ ∞
Z [e − at x(t )] = ∑ x(kT )e − akT .z − k =∑ x(kT )( ze aT ) − k
k =0 k =0
= χ(zeaT)
Example 3
Obtain the z transfer of e-at sin ωt and e-at cos ωt.
we know that
z -1 . sin ωT
Z [sin ωt] =
1 − 2 z −1 cos ωT + z − 2
e − aT .z −1 . sin ωT
Z [e − at . sin ωt ] = .
1 − 2e − aT z −1 . cos ωT + e − 2 aT .z − 2
Similarly
1 − z −1 . cos ωT
Z [cos ωt ] =
1 − 2 z −1 . cos ωT + z − 2
1 − e − aT z −1 . cos ωT
Z [e − at . cos ωt ] =
1 − 2e − aT .z −1 cos ωT + e − 2 aT z − 2
Example 4
Obtain the z-transfer of t e-at
Tz −1
Z [t ] =
(1 − z −1 ) 2
Then
− at Te − aT .z −1
Z [te ] =
(1 − e − aT .z −1 ) 2
11.7 Initial value theorem
If χ(z) is the z-transfer of χ(t), then the initial value x(0) is given by
x(0) = lim X ( z ) (42)
z →∞
Proof
∞
x( z ) = ∑ x(k ).z − k = x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z − 2 + .... (43)
k =0
Letting z → ∞ in equation (43).

lim x( z ) = lim[ x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x( 2) z −2 + .........]
z →∞ z →∞
17
∴ x(0) = lim X ( z )
z →∞
Example 4
Find the initial value χ(0), if the z-transfer of x(t) is given by
(1 − e −T ) z −1
x( z ) =
(1 − z −1 )(1 − e −T z −1 )
By initial value theorem
(1 − e −T ) z −1
x(0) = lim =0
z →∞ (1 − z −1 )(1 − e −T z −1 )
11.8 Final value theorem
lim x(k ) = lim[(1 − z −1 ) X ( z )] (44)
k →∞ z →1
Proof
∞
z[ x(k )] = X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z − k (45)
k =0
∞
z[ x(k − 1)] = z −1 X ( z ) = ∑ x(k − 1) z − k (46)
k =0
Subtracting equation (46) from equation (45).
∞ ∞
∑ x(k ) z
k =0
−k
− ∑ x(k − 1) z − k = x( z ) − z −1 X ( z )
k =0
Taking the limit as z approaches unity on both sides
⎡∞ ⎤
[ ]
∞
lim ⎢∑ x(k ) z − k − ∑ x(k − 1) z − k ⎥ = lim (1 − z −1 ) X ( z )
z →1
⎣ k =0 k =0 ⎦ z →1
Applying the limit and expanding the left side of the above equation
∞
∑ [ x(k ) − x(k − 1)] = [ x(0) − x(−1)] + [ x(1) − x(0)] + [ x(2) − x(1)] + ....... = x(∞) = lim x(k )
k =0
k →∞
∴ lim x(k ) = lim[(1 − z −1 ) Z ( z )] (47)

k →∞ z →1
Important properties and theorems of the transform

x(t) or x(k) Z[x(t)] or Z[x(k)]
1. ax(t) aX(z)
2. ax1(t) + bx2(t) aX1(z)+bX2(z)
3. x(t + T) or x(k + 1) zX(z) – zx(0)
4. x(t + 2T) z2X(z) - z2x(0) - zx(T)
5. x(k + 2) z2 X(z) – z2x(0) – zx(1)
6. x(t + kT) zk X(z) - zkx(0) – zk-1x(T)....-zx(kT-T)
7. x(t – kT) z-kX(z)
8. x(n + k) zkX(z)-zkx(0)-zk-1x(1)-…….-zx(k – 1)
18
9. x(n – k) z-kX(z)
10. tx(t) d
− Tz X (z )
dz
11. kx(k) d
−z X (z )
dz
12. e-at x(t) X(zeaT)
13. e-ak x(k) X(zea)
14. ak x(k) ⎛z⎞
X⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
15. kak x(k) d ⎛z⎞

−z X⎜ ⎟
dz ⎝ a ⎠
16. x(0) lim X ( z ) if the limit exists

z →∞
17. x(∞) lim(1 − z −1 ) X ( z ) if (1 – z-1) X(z) is analytic on and

z →1
outside the unit circle

18. ∇x(k ) = x(k) – x(k-1) (1 – z-1) X(z)
19. ∆x(k) = x(k+1) – x(k) (z – 1) X(z) – zx(0)
20. n 1
∑ x(k ) 1 − z −1
X ( z)
k =0
21. ∂ ∂
x(t , a ) X ( z, a)
∂a ∂a
22. kmx(k) m
⎛ d ⎞
⎜ − z ⎟ X (z )
⎝ dz ⎠
23. n X(z) Y(z)

∑ x(kT ) y(nT − kT )
k =0
24. ∞ X(1)
∑ x(k )
k =0
Example 5
Determine the final value x(∞) for the function
1 1
x( z ) = −1
− − aT −1
for a > 0
1− z 1− e z
19
Solution
[
x(∞) = lim (1 − z −1 ) X ( z )
z →1
]
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
= lim ⎢(1 − z −1 )⎜ − ⎟
z →1
⎣ ⎝1− z
−1
1 − e z ⎠⎥⎦
− aT −1
⎡ 1 − z −1 ⎤
= lim ⎢1 − − aT −1 ⎥
=1
z →1
⎣ 1− e z ⎦
Example 6
Obtain the z-transfer of Gk, where G is an n × n constant matrix.
Solution
∞
Z [G k ] = ∑ G k .z − k
k =0
= I + Gz −1 + G 2 z −2 + G 3 z −3 + ...
= ( I − Gz −1 ) −1
= (ZI-G)-1 Z.
Example 7
Find the z-transform of (i) k2 (ii) kak-1
Solution
(i) x(k) = k2
Multiply the given discrete sequence by a discrete unit-step sequence
x(k) = k2 x(k)
where x(k) is unit-step sequence.
By the property of z – transfer.
m
⎡ d⎤
Z [k x(k )] = ⎢− z ⎥ X ( z )
m
⎣ dz ⎦
z
Z [ x(k )] = (unit − step)
z −1
d ⎡ d ⎡ z ⎤⎤ ⎡ z −1− z ⎤ z
− z X ( z) = − z ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ = −z⎢ 2 ⎥
=
⎣ dz ⎣ z − 1⎦ ⎦ ⎣ ( z − 1) ⎦ ( z − 1)
2
dz
2
⎡ d⎤ d ⎡ d ⎤
⎢⎣− z dz ⎥⎦ X ( z ) = − z dz ⎢⎣− z dz X ( z )⎥⎦
d ⎡ z ⎤ ⎡ ( z − 1) 2 − z.2( z − 1) ⎤
= −z ⎢ ⎥ = − z ⎢ ⎥
dz ⎣ ( z − 1) 2 ⎦ ⎣ ( z − 1) 4 ⎦
⎡ (z − 1)(z − 1 − 2z) ⎤ ⎡ − (z + 1) ⎤
= − z⎢ ⎥ = −z ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎣ (2 − 1) 4
⎦ ⎣ (z − 1) ⎦
z(z + 1)
=
(z − 1)3
(ii) x(k) = kak-1
z
We know that Z[a k ] =
z−a
Or
20
∞
z
∑a z
k =0
k −k
=
z−a
Expending the left side of the equation
z
1 + az −1 + a 2 z − 2 + a 3z − 3 + ... =
z−a
Differentiating both sides of the above equation with respect to z
( z − a) × 1 − z × 1 −a
− az − 2 − 2a 2 z −3 − 3a 3 z − 4 .... = =
( z − a) 2
( z − a) 2
On multiplying both side by (-z/a), we get
z
z −1 + 2az − 2 + 3a 2 z −3 + ... =
( z − a) 2
The left side of the infinite series can be expressed as summation and can be written as
follows.
∞
z
∑
k =0
ka k −1.z − k =
(z − a ) 2
This is
z
Z[ka k −1 ] =
(z − a ) 2
Example 8
⎡k ⎤ 1
Show that (i) Z ⎢∑ x ( h) ⎥ = −1
X ( z)
⎣ h =0 ⎦ 1− z
⎡ h −1 ⎤ z −1
(ii) Z ⎢∑ x ( h) ⎥ = −1
X ( z)
⎣ h =0 ⎦ 1− z
Solution
k
(i) Let y(k ) = ∑ x (h ) k = 0, 1, 2, 3…. (48)
h =0
So that
y(0) = x(0)
y(1) = x(0) + x(1)
y(2) = x(0) + x(1) + x(2)
y(k) = x(0) + x(1) + x(2) + …. + x(k)
Then
Y(k) – y(k – 1) = x(k)
Taking z-transform respectively
Y(z) – z-1Y(z) = X(z)
Y(z) [1 – z-1] = X(z)
1
Y(z) = X (2)
1 − z −1
⎡k ⎤ 1
∴ Z ⎢∑ x(h)⎥ = Z [ y (k )] = Y ( z ) = X ( z ). (49)
⎣ h =0 ⎦ 1 − z −1
(ii) By shifting theorem
Z [x(t – nT)] = Z-n X(z)
Therefore
21
⎡ k −1 ⎤ 1
Z ⎢∑ x(h)⎥ = Z [ y (k − 1)] = z −1Y ( z ) = X ( z)
⎣ h =0 ⎦ 1 − z −1
Example 9
∞
⎡k ⎤ 1 ⎡ i −1
⎤
Show that (i) ∑ x(k ) = lim X ( z ) and (ii) Z ⎢∑ x(h)⎥ = −1 ⎢ X ( z ) − ∑ x ( h) z − h ⎥
k =0
z →1
⎣ h =i ⎦ 1− z ⎣ h =0 ⎦
Solution
(i) Consider the equation (48)
k
y( k ) = ∑ x ( h ) , k = 0, 1, 2, 3…
h =0
Take lim on both sides, then the equation become

k →∞
⎡k ⎤
lim y(k ) = lim ⎢∑ x (h )⎥
k →∞ k →∞
⎣h =0 ⎦
By equation (49)
⎡k ⎤ 1
Z ⎢∑ x(h)⎥ = Z [ y (k )] = Y ( z ) = X ( z)
⎣ h =0 ⎦ 1 − z −1
Therefore using final value theorem
⎡k ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
lim y (k ) = lim ⎢∑ x(h)⎥ = lim ⎢(1 − z −1 ). −1
X ( z )⎥
k →∞ k →∞
⎣ h=0 ⎦ z →1
⎣ 1− z ⎦
∞ ∞
∑ x(h) = ∑ x(k ) = lim X ( z )

h =0 k =0
z →1
(ii)
k
Define y (k ) = ∑ x(h) = x(i) + x(i + 1) + ... + x(k ) where 1 ≤ i ≤ k – 1
h =i
Also define
X ( z ) = x(i) z −1 + x(i + 1) z −1(i +1) + ... + x(k ) z − k + ...
And
∞
X ( z ) = Z [ x(t )] = ∑ x(k ) z − k = x(0) + x(1) z −1Tx(2) z − 2 + ...
k =0
we get
i −1
X ( z ) = X ( z ) − ∑ x ( h) z − h
h =0
Since
y (k ) − y (k − 1) = x(k ) k = i, i+1, i+2,i+3....
The z-transfer of the above equation is
Y ( z ) − z −1 Y ( z ) = X ( z )
Since the z-transform of χ(k) which begins with k = i, is X ( z ) and not = X ( z )
⎡k ⎤ 1 1 ⎡ i −1
⎤
Z ⎢∑ x ( h) ⎥ = Y ( z ) = −1
X = ⎢ X ( z ) − ∑ x ( h) z − h ⎥
⎣ h =i ⎦ 1− z 1 − z −1 ⎣ h =0 ⎦
Example 10
Find the z-transfer of an output with T = 1 sec for the sampled values given below:
x(0) = 0; x(1) = 0.25; x(2) = 0.50; x(3) = 0.75 and x(k) = 1 for k = 4, 5, 6....
22
∞
We know X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z − k
k =0
= 0.25 z-1 + 0.50 z-2 + 0.75 z-3 + z-4 + z-5 + z-6 +.....
⎛ 1 ⎞
= 0.25 (z-1 + 2z-2 + 3z-3) + z-4 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − z −1 ⎠
z −1 + 2 z −2 + 3z −3 z −4
= +
4 1 − z −1
( z −1 + 2 z −2 + 3z −3 )(1 − z −1 ) + 4 z −4
=
4(1 − z −1 )
z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4
=
4(1 − z −1 )
1 z −1 (1 + z −1 + z −2 + z −3 )(1 − z −1 )
=
4 (1 − z −1 ) 2
1 z −1 (1 − z −4 )
=
4 (1 − z −1 ) 2
12. Inverse z - transform
When X(z), the z- transform of x(kT) or x(k), is given, the operation that determines the
corresponding x(kT) or x(k) is called the inverse z-transformation. Four methods are
available for obtaining the inverse z-transform.
1. Direct division method
2. Computational method
3. Partial-fraction-expansion method
4. Inversion integral method
Out of the above mentioned four methods, direct decision method and partial-fraction-
expansion method are commonly used.
12.1 Direct division method

Expanding X(z) into an infinite power series of z-1, we obtain the inverse z-transform. When
it is desired to find only the first several terms of x(k) or when it is difficult to get the closed-
form expression for the inverse z-transform, this method is useful.
The direct decision methods comes from the fact that if X(z) is expanded into a power
series in z-1, that is, if
∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x(kT ) z − k
k =0
= x(0) + x(T ) z −1 + x(2T ) z −2 + ... + x( kT ) z − k + ... …

∞
Or X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z − k
k =0
= x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z −2 + ... + x(k ) z − k + ... …

then x(kT) or x(k) is the coefficient of the z-k term.
The expansion into an infinite power series in increasing power of z-1 can be
accomplished by simply dividing the numerator by the denominator, where both numerator
and dominator of X(z) are written in increasing power of z-1.
23
Example 11
Find x(k) for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 when X(z) is
10 z + 5
X ( z) =
( z − 1)( z − 0.2)
Solution
10 z + 5 10 z + 5
Given that X ( z ) = = 2
( z − 1)( z − 0.2) z − 1.2 z + 0.2 z
Multiply both numerator and denominator by z -2, then the equation become
10 z −1 + 5 z −2
X ( z) =
1 − 1.2 z −1 + 0.2 z − 2
Dividing the numerator by the denominator, we have
10 z −1 + 17 z −2 + 18.4 z −3 + 18.68 z −4
10 z −1 + 5 z − 2
1 − 1.2 z −1 + 0.2 z − 2
10 z −1 − 12 z − 2 + 2 z −3
17z -2 − 2 z −3
17z -2 − 20.4 z −3 + 3.4 z − 4
18.4z -3 − 3.4 z − 4
18.4z -3 − 22.08 z − 4 + 3.68 z −5
18.68z -4 − 3.68 z −5
18.68z -3 − 22.416 z −5 + 3.736 z −6
Thus X(z) = 10z-1 + 17z-2 + 18.4z-3 + 18.68z-4+.......
We get, x(0) = 0 ; x(1) = 10 ; x(2) = 17 ; x(3) = 18.4 and x(4) = 18.68
Example 12
1
Determine the inverse z-transform of X ( z ) =
3 −1 1 − 2
1− z + z
2 2
when (a) Roc: |z| > 1.0 and (b) Roc: |z| < 0.5.
Solution
(a) When Roc: |z| > 1.0
1
X ( z) =
3 −1 1 − 2
1− z + z
2 2
24
3 −1 7 − 2 15 −3 31 − 4
1+ z + z + z + z + ...
2 4 8 16
1
3 −1 1 − 2
1− z + z 3 1
2 2 1 − z −1 + z − 2
2 2
3 −1 1 − 2
z − z
2 2
3 −1 9 − 2 3 −3
z − z + z
2 4 4
7 − 2 3 −3
z − z
4 4
7 − 2 21 − 3 7 − 4
z − z + z
4 8 8
15 − 3 7 − 4
z − z
8 8
15 − 3 45 − 4 15 −5
z − z + z
8 16 10
31 − 4 15 −5
z − z
16 16
#
Thus
3 −1 7 − 2 15 −3 31 − 4
x( z ) = 1 + z + z + z + z ...
2 4 8 16
∞
By comparing with X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z − k
k =0
3 7 15 31
x(0) = 1; x(1) = ; x(2) = ; x(3) = . x(4) = ....
2 4 8 16
(b) When Roc: |z| < 0.5
When region of convergence is less than one, rewrite the denominator polynomial of X(z) in
the reverse order and then the numerator is dvided by the denominator as shown below:
25
2z 2 + 6z 3 + 14z 4 + 30z 5 + 62z 6 + ...

1 − 2 3 −1 1
z − z +1
2 2 1 - 3z + 2z 2
3z - 2z 2
3z - 9z 2 + 6z 3
7z 2 − 6z 3
7z 2 − 21z 3 + 14z 4
15z 3 − 14z 4
15z 3 − 45z 4 + 30z 5
31z 4 − 30z 5
#
X(z) = 2z2+6z3+14z4+30z5+62z6+....
0
Comparing with X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z
k = −∞
−k
x(0) = 0, x(-1) =0; x(-2) =2; x(-3) = 6; x(-4) = 14; x(-5) = 30; x(-6) = 62 .....
12.2 Partial-fraction-expansion method

The partial-fraction expansion method is similar to the partial-fraction-expression method
used in Laplace transform. All terms in the partial fraction expansion method are easily
recognizable in the z-transform table.
To find the inverse z-transform if X(z) has one or more zeroes at the origin (z = 0),
then X(z)/z or X(z) is expended into a sum of simple first-or second-order terms by partial
fractions expansion. Then z-transform table is used to find the corresponding time function of
each expended term. The reason to expand x(z)/z into partial fraction is that each expanded
term has a form that may easily be found from commonly available z-transform tables.
Example 13
1
Determine the inverse z-transform of the following function, (a) X(z) =
−1
1 − 1.5z + 0.5z − 2
z2 1 + z −1 1
(b). X(z) = (c). X(z) = (d). X(z) =
z 2 − z + 0.5 1 − z −1 + 0.5z − 2 (1 + z −1 )(1 − z −1 ) 2
Solution
1
(a) Given that, X(z) =
1 − 1.5z −1 + 0.5z − 2
26
1 1
X(z) = =
1 − 1.5z −1 + 0.5z − 2 1−
1.5 0.5
+ 2
z z
z2 z2
= =
z 2 − 1.5z + 0.5 (z − 1)(z − 0.5)
X(z) z
∴ =
z (z − 1)(z − 0.5)
X(z)
By partial fraction expansion, can be expressed as:
z
X(z) A1 A2
= +
z z − 1 z − 0.5
X(z) z
A1= (z − 1) z =1 = (z − 1)
z (z − 1)(z − 0.5) z =1
z 1
= = =2
( z − 0.5) Z =1
1 − 0.5
X(z) z 0.5
A2= (z − 0.5) z =0.5 = (z − 0.5) = = -1
z (z − 1)(z − 0.5) z = 0.5
0.5 − 1
X(z) 2 1
∴ = −
z z − 1 z − 0.5
2z z
X(z) = −
z − 1 z − 0.5
z z
We know that Z{ak}= and Z{u(k)} =
z−a z −1
On taking inverse z-transform of X(z) we get,
x(k) = 2 u(k) -(0.5)k; k ≥ 0
z2 The roots of the
(b) Given that, X(z) =
2
z − z + 0.5 quadratic
z2 z 2
z2 – z + 0.5 = 0 are
X(z) = =
z 2 − z + 0.5 (z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5)
1 ± 1 − 4 × 0.5
X(z) z z=
∴ = 2
z (z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5)
By partial fraction expansion, we can write, = 0.5 ± j0.5
*
X(z) A A
= +
z z − 0.5 − j0.5 z − 0.5 + j0.5
X(z)
A= (z − 0.5 − j0.5)
z z = 0.5 + j0.5
z
= (z − 0.5 − j0.5)
(z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5) z = 0.5 + j0.5
∴ A = (0.5 – j0.5)
27
∴ A* = (0.5 – j0.5)* = 0.5 + j0.5

X(z) 0.5 − j0.5 0.5 + j0.5
∴ = +
z z − 0.5 − j0.5 z − 0.5 + j0.5
(0.5 − j0.5)z (0.5 + j0.5)z
X(z) = +
z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5)
z
We know that Z{ak} =
z−a
x(k) = (0.5 – j0.5) (0.5 + j0.5)k + (0.5 + j0.5) (0.5 – j0.5)k
⎛ 0.5 ⎞ ⎛ 0.5 ⎞
= − j⎜⎜ + 0.5 ⎟⎟(0.5 + j0.5) k + j⎜⎜ + 0.5 ⎟⎟(0.5 − j0.5) k
⎝ − j ⎠ ⎝ j ⎠
= -j (0.5 + j0.5) (0.5 + j0.5)k + j(0.5 – j0.5) (0.5 – j0.5)k
= -j(0.5 + j0.5)(k+1) + j(0.5 – j0.5)(k+1)
1 + z −1
(c) Given that, X(z) =
1 − z −1 + 0.5z − 2
1
−1 1+
1+ z z
X(z) = =
1 − z −1 + 0.5z − 2 1 0.5
1− + 2
z z The roots of the quadratic
z +1
z2 – z + 0.5 = 0 are
z z(z + 1)
= =
2 2 1 ± 1 − 4 × 0.5
z − z + 0.5 (z − z + 0.5) z =
z2 2
z(z + 1) = 0.5 ± j0.5
=
(z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5)
By partial fraction expansion, we can write,
X(z) (z + 1)
=
z (z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5)
A A
= +
z − 0.5 − j0.5 z − 0.5 + j0.5
X(z)
A= (z − 0.5 − j0.5)
z z = 0.5+ j0.5
(z + 1)
= (z − 0.5 − j0.5)
(z − 0.5 − j0.5)(z − 0.5 + j0.5) z = 0.5 + j0.5
0.5 + j0.5 + 1 1.5 + j0.5
= = = -j1.5 + 0.5 = 0.5– j1.5
0.5 + j0.5 − 0.5 + j0.5 j1
A* = (0.5 – j1.5)* = 0.5 + j1.5
X(z) 0.5 − j1.5 0.5 + j1.5
∴ = +
z z − 0.5 − j0.5 z − 0.5 + j0.5
28
z z
X(z) = (0.5 − j1.5) + (0.5 + j1.5)
z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5)
z
We know that Z{ak} =
z−a
On taking inverse z-transform of F(z) we get,
x(k) = (0.5 – j1.5) (0.5 + j0.5)k + (0.5 + j1.5) (0.5 – j0.5)k; for k ≥ 0
1
(d) Given that, X(z) =
(1 + z )(1 − z −1 ) 2
−1
1 1
X(z) =
−1 −1 2
= 2
(1 + z )(1 − z ) ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ z ⎠⎝ z ⎠
1 z3
= =
(z + 1) ⎛ z − 1 ⎞
2
(z + 1)(z − 1) 2
⎜ ⎟
z ⎝ z ⎠
2
X(z) z
∴ =
z (z + 1)(z − 1) 2
By partial fraction expansion, we can write,
X(z) A1 A2 A
= + + 3
z z + 1 (z − 1) 2
z −1
X(z) z2
A1 = (z + 1) = (z + 1)
z z = −1 (z + 1)(z − 1) 2 z = −1
z2 (−1) 2
= = = 0.25
(z − 1) 2 z = −1
(−1 − 1) 2
X(z) z2
A2 = (z − 1) 2 = (z − 1) 2
z z =1 (z + 1)(z − 1) 2 z = +1
2
z 1
= = = 0.5
z +1 1+1
z =1
d ⎡ F(z) 2⎤ d ⎡ z2 2⎤
A3 = (z − 1) = ⎢ (z − 1) ⎥
dz ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
z =1 dz ⎢⎣ (z + 1)(z − 1) 2 ⎥⎦ z =1
d ⎡ z2 ⎤ (z + 1)2z − z 2
= ⎢ ⎥ =
dz ⎣⎢ z + 1⎦⎥ (z + 1) 2
z =1 z =1
(1 + 1) × 2 − 1 3
= = = 0.75
(1 + 1) 2 4
X(z) 0.25 0.5 0.75
∴ = + +
z z + 1 (z − 1) 2 z −1
29
z z z
X(z) = 0.25 + 0.5 + 0.75
z +1 (z − 1) 2 z −1
z z z
= 0.25 + 0.5 + 0.75
z − ( −1) (z − 1) 2 z −1
z ⎪⎧ az ⎫⎪ z
We know that Z{ak} = ; Z⎨ ⎬ = kak and Z{u(k)} =
z−a ⎪⎩ (z − a) 2 ⎪⎭ z −1
x(k) = 0.25(-1)k + 0.5k(1)k + 0.75 u(k)
x(k) = 0.25(-1)k + 0.5k + 0.75 u(k); for k ≥ 0
Example 14
Determine the inverse z-transform of the following z-domain functions.
3z 2 + 2z + 1 3z 2 + 2z + 1
(a) X(z) = (b) X(z) =
z 2 − 3z + 2 z 2 + 3z + 2
z − 0.4 z−4
(c) X(z) = (d) X(z) =
z2 + z + 2 (z − 1)(z − 2) 2
Solution
3z 2 + 2z + 1
(a) Given that, X(z) =
z 2 − 3z + 2
11z − 5 3
X(z)= 3 +
z − 3z + 2
2
3z 2 + 2z + 1
11z − 5 z 2 − 3z + 2
= 3+ 3z 2 − 9z + 6
(z − 1)(z − 2)
11z − 5
By partial fraction expansion we get,
A1 A
X(z) = 3 + + 2
z −1 z − 2
11z − 5 11z − 5 11 − 5
A 1= (z − 1) = = = −6
(z − 1)(z − 2) z =1
(z − 2) z =1 1 − 2
11z − 5 11z − 5 11 × 2 − 5
A 2= (z − 2) = = = 17
(z − 1)(z − 2) z=2
(z − 1) z=2
2 − 1
6 17
∴ X(z) = 3 − +
z −1 z − 2
1 z 1 z
= 3−6 + 17
z z −1 zz−2
z z
= 3 − 6z −1 + 17z −1
z −1 z−2
z z
We know that, Z{δ(k)} = 1; Z{u(k)} = and Z{ak} = .
z −1 z−a
By time shifting property we get,
30
z z
Z{u(k – 1)} = z −1 and Z{a(k – 1)} = z −1
z −1 z−a
x(k) = 3 δ(k) – 6u(k – 1) + 17(2)(k – 1) u(k – 1); for k ≥ 0
Note:The term 2(k – 1) is multiplied by u(k – 1), because this term have samples only after k ≥ 1.
3z 2 + 2z + 1 3
(b) Given that, X(z) =
z 2 + 3z + 2 3z 2 + 2z + 1
z 2 + 3z + 2
3z 2 + 2z + 1 7z + 5 3z 2 − 9z + 6
X(z) = = 3− 2
z 2 + 3z + 2 z + 3z + 2 − 7z − 5
7z + 5
= 3−
(z + 1)(z + 2)
A1 A
X(z) = 3 − − 2
z +1 z + 2
7z + 5 7z + 5 7 × (−1) + 5
A1 = (z + 1) = = = −2
(z + 1)(z + 2) z = −1
(z + 2) z = −1
− 1 + 2
7z + 5 7z + 5 7 × (−2) + 5
A2 = (z + 2) = = =9
(z + 1)(z + 2) z = −2
z + 1 z = −2 − 2 + 1
2 9
∴ X(z) = 3 + −
z +1 z + 2
1 z 1 z
= 3+ 2 −9
z z − (−1) z z − (−2)
z z
= 3 + 2z −1 − 9z −1
z − ( −1) z − (−2)
z
We know that, Z{δ(k)} = 1 and Z{ak} =
z−a
By time shifting property,
z
Z{a(k – 1)} = z −1
z−a
f(k) = 3δ(k) + 2(-1)(k – 1) u(k – 1) + 9(-2)(k – 1) u(k – 1); for k ≥ 0
(k – 1)
Note: The term a is multiplied by u(k – 1), because these terms have samples only after
k ≥ 1.
z − 0.4 The roots of the quadratic
(c) Given that, X(z) =
z2 + z + 2 z2 + z + 2 = 0 are
z − 0.4 -1 ± 1 − 4 × 2
X(z) = z=
2
z +z+2 2
7
= -0.5 ± j
2
31
z − 0.4
=
7 7
(z + 0.5 − j )(z + 0.5 + j )
2 2
A A*
X(z) = +
7 7
z + 0.5 − j z + 0.5 + j
2 2
z − 0.4 7
A= (z + 0.5 − j )
7 7 2
(z + 0.5 − j )(z + 0.5 + j ) 7
2 2 z = −0.5 + j
2
7
− 0.5 + j − 0.4
z − 0.4 2
= =
7 7 7
(z + 0.5 + j ) 7
− 0.5 + j + 0.5 + j
2 z = −0.5 + j 2 2
2
7 7
− 0.9 + j j
= 2 = − 0.9 + 2 = 0.5 + j 0.9 = 0.5 + j0.34
j 7 j 7 j 7 7
∴A* = (0.5 + j0.34)* = 0.5 – j0.34
0.5 + j0.34 0.5 − j0.34
∴ X(z) = +
7 7
z + 0.5 − j z + 0.5 + j
2 2
1 z 1 z
= (0.5 + j0.34) + (0.5 − j0.34)
z 7 z 7
z + 0.5 − j z + 0.5 + j
2 2
z z
= (0.5 + j0.34)z −1 + (0.5 − j0.34)z −1
7 7
z − (−0.5 + j ) z − (−0.5 − j )
2 2
z z
We know that, Z{ak} = and by time shifting property we get, Z{a(k – 1)} = z −1
z−a z−a
7 (k – 1) 7 (k – 1)
x(k) = (0.5 + j0.34) (-0.5 + j ) u(k – 1) + (0.5 – j0.34) (-0.5 - j ) u(k – 1);
2 2
for k ≥ 0
Note: Since the term a(k – 1) is valid only for k ≥ 1, it is multiplied by u(k – 1).
z−4
(d) Given that, X(z) =
(z − 1)(z − 2) 2
32
z−4 A1 A2 A3
X(z) = = + +
(z − 1)(z − 2) 2 z − 1 (z − 2) 2 (z − 2)
z−4 z−4 1− 4
A1 = (z − 1) = = = −3
(z − 1)(z − 2) 2 z =1
(z − 2) 2 z =1
(1 − 2) 2
z−4 z−4 2−4
A2 = 2
(z − 2) 2 = = = −2
(z − 1)(z − 2) z − 1 z=2 2 − 1
z=2
d ⎡ z−4 2⎤ d ⎡z − 4⎤
A3 = ⎢ (z − 2) ⎥ =
dz ⎢⎣ (z − 1)(z − 2) 2 ⎥⎦ dz ⎢⎣ z − 1 ⎥⎦ z = 2
z=2
(z − 1) − (z − 4) 3 3
=
2
=
2
= =3
(z − 1) z=2
(z − 1) z=2
(2 − 1) 2
−3 2 3 1 z 1 2z 1 z
∴ X(z) = − + = −3 − + 3
z − 1 (z − 2) 2 z − 2 z z − 1 z (z − 2) 2 z z−2
z 2z −1 z
= − 3z −1 − z −1 + 3z
z −1 (z − 2) 2 z−2
z z az
We know that, Z{u(k)} = ; Z{ak} = and Z{kak} =
z −1 z−a (z − a) 2
By time shifting property we get,
z z az
Z{u(k – 1)} = z −1 ; Z{a(k – 1)} = z −1 and Z{(k – 1)a(k – 1)} = z −1
z −1 z−a (z − a) 2
x(k) = -3u(k – 1) – (k – 1) 2(k – 1) u(k – 1) + 3(2)(k – 1) u(k – 1)
Note: Since the term a(k – 1) is valid only for k ≥ 1, it is multiplied by u(k – 1).
13. Mapping between s-plane and z-plane.

Consider a continuous signal x(t) which has discrete value x(kT) at a sampling rate 1/T. The
z-transform of this discrete value is
∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x(kT ) z − k (50)
k =0
The Laplace transform of the impulse sampled signal
∞
X ( s ) = ∑ x(kT )e − ksT (51)
k =0
Comparing equation (50) and (51)
1
If we let z = esT (or) s = log z
T
∞ 1
− KT log Z
Then X ( s ) = ∑ x(kT )e T
k =0
∞ ∞
∑x(kT)e = ∑x(kT)elogZ
−K
−K logZ
=
k =0 k =0
33
∞
X ( s ) = ∑ x(kT ) z − k = X ( z ) .
k =0
It is obvious that the z-transfer of a discrete sequence can be obtained form the Laplace
1
transforms of its impulse sampled version by choosing s = log z . Consider the mapping of
T
jω-axis in the s-plane i.e.,
if z = eST
Substituting s = jω, then
z = ejωT
2πω
j 2π
or z=e ωs (Since ωs = )
T
⎛ω ⎞
= 1 ∠2π ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ωs ⎠
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ jω ⎞
Thus the section (− jω s / 2) − ⎜ − j s ⎟ − 0 − ⎜ j n ⎟ − ⎜ s ⎟ maps into the unit circle in the
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
−π π
anticlockwise direction. (-π, , 0, , π) as shown is fig. 6. In fact every function of the
2 2
jω-axis which is integral submultiples of ωs. maps into the unit circle. This suggest that the s-
plane stability criterion of the poles of s-transfer function lying the left half of the s-plane will
become the z-plane stability criterion that all poles of the z-transfer function could lie within
the unit circle
Figure 6 Relation between the s- and z-domains

14. Pulse transfer function
For a discrete system the output response, y(t) can be written by its weighting function g(t)
and it’s input x(t) as:
y(t) = g(t) x(0) + g(t – T) x(T) + g(t – 2T) x(2T) + … + g(t – kT) x(kT) (52)
k
= ∑ g ( t − hT) x (hT ) for 0 ≤ t ≤ kT. (53)
h =0
The value of the output y(t) at the sampling instant t = kT (k = 0, 1, 2…) are given by
34
k
y(kT ) = ∑ g (kT − hT ) x (hT ) (54)
h =0
Where g(kT) is the system weighting sequence.
Since x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and g(kT – hT) = 0 for h > k, we may assume that the value of h in
equation (54), can be taken from 0 to ∞ rather than from 0 to k. Therefore equation (54)
becomes
∞
y(kT ) = ∑ g (kT − hT ) x (hT )
h =0
∞
The z-transfer of y(kT) is Y(z) = ∑ y(kT ).z
K =0
−k
∞ ∞
Substituting for y(kT) Y ( z ) = ∑∑ g (kT − hT ) x(hT ).z − k
k =0 h =0
∞ ∞
Let k – h = m, then, Y ( z ) = ∑∑ g (mT ) x(hT ).z −( m + h )
k =0 h =0
∞ ∞
= ∑ g (mT ) z −m .∑ x(hT ) z −h
m=− h h =0
(56)
Since we consider only one sided z-transform the lower limit of the first summation
becomes m = 0, then the equation (56) becomes
∞ ∞
Y ( z ) = ∑ g (mT ) z − m .∑ x(hT ).z − h = G ( z ). X ( z )
m =0 h =0
Y ( z)
= G ( z ). (57)
X ( z)
The ratio of the output Y(z) and the input X(z), is called the pulse transfer function of
the discrete-time system.
15. Pulse transfer function of cascaded system
Figure 7(a) Sampler between cascade element G(s) and H(s)

(b) No sampler between cascade element G(s) and H(s)
Consider the system shown in fig 7a. From the diagram we obtain,
U(s) = G(s) X*(s) (58)
Y(s) = H(s) U*(s) (59)
35
Where X*(s) is the Laplace transfer of the sampled signal. By taking the starred Laplace
transform of the above two equation, we get
U*(s) = G*(s) X*(s) (60)
Y*(s) = H*(s) U*(s) (61)
Substituting equation (60) in equation (61)
Y*(s) = H*(s) G*(s). X*(s)
Or
Y*(s) = G*(s). H*(s). X*(s).
In term of z transform
Y(z) = G(z) H(z). X(z).
The pulse transfer function between the output y*(t) and input x*(t) in given by
Y ( z)
= G( z) H ( z)
X ( z)
Note: Take z-transfer of G(s) and H(s) individually and then multiply.
Now consider the system shown in fig 7b. From the diagram since there is no samples
between G(s) and H(s).
Y(s) = G(s) H(s) X*(s) = GH(s) X* (s).
Taking starred Laplace transform of Y(s).
Y*(s) = [GH(s)]* x*(s).
In term of z transform
Y(z) = GH(z) X (z).
The pulse transfer function between the output y*(t) and input x*(t) is.
Y ( z)
= GH ( z ) = z[GH ( s )]
X ( z)
Note: First multiply G(s) and H(s) and then take z- transform
G(z) H(z) ≠ GH(z)
Example 15
Consider the system shown in fig (8a) and (8b). Obtain the pulse transfer function Y(z)/X(z)
for each of these two systems.
Figure 8a. Sampler between G(s) and H(s) and 8b. No sampler between G(s) and H(s).
For the system shown in fig 8a, where there is a sampler between G(s) and H(s)
36
Y ( z) Y ( z) U ( z)
= = H ( z ).G ( z )
X ( z) U ( z) X ( z)
Hence
Y ( z) ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
= G ( z ).H ( z ) =
z⎢ .z
X ( z) ⎣ s + a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ s + b ⎥⎦
1 1
= .
1 − e z 1 − e −bT z −1
−aT −1
z2
=
(z − e −aT )(z − e −bT )
Note: Take z-transform first and then multiply.
For the system shown in fig 8b, where there is no sampler between G(s) and H(s).
1 1 ⎡ A B ⎤
GH ( s ) = . and Z [GH ( s )] = Z ⎢ +
( s + a ) ( s + b) ⎣ s + a s + b ⎥⎦
1 1
A= × (s + a) S =− a =
( s + a )( s + b) b−a
1 1 −1
B= × ( S + b) s = − b = =
( s + a )( s + b) a−b b−a
⎡ 1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎤
Substituting the values of A and B Z [GH ( s )] = z ⎢ ⎢ − ⎥⎥
⎣ b − a ⎣ s + a s + b ⎦⎦
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ z z ⎤
= ⎢ − −1
− − − 1 ⎥ = ⎢ −
− − ⎥
b − a ⎣1 − e zaT
1− e z ⎦ b − a ⎣z − e
bT aT
z−e bT
⎦
− aT −bT
Y ( z) z ⎡ z−e − z+e
− bT − aT
⎤ z (e −e )
= GH ( z ) = ⎢ ⎥ = .
X ( z) b − a ⎣ ( z − e − aT )( z − e −bT ) ⎦ (b − a)( z − e − aT )( z − e −bT )
(Note: First multiply in s-domain and then take z-transfer)
Clearly, we see that the pulse transfer function of the two systems are different; that is
G(z)H(z) ≠ GH(z).
16. Pulse Transfer function of closed-loop systems.

Consider the closed-loop control system shown in fig 9. In this system, the error signal is
sampled.
Figure 9 Closed-loop control system

From the block diagram
E(s) = R(s) – H(s) C(s)
C(s) = G(s) . E*(s).
Where E*(s) sampled signal
Hence
E(s) = R(s) – H(s). G(s). E*(s).
37
Taking starred Laplace transfer i.e., the laplace transfer of discrete signal.
E*(s) = R*(s) – GH*(s) E*(s)
(Note: Since there is no star between H(s) and G(s). H(s).G(s) = GH(s) i.e., we can multiply
in s-domain itself)
R * ( s)
Re-arranging E * ( s) =
1 + GH * ( s )
Since C * ( s) = G * (s) E * (s) .
G * ( s ).R * ( s )
C * ( s) =
1 + GH * ( s )
G ( z ).R( z )
Taking z-transfer C ( z) =
1 + GH ( z )
C ( z) G( z)
Closed-loop pulse transfer function is given by =
R ( s ) 1 + GH ( z )
Table 3 show five typical configurations for closed-loop discrete-time control systems.
38
Example 16
Obtain the discrete-time output C(z) of the closed loop transfer function of the system shown
in fig 10.
Figure 10 Discrete – time control system

C(s) = G2(s) M*(s).
Where M*(s) is the impulse sampled signal.
M(s) = G1(s) E(s).
But E(s) = R(s) – H(s) C(s).
Now M(s) = G1(s) [R(s) – H(s) C(s)]
Substituting for C(s)
M(s) = G1(s) R(s) – G1(s) H(s) G2(s) M*(s)
Taking Laplace transfer of the impulse sampled signal (starred Laplace transform)
M*(s) = [G1R(s)]* - [G1G2 H(s)]*M*(s)
[G1R ( s )] *
M*(s) =
1 + [G1G2 H ( s )] *
G2* ( s )[G1R( s )] *
C*(s) = G2* ( s ) M * ( s ) =
1 + [G1G2 H ( s )] *
G ( z )G1R ( z )
In term of z-transform C ( z) = 2
1 + G1G2 H ( z )
Example 17
Obtain the closed-loop pulse transfer function C(z)/R(z) for the system shown in fig 11.
Figure 11 Discrete-time control system.

C(s) = G2(s) M*(s)
M(s) = G1(s) E*(s)
E(s) = R(s) – H(s) C(s) = R(s) – H(s) G2(s) M*(s)
39
Taking starred Laplace transform for the above equations

C*(s) = G2* ( s ) M * ( s )
M*(s) = G1* ( s ) E * ( s )
E*(s) = R * ( s ) − HG2* ( s ) M * ( s )
Substituting for M*(s) and E*(s)
C * ( s ) = G 2* ( s ) G1* ( s )[ R * ( s ) − HG2* ( s ) M * ( s )]
= G1* ( s )G2* ( s ) R * ( s ) − G1* ( s )G2* ( s ) HG2* ( s ) M * ( s )
= G1* ( s )G2* ( s ) R * ( s ) − G1* ( s ) HG2* ( s )C * ( s ) .
Re arranging the alone equation
C * ( s )[1 + G1* ( s ) HG2* ( s )] = G1* ( s )G2* ( s ).R * ( s )
C * ( s) G1* ( s )G2* ( s )
=
R * ( s ) 1 + G1* ( s ) HG2* ( s )
C ( z) G1 ( z )G2 ( z )
Table z – transfer =
R( z ) 1 + G1 ( z ) HG ( z )
Example 18
For the system shown in fig 12, find the response to unit step input where G(s) = 1/(s+1)
R(s) E(s) E*(s) C(s)

+ ZoH G(s)
- T = 1 sec
Figure 12 Discrete-time control system

From the diagram
E(s) = R(s) – C(s)
C(s) = Go(s). G(s). E*(s) where ZoH = Go(s).
The starred Laplace transform for the above equation is given by
C*(s) = GoG(s)*. E*(s).
E(s) = R(s) – GoG(s). E*(s).
Taking starred Laplace Transform
E*(s) = R*(s) – GoG(s)*. E*(s)
R * ( s)
E * ( s) =
1 + GoG ( s ) *
GoG ( s ) * .R * ( s )
Substituting C * ( s) =
1 + GoG ( s ) *
Taking z-transform
GoG ( z ).R ( z )
C ( z) =
1 + GoG ( z )
or
40
C ( z) GoG ( z )
=
R ( z ) 1 + GoG ( z )
⎡1 − e − sT 1 ⎤
GoG ( z ) = z ⎢ . ⎥
⎣ s ( s + 1) ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡A B ⎤
= (1 − z ) −1 Z ⎢ ⎥ = (1 − z −1 ) z ⎢ +
⎣ s ( s + 1) ⎦ ⎣ s s + 1⎥⎦
By partial fraction
1 A B
= +
s ( s + 1) s s + 1
1 1
A= × s s =0 = s =0 = 1
s ( s + 1) s +1
1 1
B= × ( s + 1) s = −1 = s = −1 = −1
s ( s + 1) s
Substituting
⎡1 1 ⎤
GoG ( z ) = (1 − z −1 ) z ⎢ −
⎣ s s + 1 ⎥⎦
z −1 ⎡ z z ⎤
= −
z ⎣ z − 1 z − e −T ⎥⎦
⎢
z − 1 ⎡ z ( z − e −1 ) − z ( z − 1) ⎤ 1 − e −1 0.632
since T = 1 sec. = ⎢ ⎥ = =
z ⎢⎣ ( z − 1)( z − e −1 ) ⎥⎦ z − 0.368 z − 0.368
Input to the system is unit-step input
z
R( z ) =
z −1
GoG ( z )
C ( z) = × R( z )
1 + GoG ( z )
⎛ 0.632 ⎞ z
⎜ ⎟
⎝ z − 0.368 ⎠ z − 1 0.632 z 0.632 z
= = =
0.632 ( z − 1)( z − 0.368 + 0.632) ( z − 1)( z + 0.264)
1+
z − 0.368
c( z ) A B
= +
z ( z − 1) ( z + 0.264)
0.632 0.632 0.632
A= × ( z − 1) z =1 = = = 0.5
( z − 1)( z + 0.264) z + 0.264 1.264
0.632 0.632
B= ( z + 0.264) z = −0.264 = z = 0.364 = −0.5
( z − 1)( z + 0.264) z −1
C ( z ) 0 .5 0 .5
= −
z z − 1 z + 0.264
z z
C ( z ) = 0 .5 − 0 .5
z −1 z − ( −0.264)
C(k) = 0.5 – 0.5 (-0.264)k = 0.5 [1 – (-0.264)k].
41
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is sampled data control system?

When the signal or information at any or some points in a system is in the form of
discrete pulses, then the system is called discrete data system or sampled data system.
2. When the control system is called sampled data system?
The control system becomes a sampled data system in any one of the following
situations.
1. When a digital computer or microprocessor or digital device is employed as a part
of the control loop.
2. When the control components are used on time sharing basis.
3. When the control signals are transmitted by pulse modulation.
4. When the output or input of a component in the system is digital or discrete signal.
3. Draw the block diagram of a sampled data control system.
Fig. 3.5: Sampled – data control system
4. Distinguish between discrete time systems and continuous time systems.

The discrete time systems are devices or algorithm that can process (or operate on)
discrete – time signals, whereas the continuous time systems are devices that can
process (or operator on) analog signals. The input and output signals of discrete –
time systems are digital or discrete, but the input and output signals of continuous
time systems are analog or continuous time signals.
5. Write the advantages and disadvantages of sampled data control systems.
Advantages of sampled data control system
1. Systems are highly accurate, fast and flexible.
2. Use of time sharing concept of digital computer results in economical cost and
space.
3. Digital transducers used in the system have better resolution.
4. The digital components are less affected by noise, non – linearities and
transmission errors of noisy channel.
Disadvantages of sampled data control system
1. Conversion of analog signals to discrete-time signals and reconstruction
introduce noise and errors in the signal.
2. Additional filters have to be introduced in the system if the component of the
system does not have adequate filtering characteristics.
6. What is a digital controller?

A digital controller is a device introduced in the control system to modify the error
signal for better control action. The digital controller can be a special purpose
computer (microprocessor based system) or a general purpose computer or it is
constructed using non – programmable digital devices.
42
7. Compare the analog and digital controller.
Analog Controller Digital Controller

1. Complex 1. Simple
2. Costlier than digital controller 2. Less costlier than analog controller.
3. Slow acting 3. Fast acting
4. Non – programmable 4. Programmable
5. Separate controller should be 5. A single controller can be used to
employed for each control signal control more than one signal on time
shared basis.
8. What are the advantages of digital controllers?
1. The digital controllers can perform large and complex computation with any
desired degree of accuracy at very high speed.
2. The digital controllers are easily programmable and so they are more versatile.
3. Digital controllers have better resolution.
9. Explain the terms sampling and sampler.
Sampling is a process in which the continuous- time signal (or analog signal) is
converted into a discrete-time signal by taking samples of the continuous time signal
at discrete time instants. Sampler is a device which performs the process of sampling.
10. What is periodic sampling?
The periodic sampling is a sampling process in which the discrete time signal or
sequence is obtained by taking samples of continuous time signal periodically or
uniformly at intervals of T seconds. Here T is called sampling period and 1/T = Fs is
called sampling frequency.
11. State (shanon’s) sampling theorem.
Sampling theorem states that a band limited continuous-time signal with highest
frequency fm, hertz can be uniquely recovered from its samples provided that the
sampling rate Fs is greater than or equal to 2fm samples per second.
12. What is meant by quantization?
The process of converting a discrete-time continuous valued signal into a discrete-
time discrete valued signal is called quantization. In quantization the value of each
signal sample is represented by a value selected from a finite set of possible values
called quantization levels.
13. What is coding?
The coding is the process of representing each discrete value by a n-bit binary
sequence (or code or number).
14. What are hold circuits?

Hold circuits are devices used to convert discrete time signals to continuous time
signals.
15. What is zero – order hold?
The zero-order hold is a hold circuit in which the signal is reconstructed such that the
value of reconstructed signal for a sampling period is same as the value of last
received sample.
16. What is first-order hold?
The first-order hold is a hold circuit in which the last two signal samples (current and
previous sample) are used to reconstruct the signal for the current sampling period.
43
The reconstructed signal will be a straight line in a sampling period, whose slope is
determined by the current sample and previous sample.
17. Define acquisition time.
In analog to digital conversion process, the acquisition time is defined as the total
time required for obtaining a signal sample and the time for quantizing and coding. It
is also called conversion time.
18. Define aperture time.
The duration of sampling the signal is called aperture time.
19. Define settling time.
In digital to analog conversion process the settling time is defined as the time required
for the output of the D/A converter to reach and remain within a given fraction of the
final value, after application of input code word.
20. What is “Hold mode droop”?
The changes in signal voltage level in the hold circuits during hold mode (or hold
period) is called hold mode droop.
21. What are the problems encountered in a practical hold circuit?
The problems encountered in practical hold circuit are:
1. Errors in the periodicity of sampling process.
2. Nonlinear variations in the duration of sampling aperture.
3. Droop (changes) in the voltage held during conversion.
22. How the high frequency noise signals in the reconstructed signal are eliminated?
The high frequency noise signals (or unwanted signals) introduced by hold circuits in
the reconstructed signal are easily filtered out by the various elements of the control
system, because the control system is basically a low – pass filter.
23. What is discrete sequence?
A discrete sequence or discrete time signal, f(k) is a function of independent variable,
k, which is an integer.
A two sided discrete-time signal f(k) is defined for every integer value of k in the
range -∞ < k < ∞.
A one sided causal discrete-time signal f(k) is defined for every integer value of k in
the range of 0 ≤ k < ∞.
A one sided anticausal discrete-time signal f(k) is defined for every integer value of k
in the range of -∞ < k ≤ 0.
24. Define one sided and two – sided z-transform.
The z-transform (two-sided z-transform) of a discrete sequence, f(k) is defined as the
power series,
∞
F(z) = Z{f(k)} = ∑ f(k)z -k
k=-∞
where z is a complex variable.
The notation Z{f(k)} is used to denote z-transform of f(k).
The one sided z-transform of f(k) is defined as the power series,
∞
F(z) = Z{f(k)} = ∑ f(k)z -k
k=0
where z is a complex variable.
25. What is region of convergence (ROC)?
The z-transform of a discrete sequence is an infinite power series; hence the z-
transform exists only for those values of z for which the series converges. If F(z) is a
44
z-transform of f(k) then the region of convergence (ROC) of F(z) is the set of all
values of z, for which F(z) attains a finite value.
26. Write the infinite and finite geometric series sum formula.
The infinite geometric series sum formula is
∞ 1
∑ Ck = 1 − C ; Where |C| < 1
k=0
The finite geometric series sum formula is
M-1 M
k = C -1 ; When C ≠ 1
∑ C
C -1
k=0
= M; when C = 1
27. State the final value theorem with regard to z-transform.
If f(k) is causal & stable signal and F(z) exists with z = 1 included in the ROC then
the final value theorem is given by
f(∞) = Lt (1- z -1)F(z) ; where F(z) = Z{f(k)}
z →1
The final value theorem can be applied only if F(z) is analytic for |Z| > 1.
28. State the initial value theorem with regard to z-transform.
If f(k) is a causal signal and F(z) exists then the initial value of the signal is given by
f(0) = Lt F(z) ; where F(z) = Z{f(k)}
z →∞
29. Define z-transform of unit step signal.
The unit step signal, u(k) = 1 for k ≥ 0
The z-transform at u(k) = Z{u(k)}
∞ z
= ∑ z-k =
k=0
z -1
30. Find z-transform of ak.
By the definition of z-transform.
∞ ∞ 1 1 z
Z{ak} = ∑ a k z-k = ∑ (az-1)k = = =
k=0 k=0 1- az-1 1- a / z z - a
31. Find z-transform of e-akT.
By the definition of z-transform, Z{e-akT} is
∞ ∞ 1 1 z
= ∑ e -akT z = ∑ (e-aT z-1)k =
-k = =
-aT
1- e z -1 1- e -aT / z z - e-aT
k=0 k=0
32. What are the different methods available for inverse z-transform?
The inverse z-transform of a function, F(z) can be obtained by any one of the
following methods.
1. Direct evaluation by contour integration (or) complex inversion integral.
2. Partial fraction expansion.
3. Power series expansion.
33. What is linear (time-invariant) discrete time system (LDS)?
A discrete-time system is a device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time signal
called the input or excitation, according to some well-defined rule, to produce another
discrete-time signal called the output or the response of the system.
45
A discrete time system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and it is time
invariant if its input – output relationship do not change with time.
34. What is weighting sequence?
The impulse response of a linear discrete-time system is called weighting sequence.
The impulse response is the output of the system when the input is unit impulse.
35. Explain how a discrete-time signal can be expressed as a summation of impulses.
Multiplication of a discrete signal, r(k) by an nit impulse at some delay m, picks out
the value r(m) of the signal r(k) at k = m, where the unit impulse is non-zero. If we
repeat this multiplication overall possible delays in the range of 0 ≤ m < ∞ and sum
all the product sequences, the result will be a sequence that is equal to the sequence
r(k). Hence r(k) can be expressed as
∞
r(k) = ∑ r(m)δ(k - m)
m=0
36. How the output of a linear discrete-time system (LDS) is related to impulse response?
The output or response c(k) of a linear discrete time system (LDS) is given by
convolution of the input r(k) with the impulse response h(k) of the system. It is
expressed as,
c(k) = r(k) ∗ h(k)
where the symbol ∗ represents convolution operation.
37. What is discrete convolution?
The convolution of two discrete-time signals (or sequences) is called discrete
convolution. The discrete convolution of sequences f1(k) and f2(k) is defined as
∞
c(k) = ∑ f1(m)f 2 (k - m)
m=0
38. Write any two properties of discrete convolution.
The discrete convolution obeys the commutative property and associative property.
Commutative property : r(k) ∗ h(k) = h(k) ∗ r(k)
Associative property : [r(k) ∗ h1(k)] ∗ h2(k) = r(k) ∗ [h1(k) ∗ h2(k)]
39. What is pulse transfer function?
The transfer function of linear discrete time system is called pulse transfer function or
z-transfer function.
It is given by the z-transform of the impulse response of the system. It is also defined
as the ratio of z-transform of output to z-transform of input of the linear discrete time
system
Pulse transfer function = H(z) = C(z) / R(z)
where H(z) = Z{h(k)} = z-transform of impulse response, h(k)
C(z) = z-transform of output of LDS
R(z) = z-transform of input to LDS.
Fig. Q3.40a Pulse sampler with ZOH
40. Sketch the frequency response curve of ZOH device.
The frequency response characteristic curve of ZOH device is shown in Fig.
46
Magnitude response of ZoH device
Phase response of ZOH device
41. When the z-transfer function of the system can be directly obtained from s-domain
transfer function?
When the input to the system is an impulse sampled signal, the z-transfer function can
be directly obtained by taking z-transform of the s-domain transfer function.
42. Give the steps involved in determining the pulse transfer function of G(z) from G(s).
The following are the steps involved in determining the pulse transfer function G(z)
from G(s).
1. Determine g(t) from G(s), where g(t) = L-1[G(s)].
2. Determine the discrete sequence g(kT0 by replacing t by kT in g(kT).
3. Take z-transform of g(kT), which is the required z-transfer function, G(z).
43. How the s-plane is mapped into z-plane? or What is the relation between s and z domain?
The transformation, s = (1/T) ln z maps the s-plane into the z-plane. Every section of
jω axis of length Nωs of s-plane maps into the unit circle in the anticlockwise
direction, where N is an integer and ωs is sampling frequency. Every strip in s-plane
of width ωs, maps into the interior of the unit circle. The mapping of s-plane into z-
plane is shown in Fig.
Mapping of s-plane into z-plane
47

Digital Control System-1

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Digital Control System Dr.V.

Dharmalingam, Prof/SEEE, SASTRA

DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM

2. Advantages of discrete–time or digital control system

Figure 1 Block diagram of a digital control system

Figure 2 Sampling, quantization and coding of an analog signal.

Figure 3 Impulse sampler

Figure 3a Impulse sampled signal

Figure 4 Impulse-sampler as a modulator

The Laplace transform of equation (1) is:

where 0 ≤ τ < T. The signal h(kT) must equal χ(kT)

Figure 5 Output of zero-order hold circuit

Figure 5a Sampler and zero-order hold.

Figure 6 (a) Frequency-response (b) Bode diagram of ZOH when T= 1sec.

The z-transfer of some elementary functions are given below:

10.1 unit-step function

Figure 7 Sampled unit-ramp signals

10.3 Polynomial function ak

z ⎡ e jωT − e − jωT ⎤ z (e jωT − e − jωT ) / 2 j

10. 1 te-at kTe-akT Te − aT z −1

14. ω sin ωt sin ωkT z −1 sin ωT

17. s+a e-at cos ωt e-akT cos ωkT 1 − e − aT z −1 cos ωT

22. k3ak -1 z −1 (1 + 4az −1 + a 2 z −2 )

11. Z-transform properties and theorems.

11.1 Multiplication by a constant.

Figure 8 (a) Unit – step function delayed by 1 sampling period:

We know Z[χ(k – 1)] = z-1 χ (z)

Letting z → ∞ in equation (43).

∴ lim x(k ) = lim[(1 − z −1 ) Z ( z )] (47)

Important properties and theorems of the transform

15. kak x(k) d ⎛z⎞

16. x(0) lim X ( z ) if the limit exists

17. x(∞) lim(1 − z −1 ) X ( z ) if (1 – z-1) X(z) is analytic on and

outside the unit circle

19. ∆x(k) = x(k+1) – x(k) (z – 1) X(z) – zx(0)

23. n X(z) Y(z)

Take lim on both sides, then the equation become

∑ x(h) = ∑ x(k ) = lim X ( z )

12.1 Direct division method

= x(0) + x(T ) z −1 + x(2T ) z −2 + ... + x( kT ) z − k + ... …

= x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z −2 + ... + x(k ) z − k + ... …

Thus X(z) = 10z-1 + 17z-2 + 18.4z-3 + 18.68z-4+.......

We get, x(0) = 0 ; x(1) = 10 ; x(2) = 17 ; x(3) = 18.4 and x(4) = 18.68

(b) When Roc: |z| < 0.5

2z 2 + 6z 3 + 14z 4 + 30z 5 + 62z 6 + ...

12.2 Partial-fraction-expansion method

∴ A* = (0.5 – j0.5)* = 0.5 + j0.5

13. Mapping between s-plane and z-plane.

Figure 6 Relation between the s- and z-domains

15. Pulse transfer function of cascaded system

Figure 7(a) Sampler between cascade element G(s) and H(s)

16. Pulse Transfer function of closed-loop systems.

Figure 9 Closed-loop control system

Figure 10 Discrete – time control system

Figure 11 Discrete-time control system.

Taking starred Laplace transform for the above equations

R(s) E(s) E*(s) C(s)

Figure 12 Discrete-time control system

SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is sampled data control system?

Fig. 3.5: Sampled – data control system

4. Distinguish between discrete time systems and continuous time systems.

6. What is a digital controller?