1.

In state estimation if the number of parameters being estimated is

equal to the measurements being made, then prove that Xest = [H]-1
Zmeas ,Where Xest = estimated vector, Zmeas = measured quantity
and H = Square matrix containing the coefficient of the linear
measurement function (Refer State Estimation Chapter 12 in Allen J
wood book).

Maximum Likelihood concepts:

Matrix Formulations:
Estimation Formulas:

2. What is a protocol in SCADA? List types. Describe any one 1 in

detail.
 SCADA functionality requires protocols.
 These protocols include RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel.
 Standard protocols are IEC 61850, IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, and DNP3.
 These protocols have been improved to operate over TCP/IP.
 It is good security engineering practice to avoid connecting SCADA
systems to the Internet so the attack surface is reduced.
 RTUs and other automatic controller devices were being developed
before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The
result is that developers and their management created a multitude of
control protocols.
 Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their
own protocol to "lock in" their customer base.
  The Types of protocols are:
1. IEC 60870-5
2. DNP3 Protocol
3. Modbus
4. MODBUS X
5. DNP (Distributed Network Protocol)
6. ASCII 7. IEEE 60870

DNP3 Protocol:

a) Introduction:
 The DNP3 or Distributed Network Protocol is a set of communications
protocols used between components in process automation systems and
is usually used is in utilities such as water and electric companies and
also technically possible to use it in other utilities.
 It helps in facilitating communications between various types of data
acquisition and control systems.
 It plays a crucial role in SCADA systems. It is used by SCADA Master
Stations or Control Centers, Remote Terminal Units, and Intelligent
Electronic Devices.
 Used for communication between the SCADA master station and RTU
(Remote Terminal Unit).

 Overview of theDNP3 Protocol Figure:

  Network Topologies of DNP3:

P3:

b) Security:

 Although designed to be very reliable, the protocol was not designed to

be secure from attacks by hackers and other malevolent forces that
could potentially wish to disrupt control systems to disable critical
infrastructure.
 Because smart grid applications generally assume access by third parties
to the same physical networks and underlying IP infrastructure of the
grid, much work has been done to add Secure Authentication features to
the DNP3 protocol.
 DNP3 protocol is now compliant with IEC 62351-5. Some vendors,
such as Itron, implement elliptic curve cryptography which the US NSA
considers sufficient to protect information as "top secret" with only 384
bits.
 The DNP3 protocol is also referenced in IEEE Std. IEEE 1379-2000,
which recommends a set of best practices for implementing modern
SCADA Master-RTU/IED communication links.
c) DNP3 in SCADA Communication:
 DNP3 protocol is used in various SCADA components including
the SCADA master or HMI, the Remote Terminal Units, and
Intelligent Electronic Devices.
 Operators of SCADA systems can monitor the DNP3 protocol
within their operations to increase system reliability. This will
reduce customer roil by decreasing downtime.
 This protocol designed to avoid being distorted by legacy
equipment, as well as EMI noise and low-grade transmission
channels.
d) Technical Details:
 More robust, self compatible and efficient than other protocols
like such as Modbus, at the cost of somewhat higher complexity.
 It is a layer 2 protocol.
 Provides multiplexing, data fragmentation, error checking, link
control, prioritization, and layer 2 addressing services for user
data.
 Uses Cyclic redundancy check codes to detect errors.
 The improved bandwidth efficiency is accomplished through event
oriented data reporting.
 The Remote Terminal Unit is initially interrogated with what
DNP3 terms a "Class 0 poll." This causes the RTU to send all
static point data to the Master station. Then, as the data points
generate events, these events can be placed in one of three buffers
whose status is reported on every Remote Terminal Unit response.
 If there is data in that buffer, the buffer data flag is set. The Master
can then see that there should be event data to be retrieved when
issuing a poll for Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3. In other words, after
a Class 0 poll, only significant data changes are sent. This can
result in significantly more responsive data retrieval than polling
everything, all the time, irrespective of whether it has changed
significantly.
 The Remote Terminal Unit can also be configured to
spontaneously report Class 1, 2, or 3 data, when it becomes
available.
  The DNP3 protocol supports time synchronization with an RTU.
The DNP Protocol has time stamped variants of all point data
objects so that even with infrequent RTU polling, it is still
possible to receive enough data to reconstruct a sequence of events
of what happened in between the polls.
 The DNP3 protocol has a substantial library of common point-
oriented objects. The focus of this extensive library was to
eliminate the need for bit-mapping data over other objects, as is
often done in many Modbus installations. For example, floating
point number variants are available, so there is no need to map the
number on to a pair of 16 bit registers.
 A Remote Terminal Unit for the DNP3 protocol can be a very
small, simple embedded device, or it can be a very large, complex
rack filled with equipment. The DNP User Group has established
four levels of subsets of the protocol for RTU compliance. The
DNP Users Group has published test procedures for Levels 1 and
2, the simplest implementations.
e) Advantages:
1. It is an open protocol.
2. It is optimized for SCADA communications.
3. It provides interoperability between different vendor’s equipment.
4. It is supported by a substantial number of SCADA equipment
manufacturers.
5. It will provide immediate and long-term benefits to users.

3. Explain about the various communication methodologies

adopted in SCADA. List advantages and disadvantages of each.
• The form of communication required for SCADA is “Telemetry”.

• Telemetry is the measurement of a quantity in such a way so as to allow

interpretation of that measurement at a distance from the primary
detector.
TELEMETRY
•

ANALOG DIGITAL
a) Analog Telemetry:
 This includes variable current, pulse-amplitude, pulse-length,
and pulse-rate.
 Pulse-length and Pulse-rate are most commonly used.
b) Digital Telemetry:
 The quantity being measured is converted to a code in which the
sequence of pulses transmitted indicates the quantity.

 Earlier twisted paired wires were used.

 The improvement resulted in traditional types of telemetry
mediums based on leased-wire, power-line carrier, or
microwave.
 A more recent development has concerned the use of fiber
optic cable, a technology capable of extremely fast
communication speeds.
 Additional communication technologies include use of
satellites, VHF and UHF radio, spread spectrum radio, and
ethernet.

1. Leased Wire:
 It is the use of a standard telephone circuit.
 Advantages:
i. Already existing telephone wires can be
used.
ii. Convenient and straight forward.
 Disadvantages:
i. It can be unreliable, and it requires a
continual outlay of leasing expenditures.
 ii. it is not under user control and requires
careful coordination between the user and
the telephone company.
2. Power-line carrier:
 The transmission circuit itself is used to modulate a
communication signal at a frequency much greater
than the 60 Hz power frequency .
 Most PLC occurs at frequencies in the range of 30-
500 kHz.
 Most PLC is strictly analog and digital PLC has
become available from a few suppliers.
 Advantages:
i. Less expensive and more reliable when
compared to leased wire.
ii. The security of PLC is very high since the
communication equipment is located inside
the substations.
 Disadvantages:
i. The communication cannot be made through
open disconnects.
ii. It is susceptible to line noise and requires
careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis.
3. Microwave:
 Microwave radio refers to ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) radio systems operating above 1 GHz.
 The first microwave telemetry was strictly analog,
but digital microwave communication is now quite
common for EMS/SCADA use.
 Advantages:
i. Requires no physical conducting medium.
ii. Very good option for linking sites with good
elevations such as water towers.
 Disadvantages:
i. Line of sight clearance is required in order to
ensure reliable communication, and
therefore it is not applicable in some cases.
ii. Requires expert assistance in installation.
4. Fiber optic cable:
 Similar to the traditional copper telephone lines,
but differs by utilizing optical fibers made of glass
or plastic and uses light to transmit the data, with is
faster and has less losses as compared to copper
wires.
 Fiber optics may be either run inside underground
power cables or they may be fastened to overhead
transmission line towers just below the lines. They
may also be run within the shield wire suspended
above the transmission lines.
 Advantages:
i. Extremely fast communication speeds.
ii. Large bandwidth which supports video
transmissions.
 Disadvantages:
i. Capital cost is high.
ii. Repairing cost is also high.
5. Satellites:
 The data is transmitted from a remote server to a
satellite from which that data is received by the use
or the control center.
 Advantages:
i. No unreliable conditions such as very
remote locations, extreme terrains, etc.
 Disadvantages:
i. Not cost effective except in most effective
cases.
6. VHF and UHF Radio:
 Advantages:
i. Low maintenance, can be repaired by local
radio shops.
 Disadvantages:
i. FCC license required along with periodic
fees and renewals.
7. Spread spectrum radio:
 Advantages:
i. Transmit data at higher rate.
ii. No FCC license required.
 Disadvantages:
i. Requires line of sight for best applications.
ii. Some 900Mhz require FCC license.
8. Ethernet:
 A system for connecting a number of computer
systems to form a local area network, with
protocols to control the passing of information.
 Advantages:
i. Good application for local sites.
 Disadvantages:
i. Limited application range.
ii. Prone to lightning damage without
significant protection measures.