A NATIONAL DRINKING WATER CLEARINGHOUSE FACT SHEET

D isinfection
Summary
Disinfection is an important step in ensuring that water is safe to drink. Water systems
add disinfectants to destroy microorganisms that can cause disease in humans. The
Surface Water Treatment Rule requires public water systems to disinfect water obtained
from surface water supplies or groundwater sources under the influence of surface water.

Primary methods of disinfection are chlorination, chloramines, ozone, and ultraviolet

light. Other disinfection methods include chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate,
and nanofiltration. Since certain forms of chlorine react with organic material naturally
present in many water sources to form harmful chemical by-products, the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency has proposed maximum levels for these contaminants.

Disinfection Keeps Water Safe

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Why disinfect drinking water? concerns. However, some—such as Giardia

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lamblia and various viruses, which can be

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Disinfection kills or inactivates disease-causing

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organisms in a water supply and must provide present in water supplies—are extremely
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harmful and can cause disease in humans.

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a 99.9 percent inactivation of Giardia lamblia

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cysts and enteric viruses to protect health and These disease-causing organisms are known
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as pathogens.
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to comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection

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Agency (EPA) regulations. There are two kinds

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Because pathogens can be present in drinking

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of disinfection: primary disinfection achieves water supplies, disinfection is very important—

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the desired level of microorganism kill or

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the EPA requires it for surface water and

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inactivation, while secondary disinfection main- groundwater under the influence of surface
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tains a disinfectant residual in the finished water

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water. Disinfection treatment methods include

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that prevents the regrowth of microorganisms. chlorination, chlorine dioxide, chloramines,

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ozone, and ultraviolet light.

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What regulations govern it?

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When combined with conventional treatment,

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The EPA Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)

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such as coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,

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requires systems using public water supplies and filtration, good results have been obtained.
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from either surface water or groundwater under

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Direct filtration, slow sand filtration, and

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the direct influence of surface water to disinfect. diatomaceous earth filtration, along with
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Also, since some disinfectants produce disinfection, have been just as successful.
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chemical by-products, the dual objective of Groundwater systems that disinfect may have
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disinfection is to provide the required level of

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to add filtration if the water contains iron and

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organism destruction and remain within the manganese. In fact, insoluble oxides form when
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maximum contaminant level (MCL) for the

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chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or ozone are added to

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SWTR disinfection set by EPA. At this time, these systems. Both ozonation and chlorination
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an MCL is set for only Total Trihalomethanes,

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may cause flocculation of dissolved organics,

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and proposed for additional disinfection by-

PAGE

thus increasing turbidity and necessitating

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products. filtration. The effectiveness of disinfection is

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judged by analyzing for an indicator organism one

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OF FOUR
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How is disinfection achieved? (total coliform bacteria). This organism is

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Our natural environment contains numerous considered harmless, but its presence indicates
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that pathogens may also have survived.

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microorganisms. Most of these present no

NATIONAL DRINKING WATER CLEARINGHOUSE

 Comparing Disinfectants:

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Chlorination (Gas) Chlorination (Sodium Chlorination (Solid

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At normal pressures, elemental hypochlorite solution) calcium hypochlorite)

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chlorine is a toxic, yellow-green gas, Sodium hypochlorite is available as a

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Calcium hypochlorite is a white solid
and is liquid at high pressures.

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solution in concentrations of 5 to 15 that contains 65 percent available

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percent chlorine, but is more chlorine and dissolves easily in water.

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ADVANTAGES
expensive than chlorine gas (as

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Chlorine is very effective for removing available chlorine). ADVANTAGES

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almost all microbial pathogens and is When packaged, calcium hypochlo-

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appropriate as both a primary and ADVANTAGES

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rite is very stable, allowing a year’s

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secondary disinfectant. Sodium hypochlorite is easier to supply to be bought at one time.

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handle than gaseous chlorine or

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LIMITATIONS

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calcium hypochlorite. LIMITATIONS

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Chlorine is a dangerous gas that is Calcium hypochlorite is a corrosive
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lethal at concentrations as low as LIMITATIONS
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material with a strong odor that

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0.1 percent air by volume. Sodium hypochlorite is very corrosive requires proper handling. It must be
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and should be stored with care and kept away from organic materials
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PROCESS
kept away from equipment that can
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such as wood, cloth, and petroleum
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Chlorine gas is released from a liquid be damaged by corrosion. Hypo- products. Reactions between calcium
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chlorine cylinder by a pressure reduc- chlorite solutions decompose and
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hypochlorite and organic material can
ing and flow control valve operating
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should not be stored for more than generate enough heat to cause a fire
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at a pressure less than atmospheric. one month. It must be stored in a or explosion. Calcium hypochlorite
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The gas is led to an injector in the cool, dark, dry area.
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readily absorbs moisture, forming
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water supply pipe where highly chlorine gas. Therefore, shipping
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pressurized water is passed through PROCESS
containers must be emptied com-
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a venturi orifice creating a vacuum Sodium hypochlorite solution is
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pletely or carefully resealed.
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that draws the chlorine into the water diluted with water in a mixing/holding
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stream. Adequate mixing and contact tank. The diluted solution is injected PROCESS
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time must be provided after injection
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by a chemical pump into the water Calcium hypochlorite may be
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to ensure complete disinfection of supply pipe at a controlled rate. dissolved in a mixing/holding tank
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pathogens. It may be necessary to Adequate mixing and contact time

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and injected in the same manner as

control the pH of the water.
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must be provided. sodium hypochlorite. Alternatively,

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where the pressure can be lowered

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EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT
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to atmospheric, such as at a storage

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A basic system consists of a chlorine A basic liquid chlorination system, or tank, tablets of hypochlorite can be
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cylinder, a cylinder-mounted chlorine hypochlorinator, includes two

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directly dissolved in the free flowing

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gas vacuum regulator, a chlorine gas

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metering pumps (one serving as a

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water by a proprietary device that

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injector, and a contact tank or pipe. standby), a solution tank, a diffuser provides flow-proportional chlorina-
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(See Diagram A on page 4.) Prudence (to inject the solution into the water),
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tion with gravity feed of the tablets.

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and/or state regulations would require

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and tubing.
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that a second cylinder and gas EQUIPMENT

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regulator be provided with a change- CHEMICALS

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The equipment used to mix the

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over valve to ensure continuity of Sodium hypochlorite solution is solution and inject it into the water is
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disinfection. Additional safety and readily available.

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the same as that for sodium hypo-

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control features may be required.

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chlorite. Solutions of 1 or 2 percent

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Sodium hypochlorite can also be available chlorine can be delivered by

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A gas chlorinator should be installed generated onsite by electrolysis of

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a diaphragm-type, chemical feed/

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in a room or chamber with direct sodium chloride solution in special- metering pump or by tablet chlorinator.
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emergency access to outside air ized proprietary equipment. The

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and fitted with an exhaust fan

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only supplies required are common

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CHEMICALS
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ventilation system. salt and electricity. Hydrogen is Calcium hypochlorite can be

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given off as a by-product and must

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purchased in granular, powdered,

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Federal and state safety regulations

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be safely dispersed. or tablet form.

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must be observed. If not onsite, self-

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contained breathing apparatus and

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a chlorine cylinder repair kit should

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be available within a reasonable All chlorine added to drinking water must meet American National Standards
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time frame and/or distance.

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Institute (ANSI), and NSF International, formerly the National Sanitation

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two Foundation (NSF) standards. ANSI/NSF Standard 60: Drinking Water

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CHEMICALS
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Chemicals—Health Effects covers water treatment chemicals.

PAGE

Chlorine gas is supplied as liquid in

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high pressure cylinders.

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ONE • JUNE 1996

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Chloramine Ozonation Ultraviolet Light (UV)

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Chloramines are formed when water Ozone, an allotrope of oxygen having Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is generated

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containing ammonia is chlorinated or 3 atoms to each molecule, is a by a special lamp. When it penetrates

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when ammonia is added to water powerful oxidizing and disinfecting the cell wall of an organism, the cell’s

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containing chlorine (hypochlorite or agent. It is formed by passing dry genetic material is disrupted and the

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hypochlorous acid). air through a system of high voltage cell is unable to reproduce.

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electrodes.

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ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

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ADVANTAGES
An effective bactericide that produces UV radiation effectively destroys

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fewer disinfection by-products, Requiring shorter contact time and bacteria and viruses. As with ozone,

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chloramine is generated onsite. dosage than chlorine, ozone is widely a secondary disinfectant must be

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Usually, chloramine-forming reactions used as a primary disinfectant in used to prevent regrowth of micro-

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are 99 percent complete within a many parts of the world—but is organisms. UV radiation can be

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few minutes. relatively new to the U.S. Ozone does attractive as a primary disinfectant

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not directly produce halogenated for small systems because:

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LIMITATIONS

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organic materials unless a bromide • it is readily available,

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Chloramine is a weak disinfectant. It ion is present. • it produces no known

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toxic residuals,

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is much less effective against viruses
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LIMITATIONS
or protozoa than free chlorine. • it requires short contact times, and

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Chloramine is appropriate for use as Ozone gas is unstable and must • the equipment is easy to

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a secondary disinfectant to prevent be generated onsite. A secondary operate and maintain.

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bacterial regrowth in a distribution disinfectant, usually chlorine, is

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LIMITATIONS
system. Nitrogen trichloride appears required because ozone does

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to be the only detrimental reaction. not maintain an adequate residual UV radiation may not inactivate

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It may be harmful to humans and in water. Giardia lamblia or Cryptosporidium

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imparts a disagreeable taste and cysts, and should be used only by

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PROCESS
odor to the water. The use of the groundwater systems not directly
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proper amounts of each chemical The five major elements of an influenced by surface water—where
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reactant will avoid its production. ozonation system are: there is virtually no risk of protozoan
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• air preparation or oxygen feed; cyst contamination. UV radiation is
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PROCESS
• electrical power supply; unsuitable for water with high levels
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Chlorine (gaseous solution or sodium • ozone generation—usually using a of suspended solids, turbidity, color,
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hypochlorite) is injected into the corona discharge cell consisting of or soluble organic matter. These
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supply main followed immediately two electrodes; materials can react with or absorb
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by injection of ammonia (gaseous • ozone contact chamber; and the UV radiation, reducing the
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solution or as ammonium hydroxide). • ozone exhaust gas destruction. disinfection performance.

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As before, adequate mixing and

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EQUIPMENT PROCESS
contact time must be provided. The
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mix of products produced when Ozonation equipment includes air The effectiveness of UV radiation
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water, chlorine, and ammonia are preparation equipment; an ozone disinfection depends on the energy
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combined depends on the ratio of generator, contactor, destruction unit; dose absorbed by the organism,
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chlorine to ammonia and the pH of and instrumentation and controls. The measured as the product of the
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the water. Chlorine-to-ammonia ratios capital costs of ozonation systems lamp’s intensity (the rate at which
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of 5:1 should not be exceeded. If the photons are delivered to the target)
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are relatively high. Operation and

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pH drops below 5, some nitrogen maintenance are relatively complex. and the time of exposure. If the
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trichloride may be formed. Electricity represents 26 to 43 percent energy dosage is not high enough,
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of total operating and maintenance the organism’s genetic material

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EQUIPMENT
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costs for small systems. might only be damaged instead

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The generation of chloramines of destroyed. To provide a safety

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CHEMICALS
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requires the same equipment as factor, the dosage should be higher

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chlorination (gaseous or aqueous For many applications, pure oxygen than needed to meet disinfection
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hypochlorination), plus equipment is a more attractive ozone feed gas requirements.

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for adding ammonia (gaseous or than air because:

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EQUIPMENT
aqueous). • it has a higher production density,
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• it requires lower energy UV lamps and a reactor (See

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CHEMICALS
consumption, Diagram B on page 4.)
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Chemicals used to generate chloram- • it doubles the amount of ozone that

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CHEMICALS
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PAGE

ine from ammonia and chlorine gas can be generated per unit, and
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depend on the ammonia-based • it requires smaller gas volumes No chemical oxidant required;
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chemical used. Anhydrous ammonia for the same ozone output, thus therefore, microorganisms can be three
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OF FOUR

is the least expensive, while ammo- lowering costs for ancillary killed without generating by-products
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nium sulfate is the most expensive. equipment. of chemical oxidation or halogenation.

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NATIONAL DRINKING WATER CLEARINGHOUSE

 How do you control disinfection

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Diagram B

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by-products?
Ultraviolet Water Purifier

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A number of factors can affect the formation of

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disinfection by-products. These include the

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OUTLET

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types and concentrations of organic materials GERMICIDAL LAMP

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present when chlorine is added, the dosage of IN QUARTZ SLEEVE

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chlorine, the temperature and pH of the water, ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

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and the reaction time.

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SIGHT PORT

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To control the formation of halogenated

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by-products (compounds formed by the

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PATENTED WIPER MECHANISM

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reaction of a disinfectant, such as

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chlorine with organic material in INLET

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STAINLESS STEEL

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the water supply) during CHAMBER
HEAD CLAMP

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chlorination, EPA has identified OW
FL

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these three strategies: REMOVABLE HEAD

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1. Remove the by-products OW

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FL WIPER ROD
after they are formed,

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EASY OFF END CAP

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which can be difficult
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and costly. WIPER KNOB

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2. Use alternative disinfec- ELECTRICAL ENCLOSURE

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tants that do not produce

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DRAIN WIPER LOCK

KE
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undesirable by-products, O
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R
which is often the most ST
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Reprinted with permission from Atlantic Ultraviolet Corporation

cost-effective strategy.
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3. Reduce the concentration of organics in

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Where can I find more information

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the water before oxidation or chlorination

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Information on disinfection was primarily

to minimize the formation of by-products.
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obtained from two sources: Environmental

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This will provide the highest quality

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Pollution Control Alternatives: Drinking

finished water.
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Water Treatment for Small Communities,

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EPA/625/5-90/025; and Technologies for

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Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking

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Water Treatment Facilities, EPA/625/4-89/023.

Diagram A
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Both can be ordered free from the EPA Office of

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Cylinder-Mounted Chlorinator
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Research and Development at (513) 569-7562.

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These publications also can be ordered from the

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TO VENT
○

VACUUM SEAL National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC);

○

“O” RING RATE VALVE

LEAD however, copying costs apply. The first book,
○

GASKET OUTLET
INLET
○

SAFETY
CONNECTION item #DWBKGN09, an 82-page publication, costs
○

CYLINDER
VALVE VALVE $11.82; and the second, item #DWBKDM04, a
○

VENT VALVE
YOKE
VACUUM 209-page book, costs $30.05. Shipping and
LINE
CLAMP RATE INDICATOR handling charges apply.
INLET
FILTER
For further information or to order addi-
EJECTOR AND
REGULATING CHECK VALVE tional copies of “Tech Brief: Disinfection,”
DIAPHRAGM ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY item #DWBRPE47, or the above publications
GAS
call the NDWC at (800) 624-8301.
CYLINDER WATER CHLORINE
SUPPLY SOLUTION
OF FOUR

LIQUID

four
PAGE

Reprinted with permission from Capital Controls Company, Inc.

ONE • JUNE 1996