BLOOD  A Colloid – a liquid containing suspended substances

that do not settle out of the solution

- “essence of life” “river of life”
- Basic component of the Cardiovascular System
- A type of connective tissue consisting of a liquid matrix 3 Types of Plasma proteins
(plasma) containing cells and cell fragments (formed
elements) 1. Albumin
- Makes up 8% of the total body weight - Makes up 58% of the plasma protein
- A type of connective tissue - Important in regulating the movement of water
between tissues and blood (water balance)
Formed Elements - Does not pass easily from the blood into tissues, it
 Make up 45% of the total volume plays an important role in maintaining blood colloid
osmotic pressure
- Bind and transport other molecules in the blood,
such as fatty acids, bilirubin, and thyroid hormones
Functions of the Blood - Partly responsible for blood viscosity and osmosis
- Acts as a buffer
1. Transport gases, nutrients, and waste products 2. Globulin
2. Transport of processed molecules - 38% of the plasma protein
3. Transport of regulatory molecules - Alpha, beta, and gamma globulins
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis - Function in transporting many substances into the
5. Maintenance of body temperature
blood
6. Protection against foreign substances
- Protecting against microorganisms
7. Clot formation
 Alpha
- Protect tissue damage by inflammation
- Transport thyroid hormones, cortisol,
*total blood volume in an average adult is about 4 – 5 L in estrogen, testosterone, lipid, transferrin,
females and 5 – 6L in males and hemoglobin
 Beta
- Prevent blood loss
Plasma - Transport iron and lipids
 Gamma
 55% of the total volume - Involved in immunity
 Pale yellow fluid consists of 91% water, 7% proteins, 3. Fibrinogen
and 2% other substances - 4% of the plasma protein
 - Responsible for the formation of blood clots  Waste product of aerobic respiration; helps buffer
(coagulation) blood (carbon dioxide)
- Serum – plasma without clotting factors  Inert (nitrogen)
6. Regulatory Substances
 Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions
Composition of Plasma  Hormones stimulate or inhibit many body functions

1. Water
 Act as a solvent and suspending medium for blood
components
2. Ions
 Involved in osmotic pressure (Na+ and Cl-)
 Membrane potential (Na+ and K+)
 Acid – base balance (hydrogen, hydroxide, and
bicarbonate ions)
3. Nutrients
 Source of energy and “building blocks” of more
complex molecules (glucose, amino acids,
triglycerides)
 Promote enzyme activity (vitamins)
4. Waste products
 Breakdown products of protein metabolism (urea,
uric acids, creatinine, ammonia salts)
 Breakdown products of red blood cell (bilirubin)
 End product of anaerobic respiration (lactate)

5. Gases
 Necessary for aerobic respiration; terminal electron Formed Elements in the Blood
acceptor in electrical – transport chain (oxygen)
1. Red Blood Cells (RBC)
 Erythrocytes
 Most abundant in formed elements
 95% of the volume of the Formed elements
 Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Disk – shaped; edges are thicker than center
 Biconcave shape
 Unable to divide
 Lifespan: 120 days male – 110 days female
 700 times more numerous than WBC
 17 times more numerous than platelets
2. White Blood Cells (WBC)
 Leukocytes
 5% of the volume of the Formed elements
five types, each with specific function
 Granulocyte
a. Neutrophil
- Phagocytizes microorganisms and
other substances
- Multi – lobed nucleus; blue granules
b. Eosinophil
- Attack certain worm parasites
- Release chemical that modulates
inflammation
- Negatively impacts airways during
asthma attacks
- Bilobed nucleus; dark pink gran
c. Basophil
- Releases histamine, which
promotes inflammation, and
heparin, which prevents clot
formation
- Bilobed nucleus; dark purple gran
- 
 Agranulocyte
a. Lymphocyte
- Produces antibodies and other
chemicals responsible for destroying
microorganisms
- Contributes to allergic reactions,
graft rejection, tumor control, and
regulation of the immune system
- T cells (thymus) and B cells (bone
marrow or bursa of Fabricius)
- Spherical nucleus; faintly blue
stained granule
b. Monocyte
 Phagocytic cell in the blood
 Leaves the blood and becomes a
macrophage, which phagocytize
bacteria, dead cells, and other
debris within tissues
 Largest sized WBC
 Kidney shaped nucleus; very faintly
stained blue granule
3. Platelets
 Thrombocytes
 Cell fragments suspended in the blood
 Forms platelet plugs
 Releases chemicals necessary for blood clotting
 Minute fragments and cells consisting of a small
amount of cytoplasm
Production of Formed Elements
Hematopoiesis
Hemopoiesis
 Process of blood cell production
  Fetus and embryo = yolk sac, liver, thymus, spleen, a. 7% dissolved in plasma
lymph nodes, red bone marrow b. 23% is combined with hemoglobin
 After birth = red bone marrow c. 70% is in the form of bicarbonate ions

Hemocytoblast

e
Erythrocyt

yte
Thromboc

Neutrophil

Eosinophil

Basophil

e
Lymphocyt

Monocyte
 Precursor cells capable of dividing to produce daughter
cells that can differentiate into various types of blood
cells
 Divides into two cells, one undergoes differentiation and
the other stays as a hemocytoblast

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl

ast
Hemocytobl
Myeloid Stem Cell and Lymphoid Stem Cell

 Intermediate stem cells

Stem Cell
Myeloid

Stem Cell
Myeloid

Stem Cell
Myeloid

Stem Cell
Myeloid

Stem Cell
Myeloid

Stem
Myeloid

Stem Cell
Lymphoid
Red Blood Cells

last
Proerythrob

blast
Megakaryo

Myeloblast

Myeloblast

Myeloblast

Monoblast

st
Lymphobla
 Transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body
tissues and to transport carbon dioxide from the tissues
to the lungs
e
Intermeidat
Early –

cyte
Megakaryo

cyte
Progranulo

cyte
Progranulo

cyte
Progranulo
Hemolysis

 Occurs when red blood cells rupture and the

of nucleus)
(exclusion
Late

up
cyte break
Megakaryo

myelocyte
Neutrophilic

myelocyte
Eosinophilic

myelocyte
Basophilic
hemoglobin is release in the plasma

CARBON DIOXIDE IS TRANSPORTED IN THREE WAYS

 e Carbaminohemoglobin
Reticulocyt

bland cell
Neutrophilic

band cell
Eosinophilic

band cell
Basophilic
 Carbon – carrying hemoglobin
 Carbon dioxide cannot bind to the hemes, instead
carbon molecules attach to the globin molecule
Carbonic anhydrase Carboxyhemoglobin
 Enzyme that acts as a catalyze in the combination  Stable compound resulted from the binding
of carbon dioxide and water of a carbon monoxide molecule – a poison
 Converts CO2 and H2O to hydrogen ion (H+) and
produced by incomplete combustion of
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
gasoline that reacts strongly to the iron rings
of the hemoglobin
 Inhibits the ability of hemoglobin to transport
Hemoglobin substances
 Usually found in the blood of smokers
 Complex protein consisting of 4 subunits
 Requires iron for normal function of hemoglobin
 globin = polypeptide chain bound to one heme
 heme = red – pigment molecule containing one iron Life History of Erythrocytes
atom Hemocytoblasts
 Embryonic
 Fetal Myeloid stem cell
 Adult
Proerythroblasts
Oxyhemoglobin
Early erythroblast (basophilic erythroblast)
 Oxygenated form of hemoglobin
 Oxygen molecules bind to each of the hemes of  Because they stain with basic dye
the hemoglobin, carrying up to four molecules of Intermediate erythroblast (polychromatic erythroblast)
oxygen
 Bright red  They stain different colors with basic
and acidic dyes
Deoxyhemoglobin
Late erythroblast (losing of nucleus)
 Hemoglobin that do not carry oxygen
 Dark red Reticulocyte
  Reticulum or network that can be  Modified by the kidneys to give urine its
observed in the cytoplasm when a characteristic yellow color
special staining technique is used
Jaundice

 Yellowish staining of the skin and the sclerae of the

*rbc production is is stimulated by low blood oxygen level eyes caused by a buildup of bile pigments in the
blood and some tissues

Erythropoietin (EPO)

 Regulates RBC production

 Produced mostly in kidneys
White Blood Cells
 Increases when blood oxygen level decreases  Lack hemoglobin but has nucleus
 Stimulates the red bone marrow to produce more  Forms a white layer called buffy coat when separated
RBC by increasing the number of proerythroblasts from blood
formed and by decreasing the time required for  Larger than RBC
RBC to mature  Remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis
 Protects the body against invading microorganisms and
Macrophage remove dead cells and debris from the body

 Take up the hemoglobin release from the ruptured

red blood cells Granulocyte
 Lysosomal enzymes digest the hemoglobin to yield  WBC with large cytoplasmic granules and lobed nuclei
bilirubin, amino acids, and iron a. Neutrophil (polymorphonuclear)
 The globin part of the hemoglobin is broken down b. Eosinophil
into its component amino acids c. Basophil
 Globin = amino acids
 Heme = bilirubin Agranulocyte
 Iron is recycled  WBC that appear to have no granules when viewed
Bilirubin with a light microscope
 Has granules but are so small that it cannot be easily
 Gives feces its characteristic brown color seen with a light microscope
 Taken up by liver and is released into the small a. Lymphocytes
intestine as part of bile b. Monocytes

THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF WBC
A. Ameboid movement
- Allows the WBC to have more direct movement,
instead of moving only with the flow of the blood
B. Diapedesis
- Ability of WBC to leave the blood and enter other
tissues
- They become thin and elongated and slip in or
between through the cells of the blood vessel wall
C. Chemotaxis
- WBC can be attracted to foreign materials or dead
cells within the tissue
Pus
 Accumulation of dead WBC and bacteria, along with
fluid and cell debirs
Platelets
 Glycoproteins and proteins on their surface allow
platelets to attach to other molecules, such as collagen
connective tissues
 Play an important role in controlling blood loss by
a. Forming platelet plugs that seal holes in the
blood vessels
b. Promoting the formation and contraction of clots
that help seal off larger wounds in the blood
vessel
 5-9 days life expectancy
Hemostasis
- Cessation of bleeding
- Excessive bleeding can result to positive – feedback
cycle, consisting of ever decreasing blood volume and
blood pressure that disrupts homeostasis and result in
death
THREE PROCESSES OF HEMOSTASIS
1. Vascular Spasm
- Immediate but temporary constriction of the blood
vessel
- Occurs when smooth muscle within the wall of the
vessel contracts
- Can close small vessels completely and stop the
flow of blood through them
2. Platelet Plug Formation
- Platelet plug = accumulation of platelets that can
seal small breaks in the blood vessel
- Platelet plug is not the same as blood clotting
- very important in maintaining the integrity of the
Circulatory System
1) Platelet adhesion occurs when von
Willebrand factor – secreted by the endothelial
cells - connects the exposed collagen to
platelets
2) Platelet release reaction – ADP,
Thromboxane, and other chemicals are
released by the activated platelets by
 exocytosis. These chemicals, in turn, activates - A floating thrombus
more platelets to release more chemicals and
thus creating a cascade effect. This is an
example of positive – feedback Anticoagulants
3) Platelet aggregation – occurs when fibrinogen
receptors on activated platelets bind to  Antithrombin and heparin
fibrinogen, connecting the platelets together.
Clot retraction
3. Coagulation
- Blood clot – a network of threadlike proteins - Condensing of clot
called, fibrin, that traps blood cell, platelets, and - Serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
fluid
- Formation depends on the number of proteins Fibrinolysis
formed in the plasma - Process of dissolving clot
- Plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)

Clot Formation
1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting to be
exposed to the connective tissue; thus, activating it
2. Thromboplastin is released causing a series of
activation of clotting factors until prothrombinase is
formed
3. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin into its active
form thrombin
4. Thrombin converts plasma protein fibrinogen to fibrin

Thrombus
- An attached clot
Embolus