MEIOSIS

SUMMARY

Meiosis

- production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many
chromosomes as the starting cell.
- a division process that takes from a diploid cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones
with a single set of chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs. When a
sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set: a
new genome.

MEIOSIS STAGES

MEIOSIS 1

(Seperation of Homologous Chromosome)

Interphase

- DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two identical full sets of chromosomes.
- Outside of the nucleus are two centrosomes, each containing a pair of centrioles, these structures are critical for
the process of cell division.
- Microtubules extend from these centrosomes.

Prophase 1

- The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures.

- The nuclear envelope degrades, which allows the microtubules originating from the centrioles on either side of the
cell to attach to the kinetochores in the centromeres of each chromosome.
- The chromosomes pair with their homologous partner.

Metaphase 1

- The chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the centre (equator) of the cell.
- The centrioles are now at opposites poles of the cell with the meiotic spindles extending from them.
- The meiotic spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair.

Anaphase 1

- Chromosomes are now pulled towards the centrioles at each side of the cell.
- However, the centrosomes holding the sister chromatids together do not dissolve in anaphase I of meiosis,
meaning that only homologous chromosomes are separated, not sister chromatids.

Telophase 1

- Chromosomes are pulled completely apart and new nuclear envelopes form.

Cytokinesis 1

- the cytoplasm and cell divides resulting in 2 non-identical diploid (2n) daughter cells.
 MEIOSIS 2

(Seperation of sister chromatids)

Prophase 2

- Identical to PROPHASE 1
- Chromosomes condense again into visible X-shaped structures .
- The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
- The centrioles duplicate, and the meiotic spindle forms again.

Metaphase 2

- In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes (pair of sister chromatids) line up end-to-end along the equator
of the cell.
- The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each of the daughter cells.
- Meiotic spindle fibres at each pole of the cell attach to each of the sister chromatids.

Anaphase 2

- Sister chromatids (produced when the chromosomes split) are pulled to opposite poles of the equator.
- The separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes.

Telophase 2

- Identical to Telophase 1
- Cell is now divided in two and the chromosomes are on opposite ends of the cell.

Cytokinesis 2

- There are 4 cells, each haploid, and each with only 1 copy of the genome.
Human Meiosis

 Human have 23 distinct chromosomes, existing in homologous pairs between maternal and paternal
DNA= 46 chromosomes.
 Before meiosis, the DNA in the cell is replicated= 46 chromosomes in 92 sister chromatids. Each pair of
sister chromatids has a corresponding (either maternal or paternal) set of sister chromosomes. These
pairs are known as homologous chromosomes.

Meiosis 1 Meiosis 2

 Homologous chromosomes line up and  Sister chromatids are separated into

divide. This leaves 23 chromosomes in each individual cells.
cell, each chromosome consisting of sister  This leaves 4 cells, each with 23
chromatids. chromosomes, or 4 haploid cells.
 These chromatids may no longer be
identical, as crossing-over may have
occurred during metaphase I of meiosis I
 Germ Cells
- undergo meiosis and ultimately give rise to sperm or eggs. Germ cells
- contain a complete set of 46 chromosomes (23 maternal chromosomes and 23 paternal
chromosomes)
 By the end of meiosis, the resulting reproductive cells, or gametes, each have 23 genetically unique
chromosomes.
 The overall process of meiosis produces four daughter cells from one single parent cell. Each daughter cell is
haploid, because it has half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.
 MEIOSIS 1

Meosis 1

- responsible for creating genetically unique chromosomes.

- Sister chromatids pair up with their homologs and exchange
genetic material with one another.
- At the end of this division, one parent cell produces two daughter
cells, each carrying one set of sister chromatids.

 INTERPHASE (Happens before meiosis 1)

 The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two identical full
sets of chromosomes.
 Can be divided into three stages
a. Growth (G1) Phase
 cell grows
 cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins,
including the enzymes and structural
proteins it will need for growth
 each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.
b. Synthesis (S) Phase
 copies all of its chromosomes
 genetic material is replicated;
 each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids
attached at a centromere.
c. Growth (G2) Phase
 prepares for the division
(Kinetochore and Nonkinetochore)
 PROPHASE 1
 Longest phase of Meiosis
 complex of DNA and protein known as chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.
 pairs of replicated chromosomes are known as sister chromatids, and they remain joined at a
central point called the centromere.
 Each chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match up at
corresponding positions along their full length.
 Synapsis happens—pairing of two homologous chromosomes
 Bivalents or Tetrads—paired and replicated chromosomes
 Crossing Over/ Recombination happens.
o process, in which homologous chromosomes trade
parts
o DNA is broken at the same spot on each
homologue—here, between genes B and C—and
reconnected in a criss-cross pattern so that the
homologues exchange part of their DNA.
o Synaptonemal complex holds homologous chromosomes together
 Chiasmata—keep the homologues connected to each other after the synaptonemal
complex breaks down, so each homologous pair needs at least one.
  Spindle begins to capture chromosomes.
 Each chromosome attaches to microtubules from just one pole of the spindle, and the two
homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from opposite poles.

 The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be easily seen under a microscope.
 Each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids containing identical genetic information.
 The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2 are
together, and so on.
 The pairs of chromosomes may then exchange bits of DNA in a process called recombination or crossing over.
 At the end of Prophase I the membrane around the nucleus in the cell dissolves away, releasing the chromosomes.
 The meiotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, extends across the cell between the centrioles.

 METAPHASE 1
 Reductional Division happens.
 homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, near the center of the
cell.
 Law of Segregation—while the chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate with their
homologous pair, there is no order/random upon which side the maternal or paternal
chromosomes line up
 Crossing Over may also happen
 Law of Independent Assortment— traits are inherited independently of each other.
o For traits on different chromosomes, this is certainly true all of the time.
o For traits on the same chromosome, it makes it possible for the maternal and
paternal DNA to recombine, allowing traits to be inherited in an almost infinite
number of ways.
 Cohesin holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase
 The meiotic spindle, a network of protein filaments, emerges from two structures called the
centrioles, positioned at either end of the cell.
 The meiotic spindle latches onto the fused sister chromatids.
 The chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the centre (equator) of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at opposites poles of the cell with the meiotic spindles extending from them.
 The meiotic spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair.

 ANAPHASE 1
 Homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell.
 The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached to one another and
don't come apart.
 Kinetochore microtubules move toward opposite poles
 Nonkinetochore elongate the cells

 The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by the meiotic spindle, which pulls one chromosome to one pole of the
cell and the other chromosome to the opposite pole.
 In meiosis I the sister chromatids stay together. This is different to what happens in mitosis and meiosis II.

 TELOPHASE 1
 chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell.
  nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense
 in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round of division,
meiosis II
  Sister
The chromosomes chromatids
complete theirremain attached.
move to the opposite poles of the cell.
 At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.
 A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei.

 CYTOKINESIS 1
 single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate daughter cells each containing a full set
of chromosomes within a nucleus.
 usually occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming two haploid daughter cells.
 Interkinesis or Interphase II—a period of rest, no DNA replication occurs during this stage

RESULT of MEIOSIS 1

- results in two daughter cells, each of which contains a set of fused sister chromatids. The genetic makeup of
each daughter cell is distinct because of the DNA exchange between homologs during the crossing-over
process.
- Two new cells, each haploid in their DNA, but with 2 copies, Again, although there are 2 alleles for each gene,
they are on sister chromatid copies of each other. These are therefore considered haploid cells. These cells
take a short rest before entering the second division of meiosis, meiosis II.
 MEIOSIS 2

Meiosis 2

- Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process
than meiosis I
- mitotic division of each of the haploid cells produced in meiosis I
  PROPHASE 2
 nuclear membrane disintegrates, and meiotic spindles begin to form once again.
 chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if needed.
 The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them.

 In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes condense again into visible X-shaped structures that can
be easily seen under a microscope.
 The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
 The centrioles duplicate.
 The meiotic spindle forms again.

 METAPHASE 2
 chromosomes line up in single file along the equator of the cell.
 This is in contrast to Metaphase I where chromosomes lined up in homologous pairs.
 new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I,
perpendicular to the previous plate.
 chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate.
 the centromeres of the paired chromatids align along the equatorial plate in both cells

 ANAPHASE 2
 sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.
 spindle fibers start to contract and pull the sister chromatids apart. Each individual chromosome
now begins to moves to either end of the cell.
 chromosomes separate at the centromeres. The spindle fibers pull the separated chromosomes
toward each pole of the cell

 TELOPHASE 2
 chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense.
 Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes reach opposite ends of the cell. The nuclear membrane forms again, and the cell
body splits into two

 CYTOKINESIS 2
 dividing the cytoplasm of the two cells

RESULT OF MEIOSIS 2

- there are four granddaughter cells, each with half a set of chromosomes (haploid)
 in males, these four cells are all sperm cells
 in females, one of the cells is an egg cell while the other three are polar bodies (small cells that do not
develop into eggs)
- results in four haploid daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes
 each chromosome is unique and contains a mix of genetic information from the maternal and paternal
chromosomes in the original parent cell
COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS and MITOSIS
NONDISJUNCTION

 Disjunction—normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II

 Nondisjunction— segregation is not normal
o results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular
chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy.
1. Down syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 21
2. Patau syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 13
3. Edwards syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 18
4. Klinefelter syndrome – extra X chromosomes in males – i.e. XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.
5. Turner syndrome – lacking of one X chromosome in females – i.e. X0
6. Triple X syndrome – an extra X chromosome in females
7. XYY syndrome – an extra Y chromosome in males.

PREPARED BY GABRIEL V. RAMOS