TRAINING REPORT

Subject: NETWORKING

Presented by: Mr.Naresh Gupta

Submitted to: Jhalak Jain
 Acknowledgement

A training report prepared by Mr .N. Gupta in

partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING in COMPUTER
SCIENCE & ENGINEERING,from
MILLENNIUM GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS & SCIENCE,
Bhopal, affiliated to
RAJIV GANDHI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, Bhopal,
is submitted to Jhalak Jain ,the concerned reporting
officer of IT department ,on 07th July 2011.

NETWORKING

Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing

devices together for the purpose of sharing data . It is the mix of
both software and hardware. A collection of computers that
are connected to one another is called a computer network.
NETWORKING EQUIPMENTS

There are various equipments which are used in networking. Few

of them are as follows :
1.Switch
2.Hub
3.Router
4.Firewall
5.Bridges
6.Repeater
7.Network interface cards
8.RJ-45 connector
9.Modem
The functions of these network equipments are as follows :
1.Switch : A switch is a multi-port bridge, meaning that it is an
active element working on layer 2 of the OSI model.
The switch analyses the frames coming in on its entry ports and
filters the data in order to focus solely on the right ports (this is
called switching and is used in switched networks). As a
result, the switch can act as both a port when filtering and as a
hub when handling connections. Here is a diagram of a switch:

2.Hub : A hub is an element of hardware for centralising network

traffic coming from multiple hosts, and to propagate the signal.
The hub has a certain number of ports (it has enough ports to
link machines to one another, usually 4, 8, 16 or 32). Its only
goal is to recover binary data coming into a port and send it to
all the other ports. As with a repeater, a hub operates on layer 1
 of the OSI Modelwhich is why it is sometimes called a multiport
repeater.

The hub connects several machines together, sometimes

arranged in a star shape, which gives it its name, due to the fact
that all communication coming from the machines on the
network passes through it.
3.Router :A router is a device for connecting computer networks
to one another, used for handling the routing of packets
between two networks to determine the path that a data
packets shall take.

4.Firewall : A firewall is a system that protects a computer or a

computer network against intrusions coming from a third-party
network (generally the Internet). A firewall is a system that
filters data packets that are exchanged over the network.
Therefore, it is a filtering data that comprises at least the
following network interfaces:
 an interface for the network being protected (internal
network)
 an interface for the external network

5.Bridge :A network bridge connects multiple network segments

at thedata link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not
promiscuouslassociates traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learns
which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once
the bridge A for that address only to that port. Bridges do send
broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast
was received
6.Repeater : A repeater is an electronic device that receives a
signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or
onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can
cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair
ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs
longer than 100 meters.
7.Network interface cards : A network card, network adapter or
NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware
designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network. It provides physical access to a networking medium
and often provides a low-level addressing system through the
use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other
either by using cables or wirelessly.

8.RJ-45 Connector : The RJ-45 connector is commonly used for

network cabling and for telephony applications. It's also used
for serial connections in special cases. Here's a look at it:

9.Modem : Modem (from modulator-demodulator) is a device

that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to
decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a
signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce
the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of
transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio.
The most familiar example is a voiceband modem that turns the
digital 1s and 0s of a personal computer into sounds that can be
transmitted over the telephone lines of Plain Old Telephone
Systems (POTS), and once received on the other side, converts
those 1s and 0s back into a form used by a USB, Serial, or
Network connection.

OSI MODEL
The seven layers of networking is sometimes referred to the OSI
Model, Open System Interconnection. Networking is broken
down by traveling through several layers or protocols. This
process is broken down into seven layers; Application Layer,
Presentation Layer, Session Layer, Transport Layer, Network
Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer. When a person
communicates to another person on a network the information
passes through these layers. It begins at the Application Layer,
works its way through to the Physical Layer and then back up to
the Application Layer.
 (7) Application Layer- This layer is where the end-user
(computer user) begins the communication process. At this
layer user authentication is identified and protocols like FTP,
TELNET, E-MAIL, and other file transfer protocols begin with
the user starting the process.

 (6) Presentation Layer - This layer is where encryption

occurs. This layer converts the file and/or information into a
language (format) that the remaining layers can read and
handle without any compatibility problems.

 (5) Session Layer - This layer is where the communication

is coordinated. Applications are managed in this layer. This
layer manages the exchange of information by creating and
terminating all communication between the application
layer at both ends.

 (4) Transport Layer - This layer is responsible for ensuring

the data completes it's transmission to the other user. It's
also responsible for flow control and error recovery.

 (3) Network Layer - This layer is where the routing and

switching takes place. Packet sequencing, addressing,
 congestion control, and internetworking happen at this
layer. Logical paths are created at this level to allow users
to communicate to each other. This layer utilizes IP
addresses.

 (2) Data Link Layer - This layer is where packets

(information) is broken into bits through encoding and
decoding. At this layer you have two sections; Media Access
Control (MAC), and Logical Link Control (LLC). The MAC
section is where packets (information) is gathered and gets
permission to transmit the data. The MAC section is where
your computer's MAC address is located to allow proper
delivery to a specific system (computer). The LLC section
controls synchronization, flow control, and error checking.

 (1) Physical Layer - This layer is where your hardware such

as ethernet cable, Network Interface Cards, etc., provide the
transmission through electrical impulse, light, and radio
waves. This layer is the hardware means of sending and
receiving data (information).

AREA NETWORKS

Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One

approach defines the type of network according to the
geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for
example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide
area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across
the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.
One way to categorize the different types of computer network
designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the
networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as
some kind of area network. Common examples of area network
types are:
 LAN - Local Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network

 WAN - Wide Area Network

  MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network,
Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or
sometimes Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 DAN - Desk Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks,

while the others have gradually emerged over many years of
technology evolution.

Note that these network types are a separate concept from

network topologies such as bus, ring.star.

LAN - Local Area Network :

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance.

A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a
single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few
small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will
span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is
often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also

typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity
technologies, primarilyethernet is used as Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network :

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The

Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A

network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP
networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN
address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs
(like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but
rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM,Fame relay
and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

LAN, WAN and Home Networking :

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the

Internet WAN via an ISP using a broadband modem which
provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the
computers on the home network use LAN (so-called private) IP
addresses. All computers on the home LAN can communicate
directly with each other but must go through a central gateway,
typically a broadband router to reach the ISP.

Other Types of Area Networks :

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types
mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these
others:
 Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based on WiFi
wireless network technology
 Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a
physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN,
such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a
single entity such as a government body or large
corporation.
 Storage Area Network - connects servers to data
storage devices through a technology like fibre channel.
 System Area Network - links high-performance
computers with high-speed connections in a cluster
configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

NETWORK DESIGN

Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of

high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-
peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server
computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications.
On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to
support the same functions. Client-server networks are much
more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much
more common in homes.
CLIENT SERVER Vs PEER TO PEER : Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer
and Other Models
The client-server model was originally developed to allow more
users to share access to database applications. Compared to the
mainframe approach, client-server offers improved scalability
because connections can be made as needed rather than being
fixed. The client-server model also supports modular
applications that can make the job of creating software easier. In
so-called "two-tier" and "three-tier" types of client-server
systems, software applications are separated into modular
pieces, and each piece is installed on clients or servers
specialized for that subsystem.
Client-server is just one approach to managing network
applications The primary alternative, ipeer-to-peer networking,
models all devices as having equivalent capability rather than
specialized client or server roles. Compared to client-server,
peer to peer networks offer some advantages such as more
flexibility in growing the system to handle large number of
clients. Client-server networks generally offer advantages in
keeping data secure.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure.

This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual
physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the
computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a
family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find a ring
topology there.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic
types:

 bus
 ring
 star
 tree
 mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of

the above basic topologies.

Bus Topology :

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a

computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A
single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication
medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface
connector. A device wanting to communicate with another
device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire
that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient
actually accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't

require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2
("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular
Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies.
However, bus networks work best with a limited number of
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a
network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition,
if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively
becomes unusable.

Ring Topology :

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for

communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in
the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A
failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down
the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or
Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office
buildings or school campuses.

Star Topology :

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network

features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a
hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires

more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take
down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN.

Tree Topology :

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto

a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to
the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of
devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future
expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in
the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates)
or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Mesh Topology :

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of

the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can
take any of several possible paths from source to destination.
(Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist,
messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WAN’S, most
notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other

is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial
mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only
indirectly to others.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
In networking, the communication language used by computer
devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify
computer networks is by the set of protocols they support.
Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific
applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common
protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
TYPES OF PROTOCOLS : Internet Protocol:
The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and
among the most widely used network protocols. Besides Internet
Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP,
and FTP all integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities.
Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also
co-exist with IP. These higher level protocols interact more
closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level
protocols interact with network adapters and other computer
hardware.
Routing Protocols:
Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed
specifically for use by network routers on the Internet. Common
routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF and BGP.

TYPES OF FILE SYSTEM

When a computer retrieves any file from a disk, the program in

which the file is opened first calls on an API (Application
Programming Interface) in order to build a dialogue box for
viewing the file or folder. The operating system calls on the IFS
(instable file system) manager. The IFS calls on the correct FSD
(file system driver) in order to open the selected file from a
choice of four FSDs that work with different storage systems—
NTFS, VFAT, CDFS (for optical drives), and Network. The FSD gets
the location on the disk for the first cluster of the file from the
FAT (File Allocation Table), FAT98, VFAT (Virtual File Allocation
Table), or, in the case of Windows XP, the MFT (Master File
Table). In short, the whole point of the FAT, FAT98, VFAT, or MFT
is to map out all the files on the disk and record were they are
located (which track and sector of the disk).