Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Working Group
C4.208
April 2013
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
WG C4.208
Members
W.H.Siew (Convener) - United Kingdom
Akihiro Ametani – Japan
Xiang Cui - China
Roy Hubbard – South Africa
Purshottam Kalky - India
Qingmin Li – China
Neil McDonagh - Ireland
Peeter Muttik – Australia
William Radasky - USA
Patricio Munhoz Rojas – Brazil
Pieter Pretorius – South Africa
Joao Saad Junior - Brazil
Ener Salinas - Sweden
David Thomas – United Kingdom
John Van Coller – South Africa
Xiaowu Zhang - China
Editorial Board
W.H.Siew, A Ametani, R.Hubbard, Q Li, P.Muttik, P.Rojas, E.Salinas, D.Thomas,
J.VanColler
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Copyright © 20113
Disclaimer notice
―CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does
it accept any responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All
implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted by
law‖.
ISBN : 978-2-85873-229-6
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Table of Contents
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
As electrical power generating stations, substations, control centres and networks have become more
complex; their required standards of reliability have become more demanding.
These needs have been met by the increasing use of modern electronic systems, which has
increased the importance of electromagnetic compatibility. These systems provide the major
computing power and the readily accessible information that make on-line automation possible. This
guide is focused on high voltage substations and centralised generating stations, but the principles
are applicable to other parts of the power system.
Advances in the technology have progressively reduced the levels of energy required to switch
between logic states, increased the efficiency with which these levels of energy can be transferred
and lowered the levels of energy that the components can survive. These trends have increased the
inherent susceptibility of modern automation and telecommunication equipment to Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI).
The EMC Guide 124 was therefore published by CIGRE in December 1997 to provide a reference for
practising engineers on power systems electromagnetic compatibility. Since then, power systems
network control and monitoring have changed significantly, including down to the distribution level
with the introduction of smart grids. These include an increased use of fibre-optic technology and
also the introduction of de-centralised electronics (or integrated electronic sensors/systems). These
advancements coupled with the feedback received by users of the Guide have resulted in the
decision by CIGRE to review and update the previous Guide. In particular, the structure of the guide
has been changed in response to feedback from users.
Due to the fact that each chapter was written/edited by different members, there will be different styles
used but all attempts have been made to ensure a degree of uniformity in the document.
1.1 Motivation
EMI can manifest as errors or failures after the equipment has entered service. Experience has
shown that in many cases, problems are challenging to solve and will recur until they are properly
diagnosed and solved.
Problems can arise if the immunity margin is inadequate. This happens if the product of a disturbance
and its coupling factor exceeds the susceptibility threshold of the piece of equipment. Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC) effectively means attaining and maintaining required and adequate margins
continuously.
In practice the large number of combinations of potential sources, coupling mechanisms and paths,
and susceptible pieces of equipment, makes the approach of checking each combination at the
design stage difficult and costly. Furthermore, the detailed configuration and electromagnetic
environment of each installation are unique and can change with time. Making detailed assumptions
about one installation based on measurements from another present inaccuracies.
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The only and best practical approach is to use the experience of designers, builders and users of
different installations to classify the various electromagnetic environments encountered and that need
to be managed. Then to:
ensure that no level of disturbance rises above the threshold provided in each
environment;
specify the acceptance criteria for each function of each automation and control
system;
specify the equipment and installation practices that will provide the levels of immunity
required;
specify the tests and acceptance procedures to verify that these have been achieved.
ClGRE Study Committee C4 (Originally Study Committee 36) identified the need for this updated
Guide to reflect measurements that have been made and IEC Standards that have been published
since the first edition. Further, the contents have been reorganised based on feedback from users. It
is written primarily for those who are responsible for measurement, control, protection,
communications and supervision circuits. It provides an overview of problems encountered,
characteristics of various environments, solutions adopted to solve the problems, best practices
followed in implementing the solutions and tests recommended to ensure that such problems will not
recur.
1.2.1 Chapter 2
Chapter 2 sets out the definitions, symbols and acronyms used throughout the Guide. They conform,
where applicable, to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Standards.
1.2.2 Chapter 3
Chapter 3: Sources of Disturbance - It covers potential sources of disturbance, including high voltage
and low voltage equipment, communication systems and natural atmospheric phenomena.
1.2.3 Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Levels of disturbance – It quantifies electromagnetic environments and in addition
presents measurements of disturbance levels and interference experienced by various organisations.
1.2.4 Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Coupling Mechanisms and Mitigation Methods - It covers the coupling mechanisms,
including conductive, capacitive, inductive and radiated, whereby disturbances can propagate through
cables and other components and reach susceptible pieces of equipment. It also introduces mitigation
methods.
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1.2.5 Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Laboratory tests and In-situ Tests Plus Consequences of Interference on System
Operation - It describes emission and immunity tests as well as acceptance criteria, taking into
account both the nature of the disturbances and the affected functions of the equipment, such as
control, protection, metering, recording, communication and supervision.
1.2.6 Chapter 7
Chapter 7: Practical Implementation - It covers installation practice plus the importance of adopting an
EMC plan throughout each phase of a new or refurbishment project, from conceptual design through
specification, construction, installation, commissioning, testing and maintenance.
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Most of the following definitions are taken from IEC 60050 - Chapter 161: Electromagnetic
Compatibility. The labels refer to this IEC Publication. The list includes some of the terms which are
most frequently used in this Guide and are still pending as future entries in IEC 60050 (161). Also,
some new concepts, terminologies, symbols and acronyms are added to this Guide.
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INSTALLATION (161/A)
Several combined items of apparatus or systems put together at a given place to fulfil a specific
objective but not intended to be placed on the market or put into service as a single functional unit.
SYSTEM (161/A)
Several items of apparatus combined to fulfil a specific objective and intended to be placed on the
market or put into service as a single functional unit.
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SCREEN (03-25)
A device intended to reduce the penetration of an electric, magnetic or electromagnetic field into an
assigned region.
PULSE (02-02)
An abrupt variation of short duration of a physical quantity followed by a rapid return to the initial
value.
2.4 Disturbances
COMMON MODE VOLTAGE (asymmetrical voltage) (04-09)
The mean of the phasor voltages appearing between each conductor and a specified reference,
usually earth or frame.
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BONDING NETWORK
Conductors of the grounding system, not in contact with the soil, connected at one end to the earthing
network and at the other end to the apparatus, systems, or installations.
EARTH ELECTRODE
A conductive part or a group of conductive parts in intimate contact with and providing an electrical
connection with earth. (IEV 60826-04-01)
EARTHING
The act of connecting exposed conductive parts of apparatus, systems or installations to the earth
electrode or other elements of the earthing system. (3.12 in IEC 61000-5-2)
EARTH; GROUND
The conductive mass of the earth or any other conductor or association of bonded conductors, whose
electric potential at any point is conventionally taken as equal to zero. (IEV 61826-04-01)
EARTHING NETWORK
Conductors of the earthing system, not in contact with the soil, connecting apparatus, systems, or
installations to the earth electrode or to other means of earthing. (3.11 in IEC 61000-5-2)
GROUNDING
The act of connecting exposed conductive parts or other selected conductors of apparatus, systems
or installations either to the bonding network or to the earthing network.
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Combined network formed by the Bonding network and the Earthing Network.
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2.7 Acronyms
The following list includes the acronyms frequently used in this guide.
DS: Disconnector
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2.8 References
[2.1] IEC 61000-4-5, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)–Part 4-5: Testing and measurement
technique–Surge immunity test. Second edition, 2005.
[2.2] IEC 60364-5-54, Low-voltage electrical installations - Part 5-54: Selection and erection of
electrical equipment - Earthing arrangements and protective conductors. Edition 3.0, 2011.
[2.3] IEC 61000-4-3, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)–Part 4-3: Testing and measurement
technique–Radiated, radio frequency electromagnetic field immunity test. Edition 3.1, 2008.
[2.4] IEC 60050-161, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary-Chapter 161: Electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC). First Edition (1990), Amendment 1(1997), Amendment 2 (1998).
[2.5] IEC 60050-604, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary-Chapter 604: Generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity-Operation. Edition 1.0, 1987.
[2.6] IEC 61892-2, Mobile and fixed offshore units - Electrical installations - Part 2: System design.
Edition 1.0, 2005.
[2.7] IEC 62333-2, Noise suppression sheet for digital devices and equipment - Part 2: Measuring
methods. First Edition, 2006.
[2.8] IEC 62132-2, Integrated circuits - Measurement of electromagnetic immunity - Part 2:
Measurement of radiated immunity - TEM cell and wideband TEM cell method. Edition 1.0, 2010.
[2.9] IEC 61000-3-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)–Part 3-2: Limits for harmonic current
emissions. Edition 3.2, 2009.
[2.10] IEC 61000-5-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)–Part 5-2: Installation and mitigation
guidelines –Earthing and Cabling. Edition 1.0, 1997.
[2.11] IEC 60601-1, Medical electrical equipment - Part 1: General requirements for basic safety and
essential performance. Third Edition, 2005.
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3.1 General
The most typical sources of disturbance that may affect the auxiliary systems of electrical
installations, that include power stations, substations and control centres, are the following:
1. electrical transient phenomena resulting from switching operations of circuit breakers or
disconnectors in HV electrical circuits
2. electrical transient phenomena resulting from insulation breakdown in HV electrical
circuits or to surge-diverter and spark-gap sparkovers in the same circuits
3. power frequency electric and magnetic fields produced by HV installations
4. voltage rises created by short-circuit currents in earthing systems
Other sources of disturbances, not specific only to electrical installations but generally present in
these installations are the following:
5. Electrical transient phenomena resulting from lightning. These phenomena, although
also present in other installations, are particularly important for electrical installations due
to the presence of tall earthed structures and power lines
6. electrical fast transients due to switching operations in low voltage equipment
7. electrostatic discharges
8. high frequency fields produced by radio transmitters, either externally or internally to the
installation
9. high frequency conducted and radiated disturbance from other electric or electronic
equipment present in the installation
10. low frequency conducted disturbances from power supplies
Finally, the following two types of electromagnetic disturbance are considered for particular situations:
11. nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP)
12. geomagnetic interference
Figure 3.1 outlines some disturbances from the above list in the context of a power station with
associated substation.
This chapter summarises the main characteristics (wave-shapes, amplitudes, frequencies of
occurrence, etc.) of the above-mentioned sources of disturbance based on an analysis of the most
recent literature in the field.
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(1) lightning
(2) operations and faults in HV networks
(1)
(3) operations and faults in MV networks
(4) operations and faults in LV networks
(1) (5) RF fields produced by sources external to the
plant
(6) RF fields produced by sources internal to the
plant
(7) electrostatic discharges
(8) conducted interferences from power supply
MV (3)
DISCONNECTOR
(3) (2)
(5) LV (4) HV
POWER
(4)
BOILER CONTROL ROOM
(8) VT CT
TRANS-
(6) TURBINE FORMER
(7) (2)
GENERATOR
Figure 3.1 Schematics of sources of disturbance that may affect the sensitive electronic
equipment and systems in a power station and associated substation ; adapted from the
previous EMC Guide CIGRE 124.
For the same U the collapse time t is essentially dependent on the distance between the contacts:
it can range from a few nanoseconds for gas-insulated substation (GIS) to several tens or some
hundreds of nanoseconds for air-insulated substations (AIS).
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range 115 kV to 500 kV; the peak current can, therefore, be expected to be proportional to the system
voltage.
With regard to the wave shape of the damped oscillating wave, the steepness of the initial ramp is
related to the collapse time and the oscillation frequencies are dependent on the characteristics of the
circuit. Typical frequencies are in the range from several tens of kHz to some MHz for air-insulated
substations and up to some tens of MHz for GIS.
The voltage and current oscillatory waves propagate on the bus-bars and produce electric and
magnetic fields.
Figure 3.2 shows the result of measurements performed by opening a 500 kV disconnector: the
magnetic and electric fields were measured on the ground directly below the busbar.
Figure 3.2 Bus current and magnetic field measurement from opening a disconnector in a
500 kV AIS [3.2], on the left, with curves showing similar behaviour ; the electric field
behaviour, remarkably different as a result of different phenomena, is also shown on the
right.
The magnetic field is practically proportional to the current (Figure 3.2-left), while the electric field,
depending on the charge, as well as on the time derivative of the magnetic field, rather than the
current, has a different behaviour as it is shown in Figure 3.2-right, where it should be noted that the
scale is also different i.e. (x2) due to the use of a different instrument. The magnetic field, similar to
the current, approaches zero in a few s. The electric field, as a function of the voltage and the
charge on the conductors, approaches a constant value, different from zero, due to trapped charges
set up by the current interruption by the switch.
Typical values of transient electric and magnetic fields produced by switching operations in air-
insulated substations of different voltage levels, just under the bus-bars, are given in the following
Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1: Typical peak values of transient electric and magnetic fields [3.2] produced by
switching operations of disconnectors in air -insulated substations (reduced values
compared to disconnectors are produced by circuit breakers operations).
System voltage Magnetic field Electric field
(kV) (A/m) (kV/m)
115 35 5
230 70 7
500 150 13
Figure 3.3 shows the transient magnetic and electric fields due to the opening of a disconnector for a
500 kV GIS substation, measured on ground underneath the gas enclosure. Closer to the gas/air
bushing much higher values (up to 10 - 20 kV/m for the electric field) can be detected.
Comparing the results in this figure with those of the previous figure (Figure 3.2), related to air-
insulated substations, the following main differences are confirmed:
the dominating frequencies are substantially higher (usually 10 to 100 times)
the peak amplitudes are lower
the damping of the transients is higher
the electric field approaches to zero after a short time.
The metallic enclosure, including its grounding, is probably the main reason for the reduction of fields,
especially the electric field.
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Figure 3.3 Magnetic and electric field measurements from opening a disconnector in a 500
kV GIS [3.2].
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switching operation of disconnectors, up to 500 restrikes (pulses) where registered. Closing (C) time
of disconnector lasted for about 50-70 cycles (i.e. 1000-1400 ms), but opening (O) time of
disconnector lasted for about 70-100 cycles (i.e. 1400-2000 ms). The maximum overvoltage value at
busbar, ΔU, was recorded, giving up to 344 kVp, with the dominant frequency of considered transient
fd equal to 0.536 MHz.
Table 3.2 Measured values of overvoltage at AIS Grabovica.
Measuring point Bus voltage VT CT
1)
2)
3)
Experience shows that higher levels of fields may be encountered in proximity of discontinuities, for
instance at bushings or earthing connections. Therefore, particular care has to be taken for these
discontinuities [3.23]. In Appendix A, important data related to peak field values in Air Insulated
Substations (AIS) and in Gas Insulated Substations is presented (GIS). In Appendix B a summary of
transient field data is presented this data is related to radio and transient interference from GIS.
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A spark-gap sparkover is generally less severe than an insulation breakdown because of a lower
sparkover voltage and a less random location. The sparkover of a surge arrester with spark-gap gives
high frequency transients similar to an ordinary spark-gap. The amplitude of these transients is lower
due to voltage across the arrester, which prevents the development of a short-circuit current. On the
other hand, a gapless arrester does not generate high frequency transients because it exhibits a
smooth transition from the non-conductive mode to the conductive one.
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Figure 3.4 Lateral profiles, at ground, of power frequency fields generated by HV lines.
As a result of the relatively simple configuration of power lines, measurements of power frequency
electric and magnetic fields under power lines are generally in good agreement with calculations.
General information about the characteristics of power frequency magnetic fields is given in the
CIGRÉ technical brochure No 320: ―Characterisation of ELF Magnetic Fields‖ prepared by the WG
C4.205 [3.26]. Additional details with applications to magnetic field mitigation are given in the CIGRÉ
technical brochure No 373 prepared by the WG C4.204 [3.27].
In Figure 3.4 the magnetic fields are calculated with reference to the current indicated in brackets. For
different values of currents, the values of fields are obtained proportionally.
On the other hand the calculation of electric and magnetic fields in power stations and substations
requires sophisticated methods due to the great complexity of the layout of these installations. An
example of such methods is given in [3.4], from which Figure 3.5, related to the mapping of the 50 Hz
magnetic field, is taken.
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Practical results are obtained from measurements. Figure 3.6 a and b shows, as an example, the
results related to a 130/380 kV substation [3.5].
Figure 3.6a Layout and measurements of power-frequency electric and magnetic fields in a
130/380 kV substation.
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Figure 3.6b Measurements of power frequency electric and magnetic fields in a 130/380 kV
substation: profiles of the fields along RUN 1 and RUN 2 of Figure 3.6a .
Two different periods may be considered during the phenomena: a transient period at the beginning,
which is characterised by fast transients and is usually of very short duration (in the range of
microseconds), and a subsequent stationary period, characterised by nearly d.c. or power frequency
excitation.
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2
Figure 3.7 Transient voltage difference on the conductors of a 60 x 60 m earthing grid
when a 1.2/50 s current impulse with amplitude 1 kA is injected in the middle point .
Subsequently, sophisticated numerical codes, which take into account possible non-uniformities of the
soil and possible non-linearity effects, have been developed by different researchers.
Figure 3.8 shows, as an example, a map of voltage rises on an earthing system and its vicinity.
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Figure 3.8 Map of power-frequency voltage rises on an earthing system and its vicinity .
Typical value of the maximum voltage rise is 5000 V, expected in the earthing systems within the
power installations vary very widely from for example ten to one hundred V per kA.
1. direct effect to the equipment of the electromagnetic fields produced by the lightning
current in proximity to, but not striking any structure of the installation
2. direct lightning stroke to electrical installations (e.g. power lines, earthing conductors)
and subsequent coupling between the resulting currents and the equipment
3. coupling of the electromagnetic field produced by lightning to a power line structure, and
subsequent coupling between the current in the structure and the equipment
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Figure 3.9 Three lightning scenarios influencing electrical structure and equipment .
For power lines, mechanisms 2 and 3 simply differ with regards to the wave shape and amplitude of
the resulting transient on the structure. The wave propagation along the structure and the subsequent
coupling between structure and equipment are similar.
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Figure 3.10 Geometry and formulae to compute electric and magnetic fields from the
lightning stroke current.
Figure 3.11, extracted from [3.8], shows typical measurements, taken simultaneously, of electric and
magnetic fields at distances 5 and 50 km from first and subsequent return strokes.
Figure 3.11 Typical vertical electric field component E v and horizontal component of the
magnetic field H h measured 5 km and 50 km from the return stroke current.
On the basis of the above mentioned investigations, electric and magnetic fields due to a lightning
stroke have the following main characteristics:
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the vertical electric field component Ev and the horizontal magnetic field component
Hh prevail with respect to the horizontal component E h and the vertical component Hv
respectively by about a decade or more.
both vertical electric field component Ev and horizontal magnetic field component H h
present a very steep initial ramp followed by far less steep ramps or bumps (see
Figure 3.11).
The initial ramp of these components has the same steepness and corresponds to the "radiated
component" of the field and attenuates with the inverse of the distance (1/d).
The following ramps or bumps correspond to the "capacitive or inductive component" of the field and
3 2
attenuate much more rapidly (1/d and 1/d respectively). As a consequence, at sufficient distances, of
the order of some tens of km, the radiated component prevails and the vertical electric field
component Ev and the horizontal magnetic field component Hh become interdependent through the
surge impedance of free space, 377 (E/H = 120 ).
The maximum steepness of the initial ramp of the electric field, S Em, is a very important parameter
from the EMC point of view. It is proportional to the maximum steepness of the return stroke current
SIm = (dI/dt)max:
SEm = [v/(2 0 c )] SIm/d
2
(3.1)
In units V,A, m, s, where c is the speed of the light, v is the speed of the return stroke current (0,2c to
0,6c), 0 is the permittivity of the air and d is the distance from the lightning channel.
Values of SIm up to about 300 kA/s have recently been measured for triggered strokes [3.10]. The
values reported in older widely known CIGRE documents [3.11] were most probably truncated to 100
kA/s, due to the frequency response of the measuring instruments.
Values of steepness near to the maximum one, SEm, may last for few hundreds of ns.
An exhaustive survey of the state of the art of the electromagnetic effects of the lightning is in [3.24].
Fields not related to the return stroke current, e.g. inter-cloud discharges, generally generate EM
fields much lower than those due to ground return strokes. The fields encountered in the proximity of
the inter-cloud discharges are comparable to those at about 10 km distance from the return stroke to
ground [3.6]. For these reasons they are of a certain importance only for aeronautical navigation.
Other than the return stroke current or intercloud discharges, recombination of charges or dart leaders
seem to be able to generate EM fields in the VHF-UHF range of frequency.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the curve of Pierce [3.9], which gives a summary, in the frequency domain, of
the measured electric fields due to all the above mentioned lightning activity components.
The curve shows the electric fields in the frequency range 1 kHz to 1 MHz, which are related to return
stroke currents, and the fields in the VHF-UHF range (from some tens of MHz to GHz), which are
probably due to recombination of charges or dart leaders.
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Figure 3.12 Pierce curve. Average spectrum of the peak amplitudes of the electric field
radiated by a lightning activity at a distance of 10 km and measured with a 1 kHz bandpass
filter
where Zc is the line surge impedance. The tail has a time to half value of the order of some tens of s.
In the case of back flashovers, with lightning strokes to the tower or to the earth wire and subsequent
insulation breakdown towards the phase conductor, the front of the voltage wave is of the order of
several tens of ns (up to few hundreds of ns for large gaps) and the tail has a duration lower than for
direct strokes to the phase conductor, around 5 s to 15 s.
In both cases, the slope S of the part of the front above the impulse corona inception voltage U0 is
quickly damped by corona, resulting in a lower slope Sd after a certain distance d (in meters). For
practical purposes, Sd may be calculated from S (in kV/s) by means of the following formula [3.39]:
S
Sd (3.3)
1 A d S
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where A, the distortion parameter, is about 10 s/(kV.m) and depends on the inception voltage U0
-6
The effect of corona distortion is very important. At a distance of about 1 km or a little more, regard
less of the shape of the wave at the struck point, the slope of the front will be less than 1 MV/s.
Much more critical, from the EMC point of view, is a breakdown of the line insulation. It introduces a
sharp truncation, generally on the tail of the wave, of the order of several tens to a few hundreds of
ns.
The slope of the truncation is not affected by corona distortion and only the dissipative effects due to
the line resistance and conductance will contribute to its damping, so that it remains almost
unchanged for a long distance.
As a consequence, the tail truncations, due to insulation breakdown, produce higher stresses to the
equipment connected to line terminals (as, for instance, the secondary windings of current
transformers), than the fronts of the waves [3.40].
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Figure 3.13 Results of laboratory measurements and calculation of the lightning current;
(1.2/50 s waveshape) in the branches of a stru cture made of a net of thin copper wires (1
mm diameter, 500 mm spacing).
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Figure 3.14 Model of generation and waveshape of a showering arc for an inductive load .
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When the switch is closed, a steady-state current I = Vdc/R is established in the inductor. When the
switch opens, the inductor attempts to maintain this current. This current is therefore diverted through
the capacitance, charging the latter and increasing the switch voltage.
As the switch voltage increases it may exceed the switch breakdown voltage. In this case a short arc
is generated and the switch drops to VA. The capacitor begins to recharge again.
This leads to a sequence consisting of rising (as the capacitor charges) and rapidly falling (as the
switch breaks down) voltages across the contacts, which has been referred to as a showering arc:
after charging the capacitor, it discharges through the switch, with the current being
primarily limited by the local resistance and inductance of the switch wiring;
if the switch current continues to exceed the minimum arc-sustaining current IA (from
0.1 A to 1 A), the arc is sustained. If not, the arc extinguishes and the capacitor
begins to recharge;
the switch once again exceeds the switch breakdown voltage, and the switch voltage
drops to VA (whose value is about 12 V for air contacts). If arc is not sustainable, the
capacitor begins to recharge once again;
eventually, the energy stored initially is dissipated and the capacitor voltage decays to
zero.
In addition, Figure 3.14 shows that, as the contact separation increases, a glow discharge may also
develop and may or may not be sustainable (for contacts in air V G = 280 V; IG varies from 1 mA to
100 mA) resulting in miniature showering arcs.
Showering arcs have significant spectral content and may therefore create EMC problems. To reduce
their formation it is necessary to prevent the switch voltage from exceeding the breakdown voltage.
As shown in Figure 3.15, a sufficiently large capacitor placed in parallel to the inductor reduces the
switch voltage and also the initial rise of the voltage.
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Referring to the mechanism of generation of the switching transients, the typical parameters are:
burst duration, mainly determined by the energy stored in the inductance prior to
switching
repetition rate of singular transients
varying amplitude of the transients composing a burst.
Both the repetition rate and the amplitude are mainly determined by the mechanical and electrical
characteristics of the switching contacts (speed of the contacts in opening operation, voltage
withstanding of the contacts in their open condition).
Measurements have been carried out in different laboratories to characterise the typical parameters of
the electrical fast transients/burst impulse.
One example is the investigation involving a switched load represented by a relay coil with inductance
160 mH, resistance 6 , about 26 ms time constant, controlled by a switching relay.
Table 3.3 shows the results of the measurements made directly on the switching contacts. Different
bursts were obtained by changing the relay used for switching the inductive load.
Table 3.3 Parameters of electrical fast transients generated by diffe rent switching relays.
SWITCHING RELAYS
Mercury A Mercury B
PARAMETERS 1A 1A 1A 5A 7A 10 A
The switching relays were chosen with different rated currents (1 A, 5 A, 7 A or 10 A) but at the same
voltage (250 V); two of them were mercury relays. The range specified for some parameters is related
to measurements made around the first part of the burst, which contains high frequency and short
duration spikes, and repeated also around the end of the burst, where the lowest frequency and spike
duration are recorded. The rise time of the spikes was generally in the order of a few ns.
Page 45
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Electrical fast transients are also generated by contactors. In particular, in the case of three-phase
devices, the whole transient consists of a sequence of bursts generated by multiple switching
phenomena, as shown in Figure 3.17. The transient reported is an example (the phenomenon is very
non-repeatable) generated by a contactor switching a 380 V a.c. motor of several kW.
Page 46
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Depending on the environment, such charging can build up substantial potentials (10-25 kV) with
stored energies of a few mJ. Figure 3.18 gives examples of the charging voltage of a person as a
function of the relative humidity.
Figure 3.18 Examples of charging voltage as a function of the relative hu midity [3.22].
Page 47
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The discharging of this energy can produce fast rising current pulses (rise time from hundreds of ps to
a few ns) that can reach amplitude values of several tens of A and have a duration of a hundred ns,
depending on the voltage level and the circuit parameters.
In the charging process, the human body behaves like a capacitor with capacitance C B of about 100
pF to 200 pF. If the charged person alters his or her posture, the capacitance to the surroundings will
change and hence also the charge voltage U. For example, when the person gets up out of a chair, C
is reduced, and therefore U is increased. From the values of U reported in figure 17, it follows that the
stored energy may quite exceed 1 mJ. For the discharge it is usually assumed that the human body
has an internal resistance of between 150 and 1500 .
A model of the discharge circuit is possible, based on the simplified circuit lay-out reported in the
following. The model is based on the separation of the contributions due to the human body (RB, LB,
CB) and the hand/forearm (RH, LH, CH) as shown in Figure 3.19. As a consequence, hand/forearm R-
L-C path generates the typical sharp initial spike.
Figure 3.19 Computer simulation based on the human-body ESD model [3.21].
ESD is an extremely fast phenomenon. In addition, it sometimes consists of a very fast "pre-pulse" on
the leading edge of a "slow" pulse.
This is particularly clear in the Figure 3.20, related to measurements of the discharge currents
obtained from a tool held by an operator charged at 8 kV; the bandwidth of the measuring system was
1 GHz.
Page 48
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 3.20 Typical current discharge from an operator holding a metallic object (a key) in
the hand.
Fast pre-pulse occurs mainly with low charge voltages. The presence or absence of the pre-pulse
makes a large difference to the effect of the phenomenon when interference is involved.
Figure 3.21 shows the spectral density of the complete ESD pulse (pre-pulse and slow pulse). The
steep initial spike clearly increases the spectral density at the high frequency end. The initial spike is
important because most coupling mechanisms are of the high-pass type.
Figure 3.21 Spectrum of a complete ESD discharge: "slow" pulse (1) and total pulse (2)
[3.22].
Page 49
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
With charge voltages in which corona effect is involved, the steepness of the discharge pulse is to a
great extent determined by the speed with which the charged object approaches the discharge point.
During a rapid approach, the ejected ions do not have enough time to disperse and to make the
discharge path conductive, thus resulting in an exceedingly steep pulse.
-1
E = k(ERP)0.5 r (3.4)
where r is the minimum distance value (expressed in meters), ERP is the "Effective Radiated Power"
(expressed in W) and k is a constant; for the sources in Table 3.4 the adopted value of k is 7, except
walkie-talkies where k = 3 (see IEC 61000-4-3).
In the model applied here, it was assumed that the transmitting antenna behaves as a half-wave
dipole, is in the far field (the distance between the source and the point of observation of the field is
greater than /2, where is the wavelength of the field, and larger than the dimension of the source),
and is in free space (E/H = 377 ).
In addition, values about radar for military applications are reported in Table 3.4. The electric fields
are calculated here for a minimum distance of 200 m because power plants or substations can be
located near places where radar can be used (for example, near the sea).
Radiation can also occur from devices other than the transmitters listed in Table 3.4, for example
remote control devices, like garage-door openers and intrusion alarms. These devices operate in
restricted frequency bands and have relatively low power output.
Page 50
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The characterisation of these additional sources of radio frequency conducted and radiated
disturbances can be made on the basis of the emission limits defined by proper product standards
and CISPR publications. [3.15], [3.16], [3.17] and [3.18].
LF broadcast and 6 3
0.014 – 0.5 2.5×10 2×10 5.5
maritime
3
AM broadcast 0-2 – 1.6 800×10 500 12.5
3
HF amateur 1.8 - 30 1×10 10 22
HF communica-
3 3
tions including 1.6 - 30 10×10 1×10 0.1
broadcasting
3
50 - 52 8×10
3
144 - 146 8×10 10 65
Amateur 3
VHF/UHF 432 - 438 8×10
3
1290 - 1300 8×10
29 - 40 130
68 - 87 130
146 - 174 130 2 40
Fixed and mobile
communications 422 - 432 130
438 - 470 130
860 - 990 130
Portable
telephones
including 900 - 1990 5 0,5 30
cordless and
cellular phones
3
48 - 68 320×10
VHF TV 500 8
3
174 - 230 320×10
3
FM broadcast 88 -108 100×10 250 9
3
UHF TV 470 - 853 500×10 500 10
6
Radar 1000 - 30000 10×10 200 110
Page 51
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Page 52
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Immediately following the initial fast HEMP transient, scattered gamma rays and gamma rays
resulting from inelastic collisions from weapon neutrons create additional ionisation resulting in the
second part (intermediate time) of the HEMP signal.
This second signal is of the order of 10 V/m to 100 V/m and can occur in a time interval from one to
tens of ms.
The last type of HEMP, designated as magnetohydrodynamic HEMP (MHD-EMP), is generated from
the same nuclear burst and is characterised by a low amplitude electric field of tens of mV/m, a slow
rise time (s) and a long pulse duration (hundreds of s).
Figure 3.23, taken from IEC 61000-2-9 (1996), shows the time behaviour of all the three contributions
to the HEMP, and the total electric field which is defined as:
where E1 is the electric field of the early-time HEMP, E2 is the electric field of the intermediate-time
HEMP and E3 is the MHD-HEMP.
Two conditions must be present for HEMP to become a threat to power system component. They
both relate to the coupling of the hemp pulses with power installations:
transmissions lines must be sufficiently long to allow for large potential differences to
develop between endpoints;
Page 53
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
a low d.c. ground impedance must exist at both ends of the transmission line to allow dc
currents to flow (several hundred amperes, for example, can have saturation effects in a
transformer core).
In particular, the MHD-HEMP has the right characteristics to interact with very long transmission lines
to induce currents that result in harmonics and phase imbalances which can potentially damage major
power system components (e.g. transformers). Fields caused by MHD-EMP cause similar induction
effects as those associated with magnetic storms which are well-known in Nordic Countries and in
telephone networks (telluric currents).
Page 54
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
due to harmonics generated, even the control devices and protective relays may operate
in an unwanted way. Even equipment with isolated neutrals may suffer due to harmonics.
In North America these kinds of problems are known to have caused failures of transformers and in
the worst case even a wide spread black out [3.13]. As an example, Figure 3.24 shows an eastward
electric field of 2 mV/m produced at 07.45 UT. This was responsible for the power outage on the
Hydro-Quebec system. It is interesting to note that a larger magnitude magnetic variation three hours
later produced a smaller electric field because of the slower variation of magnetic field. The later
magnetic disturbances, and their associated electric fields, were also responsible for power system
problems at a number of sites throughout North America.
Figure 3.24 Magnetic field recorded (Ottawa) and E fi elds calculated for Quebec [3.13].
Several unwanted line and transformer trip-outs have resulted in the Nordic power system. An
example of recorded GICs observed in Finland [3.14] is shown in Figure 3.25. The total distortion of
a.c. line currents caused by these GICs is presented in Figure 3.26.
Page 55
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(c) At Pirttikoski on
March 24 and 25, 1991
[3.14]
Page 56
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(c) Transformer at
Rauma, event
registered on March
24, 1991. [3.14]
Figure 3.26 Total distortion due to GIC in the earthing lead of a 400 kV transformer .
Page 57
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
3.14 Appendix A
Reference: Imposimato, C, Erikson, A, Hoefelman, J, Pretorius, P H, Siew, W H, Wong, P S, EMI Characterisation of HVAC Substations – Updated Data and
Influence on Immunity Assessment, CIGRE Session, Paris, France, Aug 2002. There are more references in the article.
(i)
Table 3.5 Air-Insulated Substation EMI (Peak) Data [4.1].
Page 58
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Page 59
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(i)
Table 3.6 Gas-Insulated Substation EMI (Peak) Data [1].
Page 60
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Comments for Tables 3.5 and 3.6 (comment numbers are the same as bibliography numbers):
[1] EMI levels from breakers were lower than those from disconnectors but could involve higher frequencies. Field levels in the tables were at ground
level; E field increased by a factor of 2 at 1 m height. Highest shield currents were from a 26 m test cable under the bus.
[4] High E field measurements were made very close to the GIS enclosure (10 cm) or near SF6-air bushings. Installation of a metallic mesh connected to
the GIS enclosure reduced E field values in Table 2 by a factor of 10.
[6] Measurements made close to air-insulated buses terminating at the SF6 section; E field dropped off at a rate of 3/2 power with distance.
[7] Field levels measured between 1 and 2 m above ground. Isolator closing operations produced higher field levels than opening operations, but currents
were ~20% higher with opening. Breaker operations caused fields larger in magnitude (up to a factor of 4) than isolator operations.
[9] Currents in CT secondary circuits were higher in amplitude and frequency than those in VT secondary circuits. Sheath currents were global CM
currents. E field decreased by a factor of 5 within the first meter from the source and more slowly afterwards.
[10] Highest field levels and frequencies were from breaker closing operations.
[11] Other circuit: 50 m of telecom cable under the bus, shielded with a double copper braid (Zt = 0.1 mΩ/m at 300 kHz) earthed at both ends.
[12] Global CM currents through cables (with well mounted cable feedthrough in the walls) measured outside of field cubicle; measured values inside were
200 times smaller.
[14] Parallel ground conductors could reduce noise on unshielded cable by ~50 to 60%. Noise from capacitive/inductive coupling inside CT/VT is less than
field and common impedance coupling.
[15] Induced voltages from in-service cables laid in cable trench were lower than those from unloaded test cables laid on top of cable trench or gravel.
Page 61
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
3.15 Appendix B
Gas-insulated substations (GIS), owing to their compact nature, offer an attractive alternative to
conventional substations in areas where space is limited such as in urban areas. Consequently, it is
important to address the issue of environmental conditions within the substation and in the surrounding
areas. The paper by Harvey, S.M. Wong, P.S. Balma, P.M. Ontario Hydro Res. Div., Toronto, Ont. [36]:
reports the results of radio interference (RI) and transient field measurements at two GIS in Ontario,
Canada. For comparison with RI levels taken at the GIS, RI levels outside two hospitals in the Toronto
area were also measured. The transient field study covers electromagnetic interference (EMI) levels
generated during switching operations, and includes measurements inside and outside the GIS. The main
results are presented in the following table:
Measurements show that RI levels from the GIS were either below background levels, or contributed little
to the background.
Page 62
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
3.16 References
[3.1] R. Cortina, A. Porrino, P.C.T. Van Der Laan, A.P.J. Van Deursen: "Analysis of EMC problems on
auxiliary equipment in electrical installations due to lightning and switching operations‖, CIGRE 1992,
paper 36-302.
[3.2] C.M. Wiggins, D.E. Thomas, F.S. Nickel, S.E. Wright: "Transient Electromagnetic Interference in
Substations", IEEE 1994 Winter Meeting N. Y., Paper 94 WM 146-1 PWRD.
[3.3] Working Group 36.01: "Electric and magnetic fields produced by transmission systems", CIGRE
GUIDE 1980.
[3.4] F. Morillon, N. Recrosio, L. Quinchon, Ph. Adam, H. Lisik: "Calculation of the electromagnetic field
emitted by an EHV substation", CIGRE 1994, paper 23/13-13.
[3.5] D. Armanini, R. Conti, A. Mantini, P. Nicolini: "Measurements of power-frequency magnetic fields
around different industrial and household sources", CIGRE 1990, paper 36-107.
[3.6] P. Degauque , J. Hamelin: "Compatibilitè èlectromagnétique", Dunod, Paris 1990.
[3.7] C.A. Nucci, G. Diendorfer, M.A. Uman, M. Ianoz, C. Mazzetti: "Lightning Return Stroke Current
Models with Specified Channel-Base Current: A Review and Comparison", Journal of Geophysical
Research, Vol.95, n0 D12, November 1990.
[3.8] Y.T. Lin, M. Uman, J.A. Tiller, R.D. Brantley, W.H. Beasely, E.P. Krider and C.D. Weidman:
"Characterization of lightning return stroke electric and magnetic fields from simultaneous two-station
measurements", Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.84, 6307-14, Nov. 1979.
[3.9] E.T. Pierce: "Atmospherics and radio noise in lightning", Vol.1, R.H. Golde, Academic Press, 1977.
[3.10] C. Leteinturier, C.D. Weidman, J. Hamelin: "Current and electric field derivatives in triggered
lightning return stokes", Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 95, 1990.
[3.11] R. B. Anderson, A. J. Eriksson: "Lightning parameters for Engineering Application", ELECTRA no
69, 1980.
[3.12] R. Cortina, A. Porrino: "Calculation of Impulse Current Distributions and Magnetic Fields in
Lightning Protection Structures. A Computer Program and its Laboratory Validation", COMPUMAG,
Sorrento 1991 - Italy, paper O63.
[3.13] D.H. Boteler: "Geomagnetically induced currents: present knowledge and future research", IEEE
1993 Winter Meeting Columbus, OH, Paper 93 WM 063-8 PWRD.
[3.14] J. Elovaara, P. Lindblad, A. Viljanen, T. Maekinen, R. Pirjola, S. Larsson, B. Kielen:
"Geomagnetically induced currents in the Nordic power system and their effects on equipment, control
protection and operation", CIGRE 1992, paper 36-301.
[3.15] EC 801-5, "Electromagnetic Compatibility for Industrial-Process Measurement and Control
Equipment, Part 5: Surge Immunity Requirements," draft, Geneva, IEC, July 1992
[3.16] EMI for Testing Medical Devices, AFJ EMC & Safety, application note Oct 2004.
[3.17] CISPR Publication 18: "Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage
equipment".
[3.18] CISPR Publication 22: "Limits and methods of measurement of radio interference characteristics of
information technology equipment".
[3.19] L.Grcev: "Computer analysis of transient voltages in large grounding systems", IEEE transactions
on Power Dellvery, Vol. 11, no 2, April 1996, pp. 815-823.
[3.20] H.W.Ott: "Noise reduction techniques in electronic systems", 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1988.
Page 63
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
[3.21] P. Richman: "Electrostatic discharge", Tutorial by Key-Tech, Zurich EMC, 6 March 1989.
[3.22] J.J. Goedbloed: "Electromagnetic Compatibility", University Press, Cambridge 1992.
[3.23] Joint Task Force 36/33: ―Modeling of fast transient effects in power networks and substations‖,
CIGRE 1996, paper 36-204.
[3.24] M. Ianoz: ―Lightning electromagnetic effects on lines and cables‖, Proc. 12th Int. Zurich Symp.
EMC, 18-20 February 1997, paper T3.
[3.25] Imposimato, C, Erikson, A, Hoefelman, J, Pretorius, P H, Siew, W H, Wong, P S, EMI
Characterisation of HVAC Substations – Updated Data and Influence on Immunity Assessment, CIGRE
Session, Paris, France, Aug 2002.
[3.26] Technical Brochure No 320 ―Characterization of ELF Magnetic Fields‖ CIGRÉ WG C4.205, April
2007 (Summary article published in ELECTRA 231 April 2007).
[3.27] Technical Brochure No 373 ―Mitigation Techniques of Power-Frequency Magnetic Fields Originated
from Electric Power Systems‖ CIGRÉ WG C4.204, February 2009.
[3.28] A. Ametani, ―Distributed-Parameter Circuit Theory‖ Corona Pub. Co., Tokyo, Feb1990 (in
Japanese).
[3.29] A. Ametani, K. Hashimoto and N. Nagaoka: ―Modeling of incoming lightning surges into a house in
a low-voltage distribution system‖, Proceedings of EEUG 2005/Warsaw, pp.67-30, Sept. 2005.
[3.30] A. Ametani. K. Matsuoka, H. Omura and Y. Nagai : Surge voltages and currents into a customer
due to nearby lightning, Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 79, pp.428-435, 2009.
[3.31] A. Ametani, H. Motoyama, K. Ohkawara, H. Yamakawa and N. Suga : Electromagnetic disturbance
of control circuits in power stations and substations experienced in Japan, IET Generation, Transmission
and Distribution, vol. 3, no. 3, pp.801-815, Sept. 2009.
[3.32] A. Ametani and T. Kawamura: "A Method of a Lightning Surge Analysis Recommended in Japan
Using EMTP", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol.20, No.2, pp. 867-875, April 2005.
[3.33] Carsimamovic S. et al. ―Switching Overvoltages on Air-Insulated Substations (AIS) Due to
Disconnector and Circuit Breaker Switching. Paper C4-301, CIGRE 2006.
[3.34] IEC/TR 61000-2-1 ed 1.0 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2: Environment - Section 1:
Description of the environment - Electromagnetic environment for low-frequency conducted disturbances
and signalling in public power supply systems 1990.
[3.35] IEC/TR 61000-2-14 ed 1.0 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-14: Environment -
Overvoltages on public electricity distribution networks 13-12-2006.
[3.36] Harvey, S.M. Wong, P.S. Balma, P.M., ―Radio interference and transient field from gas-insulated
substations‖, IEEE Transactions in Power Delivery, Vol.10, No 1. Jan 1995.
[3.37] Durham M.O.and Durham R.A., ―Lightning, Transient and HF Impact on Material Such as
Corrugated Tubing‖, Frontiers of Power, Oklahoma State University, 2008.
[3.38] Soares A. Jr., Schoeder M.A.O. and Visacro S., ―Transient Voltages in Transmission Lines Caused
by Direct Lightning Strikes‖ IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, VOL 20, N°2, April 2005.
[3.39] Rizk, F.A.M., ―Modeling of Transmission Line Exposure to Direct Lightning Strokes‖IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol 5, N°4 Nov 1990.
[3.40] Orságová J. and Toman, P. ―Transient Overvoltages on Distribution Underground Cable Inserted in
Overhead Line‖, 20th International Conference on Electricity Distribution, Paper 0634, CIRED 2009.
Page 64
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This chapter shows field experiences and measurements for characterization of disturbance levels and
gives general information on these levels.
The topics in this chapter may not be applied in general. Especially the summarized results of field
experiences are specific to generator stations and substations in Japan, and thus the data are not directly
applicable to those in each country. However, similar disturbances of control circuits due to lightning and
switching in a gas insulated substation have been informed to a member of this working group. The
information has suggested that the basic characteristics of the disturbances are similar in any control
circuits. Therefore, the content of this chapter might be of value in many countries.
a) Magnetic (or electromagnetic) coupling due to the propagation of current and voltage waves on
busbars and lines.
Measurements of transient electric fields carried out underneath the busbar and in the vicinity of voltage
transformers have shown typical peak amplitudes in the range of 1 - 10 kV/m.
Page 65
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The corresponding spectrum depends on the dimensions of the substation and is thus generally inversely
proportional to the voltage level. Although frequencies as high as 200 MHz have been recorded, the
spectrum usually extends from a few kHz to a few MHz.
The high frequency transients have an overall duration in the range of 1 - 10 µs, but these transients may
be repeated a large number of times during one switching operation.
The common mode voltage appearing at one extremity (the other being grounded) of an unshielded cable
of about 100 m length lying on the ground under the busbar can reach typically 3 to 4 kV during switching
operations in a 150 kV substation and 6 to 8 kV in a 400 kV substation.
The common mode voltage appearing at the extremities of a shielded cable grounded at both ends will
depend on the shielding effectiveness (see chapter 5) of the cable and on the frequency spectrum.
Roughly speaking reduction factors ranging from some tens for a steel wire shield to more than one
hundred for a very good copper braid shield or a tubular shield can be achieved at frequencies between
200 kHz and 2 MHz (see section 7.3.2.2).
The current in the shields can easily reach several tens of amperes.
b) Common impedance coupling and magnetic coupling due to the current flowing into capacitive
loads like voltage transformers (Figure 4.1).
The common mode voltage induced into the circuits which are in the direct vicinity of capacitive
transformers and more particularly into the secondary circuits of these devices can exceed 10 kV in a
400 kV substation. This voltage will of course be greatly reduced by the use of shielded cables but it
remains difficult to get reduction factors as high as mentioned above because of the impossibility of
reducing to zero the area of the loop formed by the zero volt conductor, the grounding of the transformer
and the grounding of the secondary circuit. Moreover, the stray capacitance between the primary and
secondary windings of the measuring transformer results in a high frequency differential voltage
appearing on the secondary circuit which can reach several kV. The spectrum of this disturbance can
exceed 10 MHz but is usually reduced by the damping of the wiring.
Figure 4.1 Common impedance and magnetic coupling due to the grounding connection of voltage
Transformers.
Page 66
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This leads to an important impedance mismatch at the junction of the GIS and overhead lines or open air
busbars.
This mismatch is, during switching operations, the origin of a high standing wave ratio and, in particular,
of high current waves (the amplitude of the voltage waves depends directly on the voltage level and is
comparable to that generated in open air substations, whereas the amplitude of the current waves is
inversely proportional to the characteristic impedance).
Whenever the GIS metal enclosure presents a shielding discontinuity, e.g. at the junction with overhead
lines or cables, it becomes an important source of radiation, with values sometimes higher than 10 kV/m
and 50 A/m.
If the discontinuity is made outside the building in which the GIS is installed, and if the shielding of the
building ensures the continuity of the GIS shielding, this is of little importance.
This is generally what happens with overhead lines. However, when part of the substation is open air or
when it is connected to cables with ungrounded (or incorrectly grounded) shields, it will give rise to
important disturbances.
The consequence of these features is that, during switching operations, very high potentials are induced
in the earth network and in the secondary circuits.
Those potentials are well known in the literature under the not always accurate name of Transient Ground
Potential Rise (TGPR). They can be high enough to cause sparkover between metallic grounded
elements not in direct contact with each other.
All those problems are rendered more acute by the small distances usually present in GIS between HV
equipment and electronic equipment.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Magnetic fields at power frequency are also very seldom the origin of interference with apparatus, even
under fault conditions. There is however one important exception, namely the video monitors (Cathode
Ray Tubes) which can be sensitive to fields as low as 1 A/m (or 1 µT).
The best solution to avoid this kind of problem is of course to increase the distance x between source and
victim knowing that, for a magnetic field due to a current I in a single long wire, the decrease follows 1/x:
I
H
2 x (4.1)
2
for a two or three phase balanced system the decrease follows 1/x :
d
H kI
x2 (4.2)
where: d is the distance between conductors (assumed to be much smaller than x)
and k is a constant dependent on the layout and approximately equals to 0,2.
For a circuit confined in a limited volume (e.g. transformer, MV - LV substation), the decrease follows
3
almost 1/x assuming x much greater than the maximum dimension of the volume.
Another solution is to act on the source itself by reducing the distance d between conductors.
If this is impossible, one solution consists of replacing the cathodic ray tubes with liquid crystal displays or
other similar devices; another one consists of shielding the cathodic ray tubes or the room where they are
installed by appropriate measures (see section 7.3.3).
Active compensation by using cancellation fields from controlled current loops can sometimes also be
applied to mitigate the interference problem.
Aside from the small influence of power frequency fields on equipment and apparatus it is worth
mentioning that inductive and capacitive coupling - mainly during fault conditions - can be the origin of
much more important problems on long structures like cables and pipelines, as explained in subclause
4.2.4.2.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
currents in substations concern the circuits extending outside the earth grid as they are directly influenced
by the ground potential rise.
As it can be seen on these figures there are limited differences in GPR between two points on the same
earth grid. Hence any circuit installed within the area of this earth grid will be subjected mainly to the
inductively coupled disturbances mentioned above.
The situation however is different for a cable entering the ―zone of influence‖ as it is directly exposed to a
longitudinal voltage equal to the GPR.
The value of the GPR is normally equal to the product of the resistance of the earth grid R g and the
current Ig flowing into the earth:
U = Rg Ig (4.3)
In the most general situation Ig is smaller than the fault current I. This latter is the sum of:
The current Ig into the earth doesn‘t include the components returning to their source via the ground
conductors.
1
It is given by an expression of the type :
R C j(L C M C ) Rd
Ig Ib IC Id
R C jL C R d jL d (4.4)
where:
Rc and Rd are the resistances per unit length of the ground wire and of the power cable shielding;
1 The earth resistance being neglected with respect to the impedance of the conductors with earth return.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Lc and Ld are the reactances per unit length of the different circuits with earth return (about 0,7 /km
at 50 Hz);
Mc is the mutual reactance per unit length of the circuit formed by the ground wire and the earth and
the circuit formed by the faulted line and the earth (about 0,25 /km at 50 Hz).
For shielded cables with the shielding earthed at both ends the overvoltage U will of course be reduced
by the shielding factor (see chapter 5.2.2.3 Eq.5.8):
R
k
Rg R g R jL
'
(4.5)
R‘g the earth resistance of the substation at the remote end (supposed here not to be affected by the fault
current);
L the reactance per unit length of the shielding / earth circuit ( 0,7 /km at 50 Hz).
The presence of a ground connection between both substations involves, on the other hand, a current I2
flowing in the shielding of the cable, and a transfer of part of the GPR to the far end:
U
IS
R g R g ( R jL )
(4.6)
URg UR' g
and U g
'
Ug
Rg R ' g R jL Rg R ' g R jL
(4.7)
with Ug the new GPR and U‘g the GPR of the remote substation.
It is advisable to check, particularly for short distances between substations, if these currents and
voltages are admissible and if there isn't any risk of saturation of the shielding.
Ground potential rise due to single phase faults can sometimes exceed 5 kV, leading to overvoltages in
insufficiently protected circuits.
Moreover, if a telecommunication cable follows an overhead line or a power cable over a long distance, it
will be inductively influenced by the fault current. This latter CM overvoltage can also reach several kV
and depends on a wide range of parameters like the current amplitude, the length of influence, the
distance between source and victim and the current division between the earth and the overhead ground
wires or shield of the power cables.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
A very important point which is worth repeating here concerns the number of grounding conductors.
Indeed it is not sufficient to offer to the lightning current a short path to earth but also to provide multiple
paths in order to divide the current and to reduce the amplitude of each component.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
L R1 = R2 = R
L R1 = R2 = R
Then we have:
and
Hence it is easy to understand in an actual situation that the profile of (scalar) potential of the ground near
the earth grid will be steeper at high frequency than at power frequency.
This is illustrated in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 taken from [4.6] where the scalar potential rise of an earth grid
has been calculated when a 1 kA current is injected at the centre of the grid at respectively 0 Hz and 0,5
MHz; the grid is a square of 60m x 60 m with 10 m x 10 m meshes (made of copper conductors with 5
mm radius) buried at a depth of 0,5 m.
The concept of GPR assumes here its full meaning, but this doesn‘t mean automatically that any circuit
installed in the vicinity of such an earth network will be subjected to this GPR, as a strong magnetic
coupling can still exist between both circuits.
In order to illustrate this, let‘s add to the circuit of the above example a new circuit consisting at a single
conductor above ground, parallel to the earth conductor and earthed at the point struck by the lightning
stroke (Figure 4.5).
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Figure 4.3 Earth surface potential for I = 1 kA, f = 0 Hz and = 1000 m.
Figure 4.4 Earth surface potential for I = 1 kA, f = 0,5 MHz and = 1000 m (r = 10) (This scalar
potential has no direct physical meaning).
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In this new situation the common mode voltage U applied to the new circuit will be given by (in Laplace
form):
U = s (L - M) I2 = R1 I1 - R2 I2 - s M I2 (4.10)
or:
U = - s M I2 (4.11)
o 2
L (ln 1)
2 2da
o 2
M (ln 1)
2 dh (4.12)
where:
a is the radius of the conductor;
h is the height of the conductor above ground;
d is the depth of burial of the earth conductor;
ℓ is the length of influence of the ground conductor, i.e. the length beyond which almost all
the current has dissipated into the soil. This length can be assumed to be equivalent to the critical length
ℓc introduced in appendix 4.5.1.
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It turns out from the above expressions that when the distance d + h between conductors is much larger
than the radius a of the buried conductor, L remains larger than M and the common mode voltage U is
mainly due to the drop of ground potential .
This is logical since L represents the whole magnetic flux surrounding the earth conductor while L – M
represents the part of this flux limited by the conductor above ground.
As the magnetic field decreases rapidly with the distance to the ground conductor, it is evident that the
most important part of the flux is that part limited by the loop formed by both conductors.
Note that
dh
L M LBAC o (ln )
2 2d a
(4.13)
is nothing other than the self inductance of the loop formed by both conductors, as derived from chapter
5.6 and taking into account an ―equivalent radius‖ for the buried conductor equal to 2da .
(L - M)/ ℓ can also be considered as being the transfer inductance of the ground conductor.
Very important also is the concept of length of influence or critical length ℓc: indeed, the higher the
frequency and the lower the soil resistivity, the smaller this length will be and thus also the greater the
contribution of the GPR will be with respect to the magnetic coupling.
For all these reasons, and although the common mode voltage U is not exactly equal to the difference of
GPR between A and B, it is usual to take this latter value as the upper bound of U.
On the other hand, when the distance between source and victim is of the same order of magnitude as
the diameter of the ground conductor or when this ground conductor is not a bare conductor in contact
with the earth (with the consequence that the current cannot dissipate in the soil and thus that the length
of influence is much longer than the critical length), in other words when the ground conductor is the
shield of a cable or a Parallel Earthed Conductor, the above approximation is no longer valid and the
(T)GPR doesn‘t represent any more the actual common mode voltage appearing at the end of an earthed
circuit.
This is a very important statement because it means practically that
The part played by the “above ground” earthing network, the so called “bonding network”, is not the same
as the part played by the “underground” earthing network (the earth grid or earth electrode) in reducing
the disturbance level.
The bonding network is by far the most important for high frequency (or transient) phenomena.
In all the situations where a cable is protected by an PEC or a shielding it remains possible to get an
estimation of the level of disturbance by splitting the problem into three steps:
calculate (or measure) the CM voltage U‘ in the absence of PEC or shielding;
calculate the current flowing in the PEC or the shielding by dividing U‘ by its impedance;
calculate the resulting CM voltage U by using the transfer impedance concept.
An example of this calculation is given in Appendix 4.5.3.
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The method proposed here to estimate the importance of the common mode level of disturbance is of
course very approximate. It employs the circuit theory which is rather a bad tool for making calculations at
high frequencies and in a dissipative medium.
This is due to the fact that the propagation effects appear at much lower frequencies in the soil than in the
air (at 1 MHz, for = 100 m, the wavelength in the soil is equal to 22 m, whereas it is equal to 300 m in
the air).
A much more rigorous approach based on the antenna theory can be found in [4.7] where the relative
importance of the difference of transient potential (TGPR) and of the path dependent voltage (magnetic
induction) is emphasised.
2
The following example, taken from [4.7], illustrates some of the previous conclusions .
A surge of current with a rise time of 0,25 s and a half amplitude duration of 100 ms is fed at the corner
of an earth grid identical to that of Figures 4.3 and 4.4, but buried at 0,8 m depth in a soil with ρ = 1000
Ωm and εr = 9.
A cable, earthed at one end, is buried at 0,3 m depth (Figure 4.6). Two alternative cable routes are
considered, one following the earth grid conductors (1–2–3) and the other going directly from point 1 to
point 3 (1–3).
As pointed out previously (equation relating to Figure 4.5 and chapter 5.2.2.1), the CM voltage appearing
at the unearthed end, may be expressed as the sum of two terms:
VT = + V (4.14)
where is the difference of TGPR and is uniquely defined between points 1 and 3, and V is the path
dependent term due to time-varying field.
Figure 4.7 illustrates the total value and both components of the transient voltage, for both routes, 1-2-3 in
(a) and 1-3 in (b).
2
The symbols used are those taken from ref. [7].
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It can be seen, as forecast by the circuit theory, that the effects of TGPR are partially cancelled by the
induced e.m.f. due to the flux variation. This cancelling is larger when the cable follows the earth grid
conductors (principle of the Parallel Earthed Conductor introduced in subclause 7.2.2).
Many parameters can affect the intensity and the wave shape of the transient voltages in practical
situations.
Some factors have a dominant influence on both components of the voltage (i.e. on the TGPR and on the
induced components); for example:
the shape of the lightning current;
the earth conductivity.
Some factors influence mainly the TGPR; for example:
the location of the lightning current feed point;
the mesh density of the earth grid around the lightning current feed point;
the location of the earthing points of the cable (or of the cable shielding).
Other factors influence more the induced components; for example:
the cable routing;
the distance between cable and earth grid;
the presence of an PEC or an Above Ground Bonding Network (AGBN).
There are also a lot of other parameters which may be taken into consideration, such as: earthing system
shape and size, depth of burial, conductor material, ground rods, etc..
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Detailed parametric analysis, that enables variation of these parameters has been made available
recently thanks to the use of numerical codes. Some examples of these codes are listed in Appendix
5.6.4 of Chapter 5.
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Generally speaking EMC problems will be less severe in generating plants compared with those in HV
substations. The main reason for this is the larger distance that exists between HV equipment and LV
equipment and the existence of a better earth network.
In particular lightning strokes and switching operations in the HV yard adjacent to a generating plant will
very seldom be the origin of interference within the generating plant itself while they are the most
important cause of EMC problems in HV substations.
However, contrary to the usual situation in substation, it happens more often in generating plants that
equipment that may be vulnerable is present at both extremities of cables (e.g. electronic-smart-
transducers at one end, instrumentation at the other end) rendering the cabling and shielding practices
sometimes more critical.
We now survey the main sources of disturbances in generating plants bearing in mind that for a lot of
them (e.g. power frequency magnetic fields and fast transients in low voltage circuits), all that has been
said in the preceding clause remains valid.
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Care should be taken however to limit the currents likely to flow in the shields of the signal cables which
are connected to them. This can be done by the use of bonding conductors (PEC) or cable trays.
4.2.2 Lightning
The consequences of a lightning strike to a generating plant will depend on the point of strike.
Normally if the main buildings have been correctly protected with an external lightning protection system
as described in subclause 7.4.2.2 there should be no major disturbances induced in the internal wiring.
Things are a little bit different when lightning strikes a remote part of the generating plant not on the main
earth grid. In this case significant ground potential rises can occur and affect some specific circuits (see
subclause 4.2.5.2).
In particular, the use of different cable trays supporting circuits (cables) carrying different types of signal
is a good way to avoid this kind of disturbance and also improves the bonding network (Figure 4.8)
Figure 4.8 Example of stacking of trays containing different types of cable. The trays should be
electrically connected to the (grounded) vertical supports.
Fixed radio installations like paging systems may sometimes also affect the normal operation of
instrumentation when their antenna is installed close to low level circuits.
The RF field associated with the above are unlikely to have any direct effects on single
components, such as integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, but will be coupled into various conductors
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
and the resulting voltages and currents will produce undesired effects on electronic modules and
equipment such as:
electronic d.c. power supplies being affected such that the stabilised output is disturbed.
In most instruments [4.8] the normal signals are d.c. or low frequency a.c. and the coupled RF
disturbance occurs at frequencies far removed from the operational range of the amplifiers. However the
induced RF disturbances can produce interference effects by different mechanisms:
Fortunately the types of instrument cables in general use will normally include dielectric materials which
have appreciable losses at VHF and UHF, and therefore have significant attenuation at these
frequencies. The attenuation on the inner conductors of a 10 meter length of cable could be typically 10
dB at 30 MHz, 20 dB at 100 MHz and increasing to about 60 dB at 400 MHz.
For this reason and also owing to the usual existence of metalwork and other screening elements in the
proximity, the effect of radiated fields will normally tend to be very local and quite easy to detect.
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However for the frequency range under consideration (e.g. 470 MHz) many earth conductors associated
with electronic instrumentation are not "electrically short".
In particular, wherever the bonding between cable shields and instrumentation cabinets is not made
coaxially, the risk of interference exists.
This is particularly the case with some transducers (e.g. pressure transducers) connected to
instrumentation by a 4-20 mA loop with remote d.c. power feeding. The common mode induction of a few
volts on the transducer wiring can easily affect the converter operation and modify the d.c. current in the
loop.
For all these reasons the maximum permitted power level of hand held radio transmitters is very often
restricted to 200 mW or even less in nuclear generating plants, and in some countries they are completely
forbidden.
The resulting levels of disturbance likely to appear in the different kinds of circuits have been analysed in
clauses 4.2 and 4.3.
The present clause is a natural continuation of the previous ones in the sense that it tries to evaluate the
maximum disturbance level applied to each equipment and so to quantify its specific EMC environment.
This environment depends on the nature of the disturbance, on its coupling mode, on the location of the
equipment and on the way it is connected to other devices.
Due to the enormous quantity of parameters that are involved in the calculation of the resulting
disturbance levels, it is impossible to give precise values. Preference is therefore given to a division of the
disturbance levels into several classes which can then lead to the specification of immunity tests.
According to IEC [4.6], five to six environment classes can be selected, ranging from class 0 (very well
protected) to class 4 (heavily disturbed) or even class X (special).
UNIPEDE [4.7] however proposes to distinguish four classes to characterise conducted disturbances
appearing on signal ports (see Table 4.1).
These environment classes do not make any distinction between whether the equipment itself is installed
in a generating plant, a substation or other premises. This is because many sources of conducted
disturbances (lightning, fast transients in LV circuits) are not related to the type of installation and also
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
because mitigation methods are normally applied in premises where the sources of disturbance are well
known (e.g. fast transients due to switching operations in HV substations). [4.6]
On the other hand it has been assumed that disturbances that are directly radiated or induced into the
equipment (enclosure port) could be more severe in HV substations than in other locations but they
should not depend significantly on the position of the equipment within a substation or a generating plant.
Also for power supplies the environment of substations has been considered to be more severe than that
of all the other premises, but, again, no distinction has been made between the different locations within
the plant, as it is assumed that a common power supply system can feed all the equipment.
In order to have an idea of the different environment levels that are likely to be encountered, a list of
some typical values of test levels used to qualify the equipment is given below (see Tables 4.2 to 4.4).
It is clear that these values include an important margin with respect to the actual interference levels, not
only because they are test values but also because they are based on the assumption that only minimum
mitigation measures are applied.
It is also important not to confuse the environment classes, which refer to the equipment (ports), with the
severity test levels which, for a given port, can differ from one test to another.
B 100 V 1 kV - 1 kV 10 V
C 300 V 2 kV 1 kV 2 kV 10 V
D 300 V 4 kV 2,5 kV 4 kV 10 V
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Table 4.3 Typical test levels adopted to test a.c. and d.c. power ports
Generating
2 kV 1 kV 2 kV 10 V a.c.: 0,1 s
plant
HV
4 kV 2,5 kV 4 kV 10 V d.c.: 0,05 s
substation
Table 4.4 Typical test levels adopted to test the enclosure port of equipment.
ENCLOSURE PORT
Generating
100 A/m 100 A/m 30 A/m 10 V/m 8 kV
plant
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side) and one twelfth by switching surges in dc circuits which are a part of control circuits (low-voltage
side).
The disturbances due to lightning surges (LS/220 cases) and main-circuit switching surges (SS/47) in
Table 4.5 were found by:
The disturbances of protection equipments (LS/55, SS/25) among the above were found in the following
manner
(1) lightning surges (LS) analog type: A/10, B/8, C/8 total 26 cases digital type : A/9, B/18, C/2 total
29 cases
(2) switching surges (SS) analog type: A/1, B/1, C/1 total 3 cases digital type : A/11, B/9, C/2 total 22
cases
Table 4.5 Total number of disturbances and failures collected for 10 years [4.17].
(a) Disturbed equipment
Equipment type Number
protection 105
distant supervision/control 73
centralized supervision/control 5
communication 15
control* 73
measuring 49
automatic processing 2
others 8
total 330
(b) Causes
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operation
CB switching surge 24
capacitor bank SS 2
DC circuit switching DC circuit switching surge 21 21(0.07)
operation
others fault surge 2 19 (0.06)
CPU switching noise 2
welder noise 2
not clear 13
total 307**(ratio 1.0)
DS = Disconnector, CB = Circuit breaker, SS = Switching surge
** Communication (15 cases) and others (8 cases) in Table 4.5 (a) are deleted.
Class total
500 275 220 187 154 110 77 66 33 22 11 6.6
[kV]
LS 3 9 4 3 31 20 46 60 21 3 1 19 220
SS 3 4 0 1 7 3 7 17 0 3 0 2 47
The disturbed control equipments in Table 4.5 are installed in the following manner.
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The disturbances of the control equipments are heavily affected by the type and grounding of control
cables. Table 4.6 summarizes the type, grounding etc. of the control cables corresponding to Table 4.5.
LS 64 90 5 61 220
SS 13 24 0 10 47
DC-SS 7 12 0 2 21
others 3 5 2 9 19
subtotal 87 (0.28) 131(0.43) 7(0.02) 82(0.27) 307(1.0)
Both ends Receiving (panel side) Sending (main side) Unknown Sub total
LS 25 22 5 12 64
SS 3 4 3 3 13
DC-SS 4 1 0 2 7
others 0 2 1 0 3
subtotal 32 (0.37) 29 (0.33) 9 (0.10) 17 (0.20) 87 (1.0)
(c) Details (causes) of the disturbances for the metallic sheath cables
LS SS subtotal
excessive surge for the equipments 19 2 21
surge incoming from the other routes 5 5
poor execution and installation * 5 3
dielectric strength shortage of equipments 2 2
others 10 2 12
unknown 8 3 11
subtotal 47 (0.87) 7(0.13) 54(1.0)
* For example, not enough separation between control and power cables
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Remarks: control cables with no metallic sheath widely adopted in substations lower than 154 kV together
with metallic-sheath cables.
Centralized
Measuring Automatic
Protection Control Telecom.* supervision/ Total (ratio)
indicator process
control
*Distant supervision:
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number 37 35 20 15 14 10 6 24 6 167
LS 40 36 24 15 3 4 8 90 220
SS 20 8 2 5 2 0 1 9 47
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Table 4.8 Types of substations and corresponding IKL (thunderstorm days per year).
(a) Types of substations
Voltage (kV) Type N° S/S* N° disturbances Ratio**
(b) The number of disturbances and the ratio categorized by IKL (thunderstorms days per year)
Total 117 44
It is observed from the above table that the number of disturbances tends to be proportional to IKL in the
case of substations of 154kV and below. On the contrary, no co-relation to IKL is observed in substations
of 187kV and above. The reason for this is estimated that countermeasures against lightning surges are
well done for the substations of 187kV and above.
Table 4.9 shows types of disturbances due to lightning surges. It is observed in Table 4.9 (a) that more
than 70% of the disturbances are permanent, i.e. breakdown of the equipments and thus results in
permanent halt/lock and malfunctions.
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Type Malfunction Malfunction not Erroneous Halt lock Others Unknown Total
operated display
Number 12 6 3 31 9 5 66
154 36 29 29 20 8 5 32 18 331
Number
Number 37 35 20 15 14 10 6 24 6 167
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Number of disturbances
Cause Operating DS or CB
A B not clear subtotal
DS in GIS 4 4 2 10
DS
non-GIS 5 5 1 11
CB in GIS 2 5 2 9
CB non-GIS 9 1 3 13
unknown 0 1 1 2
non-GIS 0 1 0 1
Capacitor Bank
unknown 0 0 1 1
Subtotal − 20 17 10 47
Table 4.11 shows examples of the voltage and the frequency of switching surges.
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13 − / − / 1500 / − − no
14 − / − / 2300 / − − no
15 DS in − / 3500 / − / − − no
16 non GIS − / − / − / 35 3 no
17 − / − / − / − − yes
18 − / − / 89 / − − no
19 − / 2200 / 1560 / − − no
21 CB in − / 1350 / − / − 10 yes
23 CB in − / − / − / 200 − no
25 − / − / 800 / − − unknown
26 − / − / 900 / − − unknown
Figure 4.10 shows the effect of substation construction, i.e. outdoor or indoor (underground), on a surge
voltage as a function of the voltage class of substations. Similarly, Figure 3 shows the effect on the
frequency of the surge voltage waveform. It is observed that the higher the voltage class, the greater the
surge voltage and the frequency in the case of outdoor substations. A similar trend is observed in the
indoor case, but it is not as noticeable as the outdoor case.
Figure 4.12-(b) shows the effects of voltage class and substation construction on the surge voltage
frequency, 1: VT secondary, 2: CT secondary, 3: DC 110V P-E, x: CB control circuit.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 4.10 Effect of voltage class and substation construction on surge voltage, 1: VT secondary, 2: CT
secondary, 3: DC 110V P-E, x: CB control circuit.
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Figure 4.11 Effect of voltage class and substation construction on the surge voltage frequency.
Figure 4.12 shows surge voltages at various parts of control circuits, i.e. VT secondary (1), CT secondary
(2), source circuit DC 110V P-E (3) and CB control (pallet) circuit (x). In general, the following trend of the
voltage amplitude is observed in the figure.
The above trend is reasonable, since the CT and VT circuits are connected directly to the main (high
voltage) circuit of a GIS, and the number of turns of the CT is smaller than that of the VT.
Figure 4.12 Voltages at various parts of control circuits1: VT secondary, 2: CT secondary, 3: DC 110V P-
E, x: CB control circuit.
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Figure 4.13 shows the effect of a control cable on surge voltage attenuation. Figure 14 (a) is the surge
voltage waveform at the sending end of the cable, i.e. a CT secondary circuit, (b) at a GIS control box,
10m from the sending end, and (c) a protection circuit at the receiving end of the cable, 201m from the
sending end. It is clear that more than 2000V at the sending end (a) is reduced to less than 1000V at the
distance 10m (b), and the surge voltage is less than 4V at the receiving end (c). Furthermore, it is obvious
that the high frequency component of the surge voltage disappears at the receiving end. The
phenomenon is well known as the damping effect due to the attenuation along the cable.
It is said in general that a disconnector (DS) produces a surge voltage of which the frequency is higher
than that produced by a CB. The reason for this is that the operating speed of the DS is slow and the
polarity of the source side voltage can become opposite to the disconnected side. Thus, a discharge
across the poles occurs due to a quite high voltage across the poles. Such a phenomenon cannot occur
in the CB case, since its operating speed is high, and the voltage across the poles is reduced by a stray
capacitance across the poles. Also, the circuit length is shorter in the DS operation than that in the CB
operation.
Figure 4.14 shows the frequency of surge voltages due to a DS operation (o) and a CB operation (x). The
frequency due to the DS operation tends to be higher than that due to the CB operation.
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(e) Disturbed elements IC base plate 6, aux. relay 3, lamp 1, source circuit 1, others 2, total 13
The above ratio of the disturbed elements in similar to that in the disturbances due to main circuit
switching surges except the auxiliary relays which is characteristic to the DC switching surges.
3. Types of disturbances
(a) Types of disturbances malfunction 3, malfunction (not operated) 1, halt/lock 3, erroneous indication 1,
others 4, unknown 1, total 13
(b) Aspects of disturbances permanent 3, non repetitive 10
voltage (kV) 500 275 220 187 154 110 77 / lower subtotal
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a) Protection equipments halt / lock 48 (0.46), malfunction 25 (0.24), not operated 8 (0.08), others 24
(0.22), total 105 (1.0)
(b) Control equipments halt / lock 31 (0.42), malfunction 12 (0.16), not operated 11 (0.15), others 19
(0.27), total 73 (1.0)
(c) Telecommunication halt / lock 42 (0.58), malfunction 2 (0.03), not operated 3 (0.04), others 26
(0.35), total 73 (1.0)
(d) Measuring / indicator halt / lock 20 (0.41), malfunction 13 (0.27), not operated 4 (0.08), others 12
(0.24), total 49 (1.0)
It is clear from the above that halt and lock of equipments represent about a half of the total disturbances,
and those including malfunctions (not operated too) reach 70% of the total disturbances. The above
disturbances of equipments result in the following power system disturbances:
The number of power supply and generation disturbances (A+B) is 32 cases which is 11% of the total
disturbances.
The detail of (A) Power supply / (B) generation disturbances, total 32 cases (ratio 1.0), is as follows:
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(5) types of disturbed protection equipments : digital 6 (permanent 1, non-repetitive 5), analog 3
(permanent 1, non-repetitive 2)
(6) types of disturbances : malfunction 15 ( protection 7), halt / lock 8 (1), not operated 6 (4)
(7) disturbed elements : aux. relay 23, IC board 22, others 14, total 59 cases
The detail of (C) System operation disturbances, total 23 cases (1.0), is as follows:
(1) lightning 14 cases (0.61), main-circuit switching 6, others 3
(2) incoming route: control 7, transmission 3, source 3, CT/VT 2, others 3, unknown 5
(3) cause: protection 15, meas. / indic. 4, control 3, TC 1
(4) types: malfunction 15 (protection 10), halt / lock 7 (4), others 1
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carry out an experiment to estimate the incoming route and the mechanism of disturbances. On the
contrary, the ratio of countermeasures against a lightning surge is only 43% because it is estimated not
repetitive.
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trip/generation stop 11, function halt/lock 29, indicator/ alarm 20, control impossible 9, re-closing
impossible 8, osc./ measuring error 14, others 10
Restoration: 43 cases
lightning surge 38, switching surge 5 : total 43 indicator / alarm 22, control impossible 7, re-closing
impossible 5, others 9
(a) similar disturbances occur repeatedly, (b) the influence of a disturbance is large, or (c) a cause and
the incoming route of the surge is not clear. The countermeasure is investigated in parallel by a utility and
a manufacturer.
The third stage is taken place when a number of similar disturbances are estimated and/or the
disturbance is estimated to occur repeatedly. Occasionally the third stage results in revision of an existing
standard [4.21] of which the summary is given in section 6.5.1. There were 25 cases which went to the
third stage out of 153 cases of countermeasures carried out. Figure 4.16 shows the ratio of the number of
the third stage countermeasures to the number of all the disturbances. It is observed that the third stage
countermeasures are carried out against an equipment which significantly affects power system
operation. A large part of the countermeasures involve IC board of CPU, digital input/ output circuits and
A/D conversion circuits.
Page 104
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
surge disturbance
Y/N
A. utility B. manufacture
step 6 A: field test 6 B: equipment test
standardization if necessary
Page 105
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
It should be noted that restoration was dominant in the case of disturbances due to lightning, while
disturbances due to main-circuit switching often requires a countermeasure because of the repetitive
nature.
16
14
12
10
per cent
8
0
protection distace control measuring
supervision
Figure 4.16 Ratio of the third stage countermeasures to the number of disturbances.
The restoration and countermeasures explained in the previous sections require manpower (man x days)
and material costs. Out of the total 307 disturbances, utilities spent manpower for 281 cases (A),
manufacturer for 218 cases (B), 200 cases (C) required the material costs. Figure 4.17 shows a
schematic diagram of the manpower and the material costs in the utilities and manufacturers. It is clear in
the figure that more than a half of the total cases involve both the utilities and the manufacturers and the
material costs.
(2) Man-power
Man-power for countermeasures per each case is classified and counted. The ratio ―n‖ is the counted
number of each class defined by:
Page 106
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The countermeasure material cost per case is also classified and counted. The average cost ―C‖ of the
material costs / per case is defined by:
A
38
43 26
B 174 C
1 0 0
Figure 4.17 Man-power and material costs in utilities and manufacturer; A: utilities, B: manufacturers, C:
material costs.
B. Disturbed equipment
D. Countermeasure
Page 107
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
B. Diodes in a 66kV line re-closure burnt. They were used as a rectifier for AC voltage inputs.
Parts Countermeasures
Page 108
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
C. Lightning to a tower in a substation. Lightning current flowing into a grounding mesh induced a surge
voltage to a control cable.
Remove diode
52TW circuit Surge voltage reduced to
Adding capacitor
about 20%
DC/DC converter Adding capacitor
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
E. (1) Relay terminal: A lightning current of 10.9kA (estimated:*1) flowing into a ground mesh induced a
surge voltage to a control cable (with no metallic sheath, CVV cable),and a lightning surge overvoltage at
the relay terminal becomes 8,422V (estimated:*2).
*1: A lightning current of 30kA due to a direct strike to a 66kV system flows into a ground mesh and a
ground wire as in Table 4.15.
standard lightning current waveform 1.2/ 50μs, estimated wavefront of the above 0.5μs
*2: Overvoltage induced at a relay terminal under the worst condition in an experiment with 200m cable
was 11,082V. By considering the real length of the cable of 150m, an estimated voltage at the relay
terminal is 8,422V=11,082V×150m/200m.
Page 110
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Page 111
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(3) Telecommunication control equipment‘s auxiliary relay coil for indication broken.
C. Lightning to the nearest tower to the substation. Lightning current flowed into a ground mesh and
induced a surge voltage to a control cable. Differential mode voltage was induced to the diode.
D. Countermeasures
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
E. (1) Reclosure terminal:A lightning current of 3 to 6kA (estimated*1) flowing into a ground mesh results
in a surge voltage at the reclosure terminal estimated as:
The voltage exceeds the surge strength of the broken diode which was manufactured in 1975.
*1 : Lightning current of 30kA due to a 77kV system direct strike in divided into a ground mesh and a
ground wire. Induced voltage of each cables (V/A) were based on previous experiments data
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
C. Induced lightning surge to a telecommunication cable flowed into Tele-control equipment‘s terminal at
substation.
E. (1) A surge voltage at the IC chip of 200V( result of IC chip open investigation)
(2) A surge voltage at the terminal of telecommunication control equipment estimated as 7kV.
(Result of reappearance test. When input 7kV surge at the terminal of telecommunication control
equipment, IC chip broken in the same way.)
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
C. Lightning to second tower from the substation. Lightning flowed into a ground mesh induced voltage to
a control cable.
D. Keep control cables away from ground cables. An increase of connecter of ground mesh.
E. Re-closure terminal: A lightning current of 11.1kA (*1) flowing into a ground mesh result in a surge
voltage at the reclosure terminal estimated 5,278V(estimated*2)
*1: An observation record of LPATS (Lightning Positioning and Tracking System).
*2: Distance from substation was 329m. A ground mesh current was estimated 8.7% of the lightning
current, as shown in Table 4.18 and Figure 4.29.
Page 115
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(4.16)
Page 116
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
C. During the test of DS operating ability for replacement of 66kV buses, CB1 and CB2 (primary and
secondary CBs of the main transformer) tripped when DS was opened. DS switching surge was
transferred into a control cable via a VT (voltage transformer) connected the transformer protection
equipment and caused photo-couplers for CB tripping circuits to turn on. As a result CB1 and CB2,
tripped.
D (1) Installation of noise absorbers (capacitor) at the secondary circuits of photo couplers.
110kV
CB1
trip
CB2
66kV
opened
DS
cable line
fig.(Case No.6)
Figure 4.30 Case No. 6.
Page 117
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Ry
opened
DS1 DS2
closed
CB1 CB2
66kV GIS
fig.(Case No.7)
Figure 4.31 Case No.7.
A. (1) 66/6.6kV (distribution s/s) (2) GIS switching surge (3) Influence: No CB trip (no outage)
B. Numerical relay (66kV line protection equipment) element malfunction
C. (1) CB1 and CB2 were opened, and Line1 and Line2 were charged from the other end.
(2) When DS1 (or DS2) was opened (or closed), the relay malfunction occurred. The surge was
transferred through the control cable via a CT (current transformer).
D. (1) Replacement the CVV cable for CT circuits by a CVVS cable with both ends of shield grounded.
Then the frequency of malfunctions decreased.
(2) Installation ferrite cores at the secondary circuit of internal auxiliary transformer for CT. Then the mal-
operation disappeared.
trip
CB2
66kV
CB1
closed
capacitor
fig.(Case No.8)
Figure 4.32 Case No.8.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
A. (1) 154/66kV (2) CB switching surge (AIS: Air-Insulated Switchgear) (3) CB trip (no outage) due to
Relay malfunction
B. Transistor type distance relay (66kV line protection equipment). This relay was installed before the
rectangular impulse test (in Japanese standard) was adopted. CB tripped when CB1 was closed.
C. Control cable
D. Installation surge absorb capacitors at CT, VT and DC input terminals of the relay equipment. The
effects are shown in Table 4.19.
Table 4.19 CB switching surge voltage at the relay equipment (Vp-p, max)
6.6kV
relay CB
unit
tripped
(relay test)
VCB cubicle
distribution
line
fig.(Case No.9)
Figure 4.33 Case No. 9.
A. (1) 66kV (Distribution S/S) (2) CB Switching Surge (VCB: Vacuum Circuit Breaker) (3) Relay function
lock in the relay test
B. Numerical Relay stored in 6.6kV VCB cubicle (Distribution line protection equipment. This relay was
installed before the rectangular impulse test was adopted. Automatic re-closure didn‘t operate as CPU
was initialized by CB switching surge in the relay test.
C. Wires in the VCB cubicle
D. Installation of surge bypass capacitors on CPU board.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
4.4.10.10 Case No 10
154kV GIS
66kV GIS
CB1 CB2
closed
fig.(Case No.10)
Figure 4.34 Case No. 10.
A. (1) 154/66kV (2) GIS switching surge (CB closing, Figure 4.34) (3) CB trip (outage) due to relay
malfunction
B. Numerical Relay (66kV line protection equip.), this relay was installed before the rect-angular impulse
test was adopted.
D. (1) Grounding a free core of the CVV cable at both ends. Replacing the CVV cable by a CVVS cable
with both ends of shield grounded.
(2) Connection between power-cable-heads and GIS by Cu belts. (Usually, they are connected by surge
arresters or capacitors.)
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(3) Installation of ferrite cores to the secondary circuit of internal auxiliary transformer for CT.
*surge frequency:6.2MHz
Result × × ○
(malfunction) (malfunction)
B. Numerical Relay (275kV line protection equip.), this relay was installed before the rectangular impulse
test was adopted.
C. (1) Arrestors connecting Power-cable-heads and GIS were replaced from gap type to gap-less type
(ZnO type). Since the arrestor replacement, relay disturbance (CPU stopped.) occurred in every GIS-CB
operation.
(2). Surge level difference of methods of connection between power-cable-heads and GIS. (Table 4.23)
Vp-p max(kV) 13 26 2
Frequency(MHz) 0.5 15 15
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
ZnO
fig.(Case No.11)
Figure 4.35 Case No. 11.
(3) LEDs connected to the DC5V circuits were affected by the DC switching surge.
B. Numerical relay (154kV bus bar separation equipment to work with remote backup)
(2) DC switching surge was transferred into the CB trip circuit.(2000V, 0-peak)
(3) Surge current over the allowable level was input into the surge suppression diode*.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Literature:
(2) T. Hasegawa, et al.: A fact-finding analysis of lightning disturbances in generator stations and
substations, IEE of Japan, Annual Meeting Records, Paper 1218, 1992 (in Japanese)
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
z z
Side view
y Front view x
Page 124
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 4.39 shows an example of direct connecting configuration. In this case, the sheath grounding point
is located on the inside of relay unit box.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
On the other hand, Figure 4.40 shows an example of indirect connecting configuration. In this case, the
sheath grounding point is located on the outside of relay box. Control cable is connected to relay unit via
the cable processing room. Figure 4.41 shows a typical case of the cable processing room.
Cable
Relay Local Processing Relay unit
Box cubicle room
Both connecting configurations of sheath grounding for control cables are widely used in Japanese power
utilities.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
4.5 Appendix
where Rdc : dc resistance of conductor, [] c : conductor permeability, 2f , f : frequency [Hz]
S : conductor cross-section area [m2] , l : length of conductor outer surface [m]
c
Z ij jLij
(4.17)
x 0 x d
2 2
x d
Lij ln 1 1
2 d d x x
(4.18)
where:
f = frequency
0 410 7
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
c) When two conductors are above the earth surface, the impedance and the admittance are
given in the following form for any frequencies [4.22].
0
Z e ij j Pij
2 (4.19)
Pij x ln 1 1 (dij / x) 2 1
1 (Sij / x) 2 x ln( Sij / dij ) x 2 dij x 2 Sij dij Sij
2 2
[Y ] j[C ]
[C ] 2 0 l 2 [ P0 ]1
P0 ij x ln 1 1 (d ij / x) 2 1
1 ( Dij / x) 2 x ln( Dij / d ij ) x 2 d ij x 2 Dij d ij Dij
2 2
(4.20)
where
dij (hi h j ) 2 yij , Dij (hi h j ) 2 yij , Sij (hi h j 2he ) 2 yij
2 2 2
(4.21)
A
C B
D
b
d
c
0 A a a B b b
Lij ln d
C D A B (4.22)
4 C c D d
c
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
e) Other configurations
0 d1d 2
Lij
4
C1 C 2 r (4.23)
Formulas of Lii and Lij involve an error (-r/l to be +r/l in the middle). It might be better to show a general
formula of the conductor impedance and admittance.
An additional spark gap connected in parallel with part of the resistance can also be considered in order
to take into account soil ionization.
It has been shown however [4.24] that soil ionization is not instantaneous: soil resistivity decreases with a
time constant of about 2 μs. This value is rather high compared with the time constants associated with
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
most negative subsequent strokes. Moreover, if soil ionization occurs, it will always have as consequence
a reduction of the ground potential rise. So ignoring this phenomenon always gives conservative results.
For these reasons, we will consider here only the linear components of the impedance.
Although different authors diverge in determining the Per unit length values of R, L and C, the
discrepancies obtained remain usually small with respect to the approximations introduced for seasonal
variations of soil resistivity or lack of soil homogeneity.
2 1
G
A
0
L A
2
2
C
A
k
with A ln 1
a (4.24)
The choice of k is not straightforward but is usually chosen between 1 and 4 depending on the layout.
4
A ln 1
for a vertical rod: a (4.25)
2
A ln 1
for a buried horizontal rod: 2da (4.26)
Based on the above per unit length values, the equivalent lumped elements are:
1
Rg Lg L Cg C
G (4.27)
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
In order to highlight the main parameters determining the high frequency behavior of the earth impedance
the values of the time constants τL=Lg / Rg and τc=Rg x Cg can be computed and compared with the
minimum rise time τr of the lightning current waveform.
Taking into account τr ≥ 0.2 μs (f ≤ 1.4 MHz), it is often claimed [4.25], [4.26] that the capacitive effects
can be neglected as τc is always much smaller than τr for earth resistivities lower than 100 Ωm. With this
assumption and assimilating an earth rod with an open-circuited transmission line, it is possible to
calculate the surge impedance Zg of the line and to compare it to Rg.
Achieving this, most of the authors come to the conclusion that the ratio Z g / Rg remains more or less
constant up to some characteristic frequency which, for small earth electrodes like that of HV towers, is
usually in the range of 100 kHz or above. At higher frequencies an increase proportional to f [4.24],
[4.25] or to f [4.26], is generally observed. However when capacitive effects are taken into account [4.26],
[4.27] a decrease seems to occur for short (horizontal) conductors buried in a soil of medium (100 m) to
high resistivity.
The characteristic frequency at which Zg /Rg starts to increase is always inversely proportional to L.
Starting from this statement it is possible to calculate the critical length lc of the electrode for each
characteristic frequency. This parameter lc is the maximum length for which the ratio Z/R remains close to
1 - or in other words, the maximum length beyond which the efficiency of the earth conductor doesn’t
increase further.
For a single horizontal electrode the expressions for lc have been respectively derived from [4.24] and
[4.25]. They are very similar (according to references [4.28] and [4.29] respecvtively):
0,5
( m)
c 0.6 (4.28)
f ( MHz )
0,54
( m)
c (4.29)
f ( MHz )
According to [4.24],.for a single vertical rod or a conical electrode arrangement, the value of ℓc seems to
be slightly shorter.
( m)
ℓc , (4.30)
f ( MHz )
this means that for soil resistivities extending from 10 m to 1000 m, the maximum length of an earth
electrode ensuring a constant impedance up to 1 MHz varies from 3 m to 30 m.
For longer electrodes the surge impedance will be higher than the earth resistance leading to a higher
transient ground potential rise.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Inversely, starting from knowledge of the critical length it is possible to calculate for any frequency the
value for the earth impedance Zg of a given earth electrode by calculating the expression of R g and Lg in
which l has been replaced by lc and assuming that Zg = Rg + jLg.
f
Rg ln 1
2 d a f
where f is the frequency in MHz (4.40)
Rg ln 1
f da f
For multiple electrode arrangements, earth loops and earth grids the calculations are more complex, but
due to the relatively lower value of the earth resistance of such arrangements the characteristic frequency
will normally be smaller than for a single rod.
An important conclusion that can be derived from the above statements is that although the maximum
level of disturbance increases with the value of the soil resistivity the difference in behaviour between
―high frequency‖ phenomena and ―low frequency‖ phenomena decreases.
This can be illustrated by comparing Figure 4.43 presenting the scalar potential rise of an earth grid
(square of 60 m x 60 m with meshes of 10 m x 10 m buried in a soil of 100 m resistivity) under the
influence of an HF current (1 kA, 0,5 MHz) injected at its centre, with Figure 15 presenting the same
phenomenon under almost the same conditions except for the soil resistivity (1000 m) and for the
permittivity (which, according to the above discussion, plays a secondary role in the results).
In other words, the absolute value of the d.c. resistance of an earth grid is not so important in determining
the level of HF disturbance due to phenomena like lightning.
For those phenomena, the best solution lies always in the achievement of a good bonding network
(above ground, in cable trenches or underground).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 4.43 Earth surface scalar potential for I = 1 kA, f = 0,5 MHz and = 100 m (r= 50).
Page 135
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
2
Conductor cross section(mm ) 315 60 60 60 60
The phase characteristic of a buried bare conductor shows an important distinction from that observed in
an overhead transmission line. The characteristic impedance for an infinite line is given in theory [4.29]:
Z o ( ) Z ( ) Y ( ) Z o ( )
0 -45
° °
Thus following results for the phase angle of the characteristic impedance is given.
45 -45
° °
°
This is evident in Figure 4.44 showing the characteristic impedance phase angle of around 45 for the
frequency range of 10 kHz to 1 MHz and negative for frequency greater than 5MHz. This means that the
conductance plays an important role for a lower frequency, while the capacitance and the series
impedance are important at a high frequency similar to an overhead line. The basic diference of the
buried bare conductor from the overhead line becomes clear from the observation,
In a low frequency range less than 100 kHz: Zo is resistive, i.e. the phase angle, 0
°
(1)
In medium frequency range less than 5 MHz: Zo is inductive, i.e. the phase angle, 0 < 45
°
(2)
The above characteristic of a buried conductor has not been observed and has not been well understood.
Page 136
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
100 0.8
0.7 case-1
case-2
0.6
case-3
Attenuation ,neper/m
Magnitude, Ohm
0.5 case-4
0.4 case-5
10
case-1 0.3
case-2 0.2
case-3
0.1
case-4
case-5 0
1 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Frequency, Hz
Frequency, Hz
case-1
60 1000
case-2
case-1
50 case-3 case-2
case-4 case-3
40 100 case-4
case-5
Velocity , m/micro-s
case-5
Phase , degree
30
20
10
10
0
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1
-10
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
-20
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz
Figure 4.44 Characteristic impedance response. Figure 4.45 Propagation constant response.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
o 2(he h)
Z ( ) j ln
2 r (4.41)
The admittance of the counterpoise to the earth for a power frequency was derived by Sunde [4.23].
Y G jC
1 1
2lc 2lc
where G ln 2rh 1 and C 2 0 r ln 1 (4.42)
2rh
The propagation constant is given by the series impedance Z and the shunt admittance Y.
Y ( )Z ( ) (4.43)
The propagation velocity calculated using the above equations with varying soil resistivity and permittivity
is presented in Table 4.25 at three different frequencies of 100 kHz, 1 MHz and 10 MHz.
In the Table 4.25, it should be noted that, the effect of varying the permittivity on the propagation velocity
is negligible at all the three frequencies when the soil resistivity is about 10 m but it is remarkable in the
1000 m soil case. For 100 m soil, this variation is negligible at a low frequency, and is becomes
significant at the frequency of 10 MHz. The fact indicates that the propagation velocity on the
counterpoise is heavily dependent on the soil permittivity as well as the resistivity. Also, the effect of the
permittivity on the propagation velocity becomes small if the resistivity becomes lower. The velocity
increases as the soil resistivity increases and the capacitive effect predominates at a very high frequency.
Though the presented data is only an approximate because of the assumption of constant per-unit length
parameters G and C, it indicates that the propagation velocity is about 27% to 40% of the speed of light
for a practical soil resistivity and permittivity. This velocity is reached at a relatively lower frequency for a
high resistivity soil. The observations agree well with the identified characteristic in Figure 4.45 (b).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Z( ) R( ) jL( )
The characteristic impedance and the propagation constant are defined by:
Z o ( ) Z ( ) Y ( )
1
2
( ) Z ( )Y ( )
1
2
L()
R()
G () C()
R( ) Re alZ o ( ) ( )
Im agZ o ( ) ( )
1
L( )
Im ag ( ) / Z o ( w)
1
C ( )
Thus, the frequency dependent values of R, L, G and C can be determined from the measured
propagation parameters such as Figures 4.44 and 4.45.
The frequency-dependent characteristics of the RLGC line parameters derived for the first two cases in
Table 4.24 using the above expressions is presented in Figure 4.47. The characteristic show a similar
trend for both of the cases. The series resistance increases with a frequency while the inductance
decreases almost in the same manner as that of the ground-return impedance of an underground cable
[4.23]. However, unlike a transmission line, the conductance and the capacitance for a buried bare
conductor show heavy frequency-dependence. It is also observed that conductance, inductance and
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
capacitance are very close to those from Sunde‘s quasi-static formula [4.23] up to the frequency of 100
kHz. Table 4.26 shows a comparison of the derived RLGC parameters with Sunde‘s quasi-static formula
for case-1 and case-2. It is observed that, the identified parameters show even better agreement in a high
resistivity soil, than those in a low resistivity soil.
Length
6m 34.1m 6m 34.1m 6m 34.1m 6m 34.1m
(m)
r Frequency: 1 MHz
r Frequency: 10 MHz
2
“ 6m” represents a 6 m conductor with 315mm cross section, buried at 20 cm depth
2
“34.1m” represents a 34.1 m conductor of 60mm cross section, buried at 1 m depth
r : relative permittivity and : soil resistivity
Velocity in the table: mentioned as the ratio of propagation velocity with that of speed of light in free space
Page 140
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
L(µH/m) 1.01 1.27 0.14 0.85 L(µH/m) 1.16 0.43 0.32 1.12
C(nF/m) 0.64 0.35 0.14 0.52 C(nF/m) 0.34 0.15 0.14 0.30
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Sunde [4.23] derived frequency dependent per-unit length parameters for evaluating a transient behavior
of a single horizontal grounding conductor on the surface of the soil due to direct lightning strikes using
telegrapher‘s equations.
Z() Zi j0 2 ln 1.85 a 2 2 (4.45)
The above formula requires an iterative calculation to determine the final values of the series impedance
and the shunt admittance till the propagation constant () converges.
Sunde‘s relations were solved iteratively taking three different values of relative permittivity 4, 9 and 20.
These values of the relative permittivity can be considered as a reasonable one based on the observed
propagation velocity in the previous section. The characteristic impedance and the propagation constant
were then calculated from the obtained series impedance and shunt admittance. Figure 4.48 illustrates
the comparison of the identified propagation characteristic from the experimental results with that from the
Sunde‘s frequency-dependent formula for the first two cases in Table 4.23. A comparison for the cases 3
to 5 is not applicable because of varying soil resistivity along the conductor.
From the comparison of different propagation characteristics under two different situations, it is observed
that though the numerical values of propagation parameters from Sunde‘s analytical formula and that
obtained from experimental results shows some differences, the frequency response of the propagation
parameters obtained from both agree in some general trends.
The effect of the soil permittivity shows more sensitive in the case of a high resistivity soil than in the
case of a low resistivity soil.
From the observation of the wave propagation frequency responses for many theoretical cases using
Sunde‘s frequency dependent formula, it is found that the characteristic impedance magnitude increases
with frequency. The impedance then saturates and shows a decreasing characteristic with further
increment in the frequency. This frequency is around some hundreds of kHz. This trend is similar to that
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
identified from experimental data. But a small discrepancy in characteristic impedance magnitude
observed in two approaches for case-2 is, because according to the Sunde formula the maximum value
of the characteristic impedance is found to be dependent on soil resistivity and permittivity [4.30]. It is
higher for high resistivity and low permittivity soil. However, the effect of permittivity is more important at
high resistivity soil only. This is clear from the calculation for case-1(100m) and case-2(400m) as
shown in Figure 4.48. The maximum value of the characteristic impedance identified from the
experimental data has been found in very narrow range of 55 for the observed cases independent of
soil characteristics and conductor geometry. This is important and can cause an error in simulation results
particularly at the first peak of the voltage wave. This error has been observed in Ref. [4.33] using J.
Marti‘s line model [4.34]. This requires further investigations.
One another major discrepancy that is observed is the phase characteristics in lower frequency range.
The possible reason for this could be, as discussed in Section 4.5.2.1, the characteristic impedance in a
lower frequency range can be expressed as:
R jL
Z o
G (4.46)
i.e. in the lower frequency range, the phase angle is solely defined by the series impedance. Also at
lower frequency, a small deviation in R can cause remarkable difference in phase angle. As [4.34] has
employed the magnitude of the characteristic impedance for rational function fitting, phase characteristic
has not been considered. However, the author opinion is this may not cause a severe error particularly for
high frequency transient for a few micro-secs.
The small discrepancy observed in the attenuation constant and propagation velocity may not be the
cause of a serious error in propagation function fitting for short length conductor but the error would be
more dominant as the length of the conductor increases.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
sunde_epr4
70 sunde_epr4 100 sunde_epr9
60 sunde_epr9 sunde_epr20
sunde_epr20 80
50 identified
identified
Impedance, Ohm
Impedance, Ohm
40 60
30
40
20
10 20
0
0
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz
40 identified
Phase,Degree
40
20
20
0
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 0
-20 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Frequency,Hz -20
Frequency,Hz
(b) Characteristic Impedance: phase
(b) Characteristic Impedance: phase
sunde_epr4
0.8 sunde_epr4
sunde_epr9
0.7 0.2 sunde_epr9
0.6 sunde_epr20
Attenuation,neper/
sunde_epr20
0.5 identified 0.15
m
Attenuation,neper/m
0.4 identified
0.3 0.1
0.2
0.1 0.05
0
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 0
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Frequency,Hz
Frequency,Hz
100
identified
Velocity,m/micro-s
80
60 100
40
50
20
0
0
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Frequency,Hz
Frequency,Hz
Page 144
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
A 100 m signal cable is to be installed in a trench between a telecommunication building (with antenna
tower) and an auxiliary kiosk situated on the same earth network of a HV substation.
The question raised is: what will be the common mode voltage appearing at one end of this cable (the
other end earthed) when lightning strikes the telecommunication tower?
As the cable has a steel armouring (type 1. in the subdivision of subclause 7.3.2.2) its transfer
impedance can be modelled as follows:
Zt = Rt + jLt (4.47)
with Rt = 1 m/m
Lt = 20 nH/m
The earth impedance Zg of the telecommunication building has been measured in the time domain
(e.g. by injection of an 8/20 s impulse current or in the frequency domain at 25 kHz).
Rg = 0,1
Lg = 2,5 H
These relatively small values are due to the high density of the earth mesh and to the low value of the
soil resistivity: = 10 m.
These parameters are in fact frequency dependent, but this evaluation is sufficient for the present
3
purpose . Note that it would also be possible to estimate them directly by applying the formulas given
in appendix 4.5.1.
The lightning current i(t) will be modelled by the classical double exponential function:
-t -t
i(t) = Io (e - e ) (4.50)
3
A more realistic evaluation would have been to measure Rg at a lower frequency and Lg at a higher frequency, taking into
account that Rg is mainly responsible of the LF GPR due to the LF components of the lightning current, whereas L g is
responsible of the TGPR due to the HF components.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The current flowing in the shield of the signal cable is given by:
L e
Lg
u( t ) I o t
t
R t K1 e Rc t /Lc K2 et
Lc (4.53)
Rg
K1 Rc R c , K2 R g Rc
With Lg Lc Lc
Lg
Lc (4.54)
The first term of the above expression is a high frequency component due to the front of the lightning
wave-shape. It is by far the most important one when the transfer impedance exhibits a significant
inductive component (Lt). The other two terms are low frequency components depending of the tail of
the wave-shape. They can often be neglected in the evaluation of the maximum peak value of the CM
induced voltage.
This means that Upeak is practically a linear function of the steepness of the lightning current,
the equivalent self inductance Lg of the earthing network and the transfer inductance L t of the
cable shield.
In other words, in this example Upeak can reach 100 V per kA of lightning current.
This calculation is of course very approximate since it doesn‘t take into account either propagation
effects (reflections), or the influence of the cable shield on the GPR.
However, it can certainly be used in order to understand what the most important parameters
influencing the coupling are, and to give a first approximation of what will be the resultant disturbance
level.
It is clear, of course, that a complete computer simulation would produce more accurate results. If
correct protective measures are taken (e.g. by using shielded cables and PEC) and if the equipment is
correctly designed to withstand the relevant test levels, lightning should not be the origin of material
destruction, as in most practical situations the voltage appearing in common mode at the extremities
of a correctly earthed shielded cable will seldom exceed 2 kV.
For soils of very high resistivity the use of an PEC in the form of a metallic conduit can lead to an
important reduction in the CM voltages thanks to the very low value of the transfer impedance. An
interesting discussion on that subject can be found in [4.12].
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
4.6 References
[4.1] R. Cortina, P.C.T. Van Der Laan & alii: ―Analysis of EMC problems on auxiliary equipment in
electrical installations due to lightning and switching operations‖, CIGRE Session, 1992
[4.2] CCITT Directives concerning protection of telecommunication lines against harmful effects from
electric power and electrical railway lines, Vol. 1 to 9, Genève 1989.
[4.3] W. Xiong, F.P. Dawalibi, A. Selby: ―Frequency response of substation ground systems subject to
lightning strikes‖, CIGRE Symposium of Lausanne 1993.
[4.4] L. Grcev: ―Transient voltages coupling to shielded cables connected to large substation earthing
systems due to lightning‖, CIGRE Session 1996, paper 36-201.
[4.5] J.H. Bull: ―Guide to reduction of susceptibility of instrumentation to radio frequency fields‖, ERA
Report n° 80 - 135, 1981.
[4.6] IEC 1000-5-1 Technical report: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), Part 5: Installation and
mitigation guidelines - Section 1: General considerations, 1996.
[4.7] UNIPEDE: ―Automation and Control Apparatus for Generating Stations and Substations‖,
Electromagnetic Compatibility - Immunity Requirements - 230.05 Normspec, Ren9523, Paris, January
1995.
[4.8] IEC 1312-1 Protection against LEMP - Part 1: General Principles, 1995.
[4.9] IEC 1024-1 (1990), IEC 1024-1-1 (1993): Protection of structures against lightning.
[4.10] IEEE recommended practice for the protection of wire-line communication facilities serving
electric power stations, IEEE Std 487, 1992.
[4.11] IEEE guide on shielding practice for low voltage cables, IEEE Std 1143, 1994.
[4.12] R. Anders, I. Trulsson: ―Electrical installation design procedures for minimal interference in
associated electronic equipment‖, ASEA - Industrial Electronics Division, 1981.
[4.13] IEEE recommended practice for the protection of wire-line communication facilities serving
electric power stations, IEEE Std 487, 1992.
[4.14] IEEE guide on shielding practice for low voltage cables, IEEE Std 1143, 1994.
[4.15] R. Anders, I. Trulsson: ―Electrical installation design procedures for minimal interference in
associated electronic equipment‖, ASEA - Industrial Electronics Division, 1981.
[4.16] Japanese Electrotechnical Research Association : Technologies of Countermeasures against
Surges on Protection Relays and Control Systems, ETRA Report, Vol. 57, No.3, Jan. 2002 (in
Japanese).
[4.17] T. Matsumoto, Y. Kurosawa, M. Usui, K. Yamashita and T. Tanaka : Experience of Numerical
Protective Relays Operating in an Environment with High-Frequency Switching Surges in Japan,
Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, Vol. 21, No.1, pp. 88-93, Jan.2006.
[4.18] S.Agematu et al., ―High-frequency switching surge in substation and its effects on operation of
digital relays in Japan‖, CIGRE 2006, General Meeting, Paper C4-304, Sept.2006.
[4.19] A. Ametani, H. Motoyama, K. Ohkawara, H. Yamakawa and N. Suga: ―Electromagnetic
disturbances of control circuits in power stations and substations experienced in Japan‖, Proc. IET-
GTD, vol.3, no.9, pp.801-815, 2009.9.
Page 147
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Page 148
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The most frequently encountered sources of disturbances have been described in Chapter 3. Although
they sometimes consist of a current (or potential) directly affecting a "victim" circuit, they appear in the
most general cases in the form of an electromagnetic (EM) field. It will be assumed here that a model
exists to calculate this EM field or, if not, that it is possible to quantify it by making some
measurements (characterising the environment). The problem is then to find a model for calculating
the field-to-victim coupling.
It will be the objective of the present chapter to describe the different fundamental mechanisms
involved in this coupling, and to derive, from the knowledge of these mechanisms, the basis of the
main mitigation methods. It covers the coupling mechanisms, including conductive, capacitive,
inductive and radiated, whereby disturbances can propagate through cables and other components
and reach susceptible pieces of equipment. It also introduces mitigation methods.
id ic i1=ic+id
i2=ic-id
i1 i2
ic
2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.1 Depiction of (a) differential mode currents (b) common mode currents (b) and a signalling
channel with mixed modes.
Page 149
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
be based on this theory. It is well known, on the other hand, that simplified theories lead to the
creation of tools that are sometimes misused or abused. This is particularly so when dealing with the
concepts of potential difference, potential rise or inductance. In the following clauses we will try to
highlight this issue each time it could lead to a misunderstanding.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Only the first three modes can be treated by circuit theory. The fourth one obviously requires one of
the general theories mentioned previously. In fact none of these modes appears separately, but
usually, at least in the low or medium frequency range, one will prevail over the others. For all the
coupling modes it is possible to determine a transfer function 5.3, between the energy source or
emitter and the susceptible equipment or susceptor or victim.
The transfer function can be an impedance, an admittance or a dimensionless quantity, depending on
the nature of the impressed quantity and of the ―result‖ of the coupling, i.e. voltage or current. In all
cases the electromagnetic interaction between emitter (Ee, Ze) and susceptor (Us, Zs) can be modelled
by a two-port network, represented in Figure 5.3 in the simplest situation, by a T network consisting of
4
impedances ZA, ZB and ZC
4
In this figure and in the following ones, when there is no risk of confusion with the electric field, the symbol E is used
to represent a voltage source and the symbol U to represent a voltage drop or an induced EMF.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 5.3 Transfer function between source of disturbance (emitter) and victim (susceptor).
This circuit model, in which the return conductor is usually the ground, suggests the two main
strategies for reducing the EM coupling between susceptor and emitter: the "short-circuit" and the
"open-circuit" strategies. It is clear that if ZC is zero, no energy from the emitter can reach the
susceptor. Similarly, if ZA and ZB are either or both infinite in magnitude (i.e. open-circuit) no emitter
energy will reach the susceptor.
It is worth noting that, in general, perfect short or open circuits are not possible to achieve, since even
the best implementation possesses stray inductance and capacitance. The short-circuit strategy is
aimed at reducing the impedance of all grounding conductors and in particular their inductance which
usually dominates above 1 kHz. The open-circuit strategy is aimed at isolating the susceptor from the
emitter either by increasing the distance or by inserting physical barriers (reduction of the coupling
factor), or by making an isolated bonding network with "single point" connections to earth. We will see
in subclauses 5.2.1 and 5.5 that this latter grounding strategy has serious drawbacks. On the other
hand, as the characterisation of a disturbance is most often given in terms of voltages appearing at the
inputs of the equipment, and as these voltages are often the result of the currents flowing in the
grounding and shielding components, the Transfer Impedance concept will play a very important role
in the following clauses and more particularly in the determination of the shielding effectiveness of
structures like cables and enclosures (subclauses 5.2.2.2, 5.2.2.3, 5.2.2.4).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Curiously, when dealing with earthing networks, the methods lead sometimes to radically different
solutions:
eliminating common returns is equivalent to mandating that no bonding circuit has more
than one connection to earth; it is the hunt for ground loops leading to the star earthing
philosophy;
reducing the impedance of the common return means, on the contrary, increasing the
number of conductors (increasing their section only has little influence on their
inductance), multiplying the earthing points and leading to a cross meshed network.
The apparent contradiction between these philosophies can easily been removed when the distinction
is made between the grounding of active circuits carrying signals or energy and the grounding of
metallic enclosures and shielding circuits. The open-circuit strategy applies to the active circuits:
common returns to active circuits should (when possible) be avoided.
Active circuits should (when possible) be grounded at only one point (see subclause 5.3.4).
The short circuit strategy, on the other hand, applies to most other grounding circuits and more
particularly, as will be seen in the next clauses, to the shielding circuits. This distinction between open
and short-circuit strategy refers also respectively to the concepts of Differential Mode (DM), which
concerns mainly the signals, and Common Mode (CM), which concerns mainly the disturbances (see
subclause 5.2.2.2). We will also discuss in more detail in clause 5.5 the application of both
philosophies to earthing networks.
Two important exceptions where common impedance couplings in active circuits cannot be avoided
are power supply circuits and coaxial links (see subclause 5.3.3). Fortunately, concerning coaxial
circuits, and more generally for all a.c. circuits, a natural decoupling is achieved by reducing the loop
area of each circuit as shown in figure 5.5 where the spatial layout of two circuits with three different
Page 154
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
5
return paths is shown . Here, the three return conductors with impedances Z1, ZC and Z2, even if their
sections and lengths are practically equal, will carry currents of very different magnitudes: a.c. current
I1 will flow back mainly via conductor Z1, a.c. current I2 via conductor Z2 and practically no current will
flow back via conductor ZC. This property, which is in fact a particular case of inductive coupling, is
significant even at 50 Hz. For example, when a short circuit to earth appears on a high voltage line,
the current will generally return to the source following the HV line instead of in a straight line between
the fault and the source (Figure 5.6).
The mechanism is known as proximity effect and leads, at high frequencies to the skin effect.
Thanks to this important effect it is possible to realise multigrounded HF circuits without having
problems due to external disturbance currents. This principle of magnetic decoupling will be further
examined in the following subclause 5.2.2.
5
In this figure and in most subsequent ones the circuit is represented by its two- or tridimensional aspect,
on which the lumped elements of the circuit theory have been superimposed in order to highlight their mutual
correspondence. Care must be taken, however, not to confuse both concepts (spatial and symbolic), particularly
in regard to self and mutual inductances
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 5.6 Differences in the current patterns for a.c. and d.c. ground returns [5.4].
I2
I1
+
+ ZL
E2 E =E1 I''2 Z L= Z L 1 2
2
2
ZC
U1
I'2
- -
E = E1 I'''2 Z L= Z L 1
2
2
I1
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 5.9 The DM voltage source (Ed,i) occurring due to the CM current (ICi) flowing through the
unbalance resistance(R) at the i-th line section.
The effect of an unbalance resistance R can be expressed by the insertion of the following
differential mode series voltage source (emf) Ed.i, per unit length, acting in the differential mode loop at
the i-th calculation section:
Ed .i Ri I C ,i (5.1)
where:
Ri is the unbalance resistance, per unit length, at the i-th calculation section,
IC,I is the CM current, per conductor, flowing at the i-th calculation section.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The half value of Ed.i acts in each branch of the conductor loop in the opposite directions.
The above expression for the Ed,i results in a length varying differential mode series voltage source
accordingly to the possible change in the value and sing of Ri and the magnitude of IC,i. The Ed,i
should be calculated for such calculation sections where both could be considered uniform. The result
of the calculation is the value, with magnitude and sign, of the differential mode voltage source given
for calculation section by calculation section along the line.
The final results, i.e. the disturbing DM voltages at the line terminations are obtained by the solution of
the differential mode circuit with the consideration of the distributed DM voltage sources resulted by
the unbalance conversion.
Reduction of the induced voltage itself, which is essentially the source of the
common mode current, by the methods already explained above.
Avoiding the low impedance termination to earth at both ends of the circuits.
In case of earth free circuit or circuit with termination to earth at one end only the
CM current is highly affected by the impedance represented by the earth
capacitance of the line. This is smaller for the conductors located in the centre
layer of the cable. Therefore, for sensitive circuits the use of conductors in the
centre layer is preferable.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
lumped impedance. The lumped voltage source (emf) acting in the DM loop as a result of the voltage
drop on Zu in each conductor of the circuit is given as:
Ed (S ) 2Z u I C (S ) (5.2)
The final results, i.e. the disturbing DM voltages at the line terminations are obtained by the solution of
the DM circuit with the consideration of the lumped DM voltage sources resulted by the conversion
due to the termination unbalance.
Figure 5.10 The DM voltage source Ed (S) occurring due to the CM current IC(S) flowing through the
unbalance impedance (Zu)
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The calculation of the CM-to-DM conversion effect is a quite complex task for witch calculation
techniques of different complexity are developed [5.5].
One way is the solution of the problem in the following subsequent steps:
The other way is the solution of the complete problem in one step by the use of sophisticated multi-
conductor line calculation technique. The solution technique should have extremely good numerical
5
stability because the signal levels are ranging in many others of magnitude (about 10 ).
Inductive coupling is certainly (with common impedance coupling) the most frequently encountered
penetration mode of disturbances. It happens whenever two circuits share a common induction flux;
this is always the case when the ground is part of both circuits, and when current is flowing in at least
one of the conductors. The simplest case, shown on Figure 5.11, involves two parallel conductors
above a ground plane that serves as a return path for both circuits.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The resolution of the equations of these circuits shows that U1 is the sum of:
a signal voltage E1 ZL1/(ZL1+ Z1);
an induced interference voltage j M I2 ZL1/(ZL1 + Z1).
When the two circuits are close together the value of M approaches that of L1, so comparing this
expression with that of Figure 5.4 leads to the statement that the factor jM plays the same role as ZC.
This shows that common impedance coupling and inductive coupling are sometimes difficult to
distinguish from each other. The distinction indeed is somewhat artificial and bound in fact to the
circuit theory approach.
At this point it is worth making an important digression and returning to one of the fundamental laws
derived from the Maxwell equations. The second Maxwell equation (also known as Faraday's law),
expressed in its integral form, can be written as follows:
It tells us that the contour integral of the electric field E along any closed path is equal to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux enclosed by this contour (Figure 5.12).
Figure 5.12 Contour integral of the electrical field along a closed path (Faraday‘s law).
This means in practice that, if the path follows an electrical circuit, then the integral (or the sum in the
Kirchhoff theory) of all voltage drops along this circuit is equal to the derivative of the flux intercepted
by this circuit whatever the origin of this flux is. It can be caused by an EM field (radiation), by a
current flowing in another circuit (mutual induction) or by the current flowing in the circuit itself (self
induction).
It is precisely this latter situation which constitutes the link between "common impedance coupling"
(the disturbance current flows in the victim circuit) and "inductive coupling" (the disturbance current
flows in a separate circuit).
The problem when using circuit theory is that the application of Kirchhoff's law:
Page 162
EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
U n 0
mesh equivalent to: E d s / t 0 (5.4)
implies that the term / t be converted into a L i / t (or M i / t) term. This requires that the
inductance L be determined for the complete closed contour (i.e. circuit) encompassing the flux .
This statement leads to the following important conclusions:
voltage drops between remote points are not univocally defined as they depend on the
path used to measure them (Figure 5.13).
For the same reason the widely used concept of Transient Ground Potential Rise (TGPR) has to be
considered with great care (see subclause 4.1.4);
induced voltages cannot be localised in some part of the wiring (the voltage drop between
the terminals of a coil is a practical exception due to the fact that the flux contained in the
core is much larger than the flux in the external circuit);
inductance is the property of a closed loop. However, it is possible to uniquely ascribe an
inductance to portions of this loop using the concept of partial inductance [5.6]
In fact the main concept that one has to keep in mind when dealing with self or mutual inductances of
circuits is the magnetic flux created or intercepted by the circuits. This flux concept is universal and not
related to any simplified theory. It applies regardless of the frequency and the dimensions of the
circuits.
Being aware of those conclusions, the question however can be raised: are we allowed to speak about
the inductance of a single wire?
The "voltage drop" between remote points in a circuit depends on the way it is measured:
Voltmeter 1 measures the sum of a resistive voltage drop along the tube and an
electromagnetic force (EMF) induced in the external loop;
Voltmeter 2 measures only the resistive voltage drop (on the outer surface of the tube) which
increases at high frequencies due to the skin effect;
Voltmeter 3 measures the voltage drop along the inside of the tube. Owing to the decrease of
the skin depth with frequency it decreases also, and, as no magnetic field
penetrates inside the tube, no additional EMF is added (see transfer impedance of
cables: sub-clause 5.2.2.4).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
2h
L ln (5.5)
2 r
Assuming a wire radius of 5 mm and a height above ground ranging from 25 cm to 25 m (or what is
equivalent - a return path, i.e. an image conductor, situated at a distance between 0,5 m and 50 m),
we find, in air where = o, a value of the loop inductance ranging from 0,9 to 1,8 H/m.
This means in practice that, as far as EMC is concerned, and whenever the return path is at a
distance which is large compared to the radius of the wire (or equivalent radius when dealing with a
cable), it is meaningful to speak about an inductance (actually self inductance) of about 1 H/m.
Returning to our original inductive coupling problem, we now examine possible ways for reducing the
inductive coupling between circuits.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
M IM
I2 +
+ +
E= E 1 Z L= Z L
2 IM 1 2
-
- -
-
E=E 1 Z L= Z L
2 1
2
+
E2 ZL
2
Removal of a common return path and reducing the common loop area can be achieved by
symmetrising circuit 1 with respect to ground (Figure 5.15), i.e. by creating a balanced line. The
voltages appearing between conductors of a symmetrical circuit are referred to as being in DM in
contrast to those appearing between conductors and ground which are referred to as being in CM.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 5.16 Twisted pairs allow a further reduction of the inductive coupling on an isolated circuit.
+
+ +
E= E 1 Z L= Z L
2 1 2
-
M
- -
-
E=E 1 2 Z L= Z L1
2
+
E2 ZL
2
Figure 5.17 Twisted pairs allow a further reduction of the inductive coupling on balanced circuits.
The ratio (expressed in dB) of the disturbing voltage appearing in DM at the extremities of a circuit to
the voltage induced in CM is often referred to in the telecommunication literature as the CM
Conversion Loss and in circuit theory as Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR). It depends largely
on the unbalance of the circuit (line + terminal equipment) to ground.
The best method to achieve balanced circuits is to use twisted pairs. In this case many loops are
generated with oppositely induced voltages cancelling each other (Figure 5.16). The reduction
provided by a twisted pair (with respect to an untwisted pair) increases with the number of twists per
unit length and by the length of the cable, but decreases with the value of the load impedances. At low
frequencies it is possible to achieve a factor greater than 100 (40 dB) with a pitch (distance between
two successive loop inversions) of 5 cm but it becomes difficult to go much further because of small
dissymmetries within the cable and at the ends. Moreover, at frequencies higher than 100 kHz, the
benefit of using twisted pairs decreases and disappears almost completely above a few MHz [5.7].
With regards to the CM Conversion Loss, typical values can range from 90 dB at low frequencies
(twisted pair alone) to 30 dB at 1 MHz.
Line asymmetry related to the disturbance source (resulting in unbalancing, reduction of voltage
cancellation and consequently noise increasing in the receiver input) may be reduced by twisting the
wires. In this case many loops are generated with oppositely induced voltages canceling each other
(Figure 5.17), in addition to the voltage cancellation on the receiver input.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Conductor 3 reacts with the induction flux as if it were a short-circuited secondary winding of a
transformer. Following Lenz's law a current I3 flows in conductor 3 giving rise to an induction flux of
approximately the same magnitude but of opposite sign to the disturbance flux, and which thereby
cancels it. The only way to be sure that circuits 1 and 3 (or 2 and 3) encompass the same flux is to
use for conductor 3 a tube surrounding conductor 1 (or 2). This means a shield grounded at both ends
(Figure 5.19).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Z Z
U1 Z12 13 32 I 2 (5.7)
Z 33
With Zij = RG + jMij (i j)
Z32 = RG + jM32
Z33 = RG + R3 + jL3
If, as is the case here, conductor 3 is very close to conductor 1, the fluxes induced in both circuits by
I2 are almost identical. Hence: M12 = M32 and Z12 = Z32
So (2) becomes:
U1 = Z12 I2 (Z33 -Z13) / Z33 (5.8)
or:
U1 = Z12 I2 [ R3+ j (L3-M13) ] / Z33 (5.9)
Let 3 and 13 be respectively the fluxes intercepted by the shield and by conductor 1 when a
current I3 is flowing in the shield. Then we have:
3 = L3 I3 (5.10)
13 = M13 I3 (5.11)
If the shield is a perfect tube no flux is induced inside it: 3 = 13 and L3 = M13
In the more likely case (braids, foils, etc.) the current in the shield develops some longitudinal or radial
flux component which is not intercepted by circuit 1. The difference Lt = L3 - M13 is not equal to zero
and is called transfer inductance (in fact the transfer inductance is normally defined per unit length, so
it has to be multiplied by the length l of the circuit, which is assumed here to be much smaller than the
wavelength).
Likewise the per unit length impedance Zt = (R3 + jLt) / is called the transfer impedance of the shield
(we will see in sub-clause 4.2.2.4 that this corresponds to the concept introduced previously and that it
is an intrinsic property of the cable); so the expression giving the induced voltage in circuit 1 becomes:
Zt
k (5.13)
RG R3 jL3
In this expression:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
U'1 = Z12 I2 = (RG + jM12) I2 is the interference voltage (induced longitudinal EMF)
appearing at the end of circuit 1 in the absence of shielding;
k = Zt / (RG + R3 + jL3) is the reduction factor due to the shielding, or shielding factor.
It is the ratio of the interference voltage U1 measured in the presence of a grounded shield to
the same voltage U’1 measured in the absence of shield.
This factor is called the shielding effectiveness (S) when expressed in dB: S = - 20 log k;
RG is the ground return resistance of the shield, i.e. twice its grounding resistance
(assuming a splitting of RG between both ends).
It is thus necessary, in order to get a large reduction effect, that the transfer impedance be low
compared to the impedance of the shielding circuit with ground return.
General comments about the factors influencing the shielding effectiveness
The reason why L3 has to be kept high is due to the need of having circuit 1 and 3 tightly coupled in
order to get 32 12. The actual limitation factor in the reduction of the interference voltage is due to
the resistance R3 of the shielding (at high frequency Zt). Note that RG, appearing simultaneously in the
numerator and in the denominator of the expression for U1, is not a dominant parameter. It is quite
evident that increasing RG will increase the voltage drop in the earthing network between the
extremities of the circuit and hence the CMl interference voltage (common impedance coupling). It is
less evident to understand why increasing RG leads also to a reduction (i.e. an improvement) of the
shielding factor. In fact two cases have to be considered:
The induced EMF: U'1 = jM12 I2 is split between R3 and RG . Hence, the higher the value of RG
is, the lower the voltage drop on R3 i.e. the interference voltage U1 will be.
b) The coupling is partly inductive and partly by common impedance
(as in Figures 5.18 and 5.19)
Z12 = RG + jM12 RG + jM32 = Z32 (5.15)
I 2 Z 32 I 2 R j M
G 32 (5.16)
I 3
Z 33 R R j L
G 3 3
If RG increases too much, I3 tends to be equal to I2 and can exceed the current carrying capability of
the shield. So in most situations RG is kept as low as possible.
Earthing or bonding connection to the shield
It has to be emphasised, what is important is not that the shield be earthed but that it be bonded to the
grounded frame of the equipment (Figure 5.20) in order to greatly reduce the shaded areas (A and B
in Figure 5.19). These shaded areas correspond to the part of the flux produced by circuit 2 (source)
and intercepted by circuit 1 (victim) but not by circuit 3 (shielding). The ratio of this flux to the current I3
is nothing other than the so called self inductance Lg of the shield grounding leads (about 1 H/m). As
it appears in the difference L3 - M13, it should be added to Zt , leading to the following extended
expression for k:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Z t jLg
k (5.17)
RG R3 jL3
Ideally a cable shield should be the continuation towards the external circuits of the metal enclosure of
the equipment to which it is connected. A practical example will make it easier to understand how a
low-quality shield connection to ground can degrade the shielding effectiveness. A "good" shield can
have at 1 MHz a typical transfer impedance of less than 10 mm. This means, for a 20 m cable, a
value for Zt of less than 0,2 . Assume the cable shield is bonded at both ends by 20 cm
conductors. This translates, at both ends and at 1 MHz, a reactance of a little more than 1 (based
on 1 H/m); thus roughly a 2 impedance must be added to the 0,2 transfer impedance of the
cable. Knowing that the reactance jL3 of such a cable is approximately equal to 100 at 1 MHz (also
based on 1 H/m), we get a reduction factor falling from 0,2/100 to 2,2/100, or a loss of effectiveness
of one order of magnitude! The best ground connection is one involving electrical contact over the full
circumference of the cable screen. This should always be recommended whenever a cable enters a
metallic equipment cabinet.
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R3
k (5.18)
RG R3 jL3
In order to reduce the value of k it is necessary either to reduce R3 (e.g. increase of the cross sectional
area of the screen, use of copper or aluminium instead of lead, grounding of the unused conductors,
use of a Parallel Earth Conductor like a cable tray – cf. Figure 7.24) or to increase the inductance of
the circuit with ground return (L3) by using magnetic materials (steel tape armour, Mumetal, ferrite,
etc.). In this way the impedance jL3 of an armoured cable can be easily increased by a factor 7 ( 5
/km instead of 0,7 /km). Care must be taken, however, when dealing with ferromagnetic material,
not to saturate it. This happens for magnetic fields approaching 10 A/cm (1000 A/m). Assuming a
longitudinal EMF "E", giving rise to a current "I" and a magnetic field "H" in the shield, we get:
Hence, with H 10 A/cm, r 1 cm and Z 5 /km, we obtain the typical maximum allowable voltage
which can be induced at 50/60 Hz in an armoured cable without saturating it:
Such a low value is very often exceeded in the case of short circuits in HV substations or power
plants. More details about the effectiveness of ferromagnetic cable shields can be found in chapter
4.3.6.3 of ITU-T Directives vol II [5.5] and in chapter 6.3.2.3 of the vol III [5.10].
Shielding effectiveness at high frequency or for long cables
When the frequency increases, the assumptions ZL1 = (and also ZS1 = 0, with ZS1 being the source
impedance of E1) are no longer valid. The conductor impedance L1 becomes higher than the load
impedance and of the same order of magnitude as the shield impedance L3. In this case an
approximate expression for the reduction factor is given by [5.8]:
Z t L1 Zt
k (5.23)
Z S1 Z L1 L3 Z S1 Z L1
For a matched circuit, ZS1 = ZL1= Zc1, with Zc1 the common mode characteristic (surge) impedance of
the cable. Hence:
Zt
k (5.24)
2Z c1
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This latter expression, though very simple and dependent only on the characteristics of the cable, has
to be used with care because it does not take into account any propagation effect, and assumes the
absence of resonances and the uniformity of I3. A more general - though still approximate expression -
is sometimes given with reference to both the characteristic impedances Zc1 of the wire/shield line and
Zc3 of the shield/ground line [5.9]:
Zt
k (5.25)
2 Z c1 Z c 3
This leads, when the characteristic impedances are taken as being equal to 50 , to the classical
expression for the shielding effectiveness:
S 40 - 20 log Zt (5.26)
If the length of the cable cannot be neglected compared to half the wavelength, the propagation
effects have to be taken into account, requiring, usually, computer solutions. However, making the
further assumptions that both the conductor and the shield are matched at their ends and that
attenuation can be neglected, it can been shown (subclause 5.6.3) that expression (10) becomes:
Zt
k F
2Z c1 (5.27)
The factor F() is equal to unity at low frequency and its envelope decreases as 1/f for frequencies
higher than v1 v3 / (v1 + v3) or v1 v3 / (v3 - v1) , (v1 and v3 being the propagation velocities along
circuits 1 and 3), depending on whether the disturbance current is flowing from the load
(paradiaphony) or towards the load (telediaphony). When conductor and shield are not matched at
their ends resonances occur modifying the maximum value of F(). Generally, however, the above
expression gives a good indication of the behaviour of long shielded cables at high frequency, as the
resonances are very often damped by the attenuation of the cable.
Figure 5.22 Shielding action of a tubular conductor surrounding the source of disturbance.
The principle here is to reduce directly the flux at the source. Moreover it offers, in the case of an earth
fault in a power circuit, a return path of lower impedance than the earth or the earth network (see
figure 5.5) and prevents the circulation of dangerous currents into the shields of the cables to be
protected. More generally it reduces problems due to common impedance coupling (principle of
magnetic decoupling). The expression for the reduction factor can again be derived from the general
equation 5.7 taking into account now that Z12 Z13. Hence:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Z t1 Z t 2 2
K
Z1 Z 2 Z M2 (5.29)
In this expression Zt1 and Zt2 are respectively the transfer impedances of the source shielding and of
the victim shielding, Z1 Z11 and Z2 Z22 are their impedances with ground return, and ZM is their
mutual impedance also with ground return. Note that in many cases an important reduction effect can
be achieved without cable shielding by installing the cables in very close proximity to metallic
structures with multiple interconnections to ground such as cable supports, trays, racks, raceways,
ground conductors, and shielding of other cables. Depending on the material characteristics ( , ,
thickness, shape, etc.) a wide range of reduction factors can be achieved. This will be developed in
more detail in sub-clause 7.4.1.2.
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As far as EMC is concerned this cable can be seen as a set of two coupled transmission lines. The
first is composed of the inner conductor (core) and the outer conductor (shield) of the cable, the
second being composed of the outer conductor (shield) and the ground plane (environment). If Ic and
Is are respectively the currents flowing in the core / shield circuit and in the shield / ground circuit, and
if Uc and Us are the voltages between core and shield and between shield and reference plane, it is
possible to describe the system by a set of linear differential equations [5.8]:
dU c
Z cI c Z t I s
dx
(5.30)
d U s Z t I Z I
dx
c s s
d Ic
dx Yc U c Yt U s
(5.31)
d I s Y U Y U
dx t c s s
with Zc, Zs, Yc and Ys being the per unit impedances and admittances of both lines, and Zt and Yt
being the coupling impedance and admittance due to the common conductor, i.e. the shield. Note here
that Zs is different from Zt because it includes the ground impedance. Moreover, due to skin effect
some natural decoupling occurs between both circuits modifying completely both impedances at high
frequencies (see subclause 5.6.2).
The coupling elements can now be derived from the previous equations:
1 dU c
Zt
I s dx 0
Ic
Y 1 d I c
t U s dx U 0
c
(5.32)
The first parameter Zt dx is the ratio of the voltage difference, measured between core and shield, at
the two ends of a short section dx of the coaxial cable, to the current flowing in the shield when no
current is flowing in the core (open-circuit measurement) (Figure 5.24 a).An equivalent arrangement
with finite elements (x instead of dx), commonly used for making practical measurements, is given in
figure 5.24 b. Usually, up to a few tens of MHz, x can be chosen equal to 1 m.This ratio is the sum of
a resistive and a reactive term. The resistive term is nothing other - at least at low frequency - than the
resistance of the shield. The reactive term is due to the flux variation induced between the inner and
outer conductors by Is. This flux is zero for a perfect homogeneous tube but will differ from zero
whenever the shield has holes or discontinuities, or the current paths are not all parallel to the axis of
the cable (e.g. for helically wound tapes or wires). When we compare these components with the
expression for Zt introduced in sub-clause 5.2.2.3, we see that they are equivalent (with Is = I3, Rt =
R3), the present approach being however more rigorous. The expression Zt = Rt + jLt is thus nothing
other than a simplified expression for the transfer impedance of the shield. It characterises directly, at
least for short cables (with respect to the wavelength), the level of common mode interference voltage
induced into the cable (between wires and shield) when a disturbance current is flowing in the shield.
Appendix 5.6.2 gives an overview of the behaviour of Zt as a function of frequency for different cable
layouts.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
By analogy with Zt, Yt is the transfer admittance resulting from the voltage Us existing between the
shield and reference plane. Contrary to Zt which results from common impedance coupling and
inductive coupling, Yt reflects the importance of the capacitive current penetrating into the cable,
through the openings in the shield, under the influence of the voltage applied to it (or the electric field).
It is of lesser practical importance than the transfer impedance and will be discussed in sub-clause
5.2.3.
It becomes more complex when this condition is not fulfilled. In this case it becomes necessary to find
an expression such as: U = f ( Zt, , I), or to resort to computer solutions.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The quality of this screen is not as critical as that required for reducing magnetic coupling.Indeed it is
no longer the transfer impedance which is applicable but the transfer admittance Yt. This latter
depends on the structure of the holes in the shield and on the per unit length capacitances of the two
coupled lines (source and victim) defined in the previous paragraph.
Braided cables with high covering ratios and cables covered by metallic foils or tapes (even helically
wound) usually have a very low transfer admittance which can usually be neglected when the shield is
connected to ground. This is particularly true at 50 (60) Hz and explains why, for example, even non
perfect conductors such as the walls of a house are sufficiently effective to cancel the E field, due to
an external power line, inside the house. However, the effectiveness of a screen in reducing
disturbances due to electric fields only exists at low frequencies when the longitudinal impedances can
be neglected with respect to the capacitances. At higher frequencies it remains necessary to ground
the screen at more than one point, and in particular at both ends of a cable.
For the sake of completeness the ―remaining‖ conductor g also appears in the circuit representation of
the shunt capacitances. This remaining conductor simulates, in principle, the group of conductors
other than conductors a and b. However, for practical purposes, it is satisfactory if the g simulates the
group of conductors located in the neighbourhood of the conductors a and b. The distinction of the g
group is needed only in that case when the common mode conditions (earthing pattern) for the g
group is different from that of for the conductors a and b.
The ―s‖ represents the reference earth. This is the reference for measuring the CM voltage of the
conductors. The reference earth is the screen (sheath) for screened cable or the real earth for
unscreened cable. It should be noted that the potential of the screen and the earth is identical only in
that – exceptional – case when the screen is perfectly earthed.
The capacitances of the wires (w) a and b to the screen (or more generally to the reference earth) can
given as
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
where:
Cws is the average value of the wire-to-earth capacitances of the pair conductors, i.e. Cws =
0.5(Cas + Cbs),
Cws is the difference between the wire-to-earth capacitances of the conductors a and b, i.e.
Cws = (Cas - Cbs). The value of 0.5Cws is the unbalance capacitance, per conductor
base. The sign of the Cws could be positive or negative depending on the relation
between Cas and Cbs, i.e. Cas higher or lower than Cbs, correspondingly.
The same logic applies to the wire-to-remaining conductor group average capacitance Cwg and
unbalance capacitance Cwg.
The effect of an unbalance capacitance Ci can be expressed by the injection of the following DM
current Id.i, per unit length, acting along the i-th calculation section:
1
I d ,i j CiU C ,i (5.35)
2
where:
Ci is identical with the unbalance capacitance values of either Cws,i.or Cwg,i when the
effect of unbalance to the screen or to the remaining conductor group are considered,
respectively, at the i-th calculation section.
UC,i is identical either with the CM voltage to the reference earth, or with the difference
between the CM voltage UC.i of the pair conductors and the CM voltage of the
conductor group Ug,i, i.e. UC,i = UC.i - Ug,i, at the i-th calculation section.It is worth
mentioning that when Ug,i. is identical with UC.i and thus UC,i = 0, consequently the
unbalance to the other conductors does not causes any differential mode current
injection, i.e. this kind of unbalance does not contribute to the conversion effects. This
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
is practically fulfilled when at least the neighbouring conductors of a pair circuit have
identical common CM conditions.
Figure 5.27 The differential mode current injection (Id,i) due to the CM voltage (UCi) through the
unbalance capacitance (Ci) at the i-th line section.
The above expression for the Id,i results in a length varying differential mode current injection
accordingly to the possible change in the value and sing of Ci and the magnitude of UC,i. The Id,i
should be calculated for such calculation sections where both could be considered uniform. The result
of the calculation is the value, with magnitude and sign, of the differential mode current injection given
for calculation section by calculation section along the line.
The final results, i.e. the disturbing DM voltages at the line terminations are obtained by the solution of
the differential mode circuit with the consideration of the distributed DM current injections resulted by
the unbalance conversion.
2) Reduction (mitigation) of the capacitive unbalance conversion
The effect of the capacitive unbalance conversion can be reduced by reducing the differential mode
current injection given by the above formula for. Id.i. Accordingly to that formula the mitigation requires
the reduction of the CM voltage and the unbalance capacitance or both.
The methods to be followed for reducing the common mode voltages are:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
6
When the disturbance is of an impulsive nature, the highest significant component of its spectrum, its
cut off frequency, is usually given by the expression:
f = 1 / r where r is the rise time of the impulse.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
capacitive coupling model is used. As the distance from the source increases, the ratio E/H tends
progressively to 377 , the value of the free space impedance. It becomes impossible to tell which
field component prevails and the field is described as being a radiated electromagnetic field. The
distance at which this occurs determines the limit between the near field and the far or radiated field
and depends on the dimensions of the source. When the source is much smaller than the
wavelength, the limit between the far field and the near field is at a distance R = / 2 from it (about a
sixth of the wavelength). However, when the maximum dimension D of the source is greater than /2,
the boundary distance becomes: R D2 / 2.. The variation of Zw with the normalised distance x from
the source, together with the rate of decrease of the transverse field components are described in
Figure 5.28 (the radial field components have been neglected).
Figure 5.28 Wave impedance as a function of distance and type of source, showing near-field and
far-field regions.
The main sources of radiated fields are lightning, switching of GIS, corona, FACTS convertor
switching, radio transmitters and walkie-talkies. The first two sources produce an impulse field, the
second a broadband continuous field and the other two a fixed frequency field.
For instance, a radio transmitter working in the medium wave band (f = 1 MHz) has a wavelength
= c/f = 3 108/106 = 300 m, which means that radiation coupling takes place at distances larger than
300 / 2 50 m. Distances of the same order of magnitude will be obtained for lightning fields, as r
0,5 s and f 0,6 MHz. On the other hand, the typical rise time of the field produced by switching
operations in GIS is r 5 ns. This corresponds to 4.5 m; so radiative coupling can be considered
to take place at less than 1 m! Whenever the far field conditions apply, the study of the phenomena
becomes very complex (particularly if the circuit itself is large compared to the wavelength) and it can
no longer be approached by Kirchhoff theory. It is necessary to resort to the general models based on
Maxwell theory.
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Figure 5.29 Coupling of an electromagnetic plane wave with a conductor over a ground plane.
Figure 5.29 shows the classical layout of an electromagnetic plane wave illuminating a conductor
i i
parallel to and at a height h above the ground plane. The magnetic (H ) and electric (E ) components
of the incident field are perpendicular to each other and to their vectorial product k (Poynting vector)
which indicates the propagation direction of the field. The plane containing k and perpendicular to the
ground plane is called the incident plane. When the E field component is contained within the
incident plane and the H field component is parallel to the ground plane, the EM field is said to be
vertically polarised or transverse magnetic (TM). When it is the H component which is in the incident
plane and the E component is parallel to the ground plane, the field is said to be horizontally polarised
or transverse electric (TE). It is always possible to split any EM field into the sum of a TE field and a
TM field.
The general model using the scattering theory results in an integro-differential equation which can be
solved only by numerical methods. This numerical solution involves the division of the structure to
which the field is coupled into a number of segments for which the following condition has to be
fulfilled:
lsegm / 10 (5.36)
with lsegm the length of one segment. This means that long structures have to be divided into a large
number of segments, which results in significant memory and computing time demands. For this kind
of problem the Transmission Line approximation provides a powerful tool for solving the field-to-line
coupling. It was introduced in 1965 by Taylor, Satterwhite and Harrison for two conductors in free
space, but since then a lot of work has been done to improve the possibilities of the method (see [5.8],
[5.12], [5.13], for the main references).
As already mentioned in the introduction, the basic assumptions in the TL model are that the structure
be a good conductor and that its transverse dimensions be small compared to the minimum
wavelength, in order to allow only one mode of propagation i.e. the TEM mode (see below). It should
be recalled that in a wave guide - and a line is a particular case of wave guide - there are three
possible modes of propagation:
1. Transverse Electric (TE), for which the electric field component along the guide (line) axis
is equal to 0, i.e. Ex = 0;
2. Transverse Magnetic (TM), for which the magnetic field component along the guide axis
is equal to 0, i.e. Hx = 0;
3. Transverse ElectroMagnetic (TEM), for which both the electric and magnetic field
components along the guide axis are equal to 0, i.e. Ex = 0, Hx = 0.
This means that the electromagnetic field is orthogonal to the guide axis or, alternatively, that the
Poynting vector is parallel to it.
Strictly speaking, the propagation along a transmission line of the response to an external excitation is
transverse magnetic (TM). However, owing to the small resistivity of the line, the axial electric field
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
component is much smaller than the transverse components, which allows propagation to be
considered as being quasi-TEM.
The model is described by the telegrapher's equations to which forcing functions are added. For a
conductor over a soil of finite conductivity one more term appears in the forcing functions, namely the
horizontal electric field component tangential to the ground surface. So the TL equations are then:
U ( x)
h
x
Z ' I ( x) j Bye ( x, o, z )dz E xe ( x, o, o)
o
h
I ( x)
x
Y 'U ( x) Y ' Eze ( x, o, z )dz
o
(5.37)
where:
E z x, o, z , E ex x, o, o , and B y x, o, z are respectively the vertical and the longitudinal electric field
e e
components and the transverse induction field component. The superscript e indicates that the
excitation field is involved; this field, also sometimes called the applied field, is the sum of the incident
7
field radiated by the disturbance source and the ground reflected field, both considered in the
absence of the victim , i.e:
e i r e i r
E = E + E and B = B +B (5.38)
(Note that the total field, which is not referred to, is in fact the sum of the excitation field and the field
scattered by the illuminated structure, i.e.; the field radiated by the currents and charges induced in
e s e s
the structure: E = E + E and B = B +B ).
Z' is the distributed longitudinal impedance and Y' the distributed transversal admittance (the prime
indicates per unit length):
Z' = Z'i + Z'g + jL'e (5.39)
jC 'Yg'
Y ' (5.40)
Yg' jC '
with
Y'g Z'g = - go
2
(5.41)
(g = rg.o 10 o)
In these expressions Z'i represents the internal wire impedance (i.e. its frequency dependent
resistance), Z'g the ground impedance and L'e the self inductance of the circuit formed by the
conductor and the ground return.
It is worth noting that, for most practical HF problems involving power lines, aerial communication
cables, etc., the internal impedance Z'i of the cable can be neglected compared to the ground
impedance Z'g.
The calculation of the ground impedance represents one of the main problems for the coupling
modelling. This is due to skin effect which cannot be described easily in the time domain and also, for
both frequency and time domain calculations, to the non uniformity of the ground conductivity.
7
Some authors use the word "incident" to qualify the excitation field and "primary incident" for the
actual incident field, with the corresponding superscripts.
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Figure 5.30 Differential equivalent lumped circuit of a lossy wire-ground transmission line excited by
an electromagnetic field.
Figure 5.30 represents the equivalent lumped circuit of a line section excited by an electromagnetic
field. The expressions for the lumped excitation voltage and current sources U's and I's (referred to as
the source terms) are given by the terms in the second members of equations (14).
h
U s' ( x)
j Bye ( x, o, z )dz E xe ( x, o, o)
o
h
I s' ( x) Y ' Eze ( x, o, z )dz
o
(5.42)
The boundary conditions are expressed by the relationships:
U(O) = -ZA I(O) and U(L) = ZB I(L) (5.43)
where ZA and ZB are the load impedances at the origin O and the extremity L of the line.
Time and frequency-domain methods can be used to solve equations (14): at present, many computer
codes are available (see appendix 5.6.4), in different universities and research centres of electrical
utilities, which can perform such coupling calculations. A validation of these theoretical approaches
has been carried out ([5.14], [5.15], [5.16]) by means of EMP test facilities.
The advantage of using the time domain approach is that non-linear behaviour like that of surge
protective devices can be modelled. On the other hand the frequency domain computation allows
frequency dependent phenomena, like skin effect, to be taken into account in a more straightforward
way. Inverse Fourier techniques can be used to transform the frequency domain into the time domain.
The TL method can also be used without difficulty for multiconductor lines, in particular when the
assumption is made that the modal speeds of voltages and current induced by the external
electromagnetic field are not very different from one conductor to the other. The validity of this
assumption has been verified by measurements. The TL theory has also been extended to
multiconductor lines with non-parallel conductors (Figure 5.31) and even to structures for which the
transverse dimensions are not negligible compared to the wavelength. [5.17]
A recent survey of different field-to-transmission line coupling models and also the description of some
of the codes introduced in sub-clause 4.6.4 can be found in ref. [5.18].
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2Exi h c
UL Lt (5.44)
Zc3 r
where Zc3 is the surge impedance of the shield/ground line, Lt is its transfer inductance (assumed to
be much larger than its resistance), c is the speed of light, r is the relative permittivity of the medium
between conductor(s) and shield and h is the height of the cable above ground. This expression
shows that the mean interference level is in fact independent of the length of the line, whereas the
expressions of subclause 5.2.2.3, which do not take into account any propagation effect are
proportional to it, and lead to overestimation of interference levels. On the other hand it should be
pointed out that expression (19) is not valid when resonances occur, i.e. when the cable length is a
multiple of /2.
It is well known that resonances, unless they are correctly damped, can considerably reduce the
effectiveness of shielded cables. The paradox is that the better a shielding is, i.e. the higher its
conductivity is, the higher the risk that resonances are not sufficiently damped. This is the main reason
why cables with a double shielding, in contact only at the ends, have a shielding effectiveness much
lower than would be expected from the measurement of the transfer impedance. Another limitation of
expression (19) comes from the assumption that the shielded cable is matched at its ends. This is
normally true for coaxial cables but not for balanced circuits where the common mode input
impedance of the terminal equipment is usually higher than the characteristic impedance of the
cables. However, due to the significant decrease of the CM impedances with frequency, it can be
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
assumed that this expression gives a good estimation of the interference levels that are met in
practice.
8
Longitudinal means normally between the extremities of a circuit or of a transmission line (or part of it).
Remember that this concept is only valid at low frequency or when the measuring path is well defined. In this
case, the measuring path is along the conductor inside the shield. It is thus nothing other than the voltage drop on
the shield, as would result from a transfer impedance measurement. In other words, it includes the shielding
factor brought by the shield as defined in subclause 5.2.2.3.
However if the shield is grounded at only one end, no shielding factor can exist and the longitudinal voltage
represents the actual voltage induced in the circuit formed by the conductor and the ground, or resulting from the
resistive voltage drop in the ground (GPR).
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Suppose that the admittance jC of the shield is large with respect to 1/ZS and 1/ZL.
Suppose also that the longitudinal impedance Z = R + jL of the conductor (with ground return) is
much smaller than the load impedances ZS and ZL. Then:
if the circuit itself is grounded at one end, as in the layout a and b of figure 5.32 (i.e. ZS or
ZL = 0), or if it is protected at one end by surge protective devices (SPDs) in working
condition, or if the shield is grounded at only one end, its capacitance short-circuits the
corresponding terminal impedance and the whole longitudinal voltage is transferred in
common mode to the other end of the circuit;
if the shield is grounded at both ends and the circuit is floating, as in the layout c of figure
5.33, where ungrounded transformers are reported, its capacitance becomes equally
shared between both ends and the common mode voltages UL and US are approximately
equal to E/2;
if the circuit is protected at both ends by SPDs, as in the layout d of figure 5.33, Z is no
longer negligible compared to ZS and ZL, leading to values of UL and US equal to the
residual voltage of the SPDs.
The transfer of the longitudinal voltage in common mode to the extremities, as a function of the
impedance ratio, is of great importance in many situations, especially in those involving isolating
transformers with grounded or ungrounded (floating) mid point at the line side.
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Figure 5.33 Voltage profile for different types of circuits depending of the grounding practices.
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Depending on the value of the terminal impedances and their unbalance with respect to ground, and
also the unbalance of the conductors themselves, differential disturbance voltages US, UL will appear
at each end.
It is not possible to study here and discuss in detail the complex expressions relating U to E.
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Particular rules
Double shielding, grounding through a capacitor or a SPD
It is sometimes possible, to a certain extent, to combine the advantages of the preceding rules by
using:
a double shielded cable of which only the external shield is grounded at both ends;
a single shield of which one end is directly grounded and the other end is grounded
through a capacitor (to prevent circulation of LF current) or through a surge protective
device (SPD) to allow only lightning or fault current to flow in the shield.
Coaxial circuits
Coaxial cables are shielded cables where the shielding is used as the return path for the signal. As
such, the general rule appropriate for the active circuit should apply and the shield should be
grounded at only one end. However, coaxial cables are usually used for transmitting HF or VHF
signals where, due to skin effect, a natural decoupling occurs between the currents flowing on the
inner surface of the shield (signals), and those flowing on the outer surface of the shield
(disturbances). Due to this phenomenon which has been described in subclause 5.2.2.4 dealing with
transfer impedance, the shield of coaxial cables can in most cases be grounded at both ends. This
assumes, of course, that the disturbances are at high frequency or, if they are not, that the signals are
high-pass filtered.
For long distance connections and in particular for connections involving different earth networks it
remains advisable not to ground the shield at both ends or to put an Earthed Conductor in Parallel
(ECP). It is worth recalling that the earthing of a cable shield, in itself, is meaningless; it is only the
consequence of the earthing of the equipment to which it is bonded (see Figure 5.20).
5.3.4 Summary of the main grounding practices for cable shields and
circuits
9
Figure 5.35 illustrates the possible arrangements resulting from the above recommendations . Each
arrangement corresponds to a well defined category of situations in which reference is made to the
different types of signals usually encountered in substations and power plants as described in
subclause 7.1.2. Although some arrangements are not symmetric with respect to the grounding, no
indication is given about the respective location of the source and the load. This is because the circuit
9
This figure presents schematic configurations and not physical layouts. It is clear that each balanced
circuit should be implemented following the rules defined in the previous paragraphs. In particular, balanced
circuits should be made with twisted conductors, and grounding conductors should be as short as possible (or
even coaxial).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
can be bi-directional and also because the choice of the grounding point is not always free. When the
choice is free, the most sensitive equipment should be located at the grounded end.
Arrangement a
This is the most commonly recommended layout where the signal circuit is grounded at one end in
order to avoid power frequency interference and the shielding circuit is grounded at both ends for
optimum reduction of high frequency interference. It is widely used for the connection of equipment in
substation switchyards (signal type 4), and for process control signals or medium level digital signals
in power plants (signal type 3). It is not suitable for sensitive low frequency signals (type 2b) flowing in
asymmetric (unbalanced) circuits, and can also cause problems in high speed digital circuits which
have no ground reference (signal type 1a).
Arrangement b
In this arrangement, not only the shield but also the signal circuit is grounded at both ends.
This constitutes the best solution for high frequency circuits (signal type 1) but requires a very good
equipotential bonding network which, in practice, can only be found in small area networks confined to
the same premises. Indeed, any longitudinal ground potential E, whatever its origin, even if reduced by
the effectiveness k of the shield will be spread in common mode at both ends (with a ratio depending
on the ratio of the load impedances). However, as the common mode in this configuration is identical
to the differential mode, no further reduction will occur. So, knowing that at low frequency the shielding
effectiveness k cannot be much smaller than 1, it is evident that this configuration has to be avoided
10
whenever LF circuits are involved or large LF ground potentials are feared . In order to avoid this
problem, preference is usually given to a balanced layout (arrangement c) or to an arrangement in
which LF and HF currents are separated (arrangement e).
Arrangement c
This utilises the balanced circuit principle where the terminal equipment and the associated
connections to the signal circuit are equally disposed (electrically) with respect to ground. Such a
circuit can either float or employ a mid-point ground connection. It is mainly used in remote control
circuits where long transmitting distances are involved. The cable shield is grounded at both ends and
provides screening from longitudinal disturbances. This arrangement is sometimes expensive but it
solves problems of interference from the lowest (balanced circuit) to the highest frequencies
(screening) and should therefore be used for all types of signals.
10
In fact, the only method to reduce the LF interference voltage in this configuration is to ensure that the
load impedances be low compared to the longitudinal impedance of the conductors (i.e. their impedance with
ground return). As the resistive part of this impedance is normally very small, only its inductive part can be
increased, for instance by putting magnetic material around the conductors. This is the well-known method used
to achieve reasonable LF shielding.
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cabinet offers better protection (shielding continuity) but can sometimes lead to safety problems (touch
voltage). Therefore it will usually be restricted to small pieces of equipment in the vicinity of the
grounded equipment.
Arrangement e
In this arrangement decoupling is introduced between the HF and LF currents by means of capacitors,
allowing benefit to be taken of the HF reducing factor provided by the double grounding, without
fearing any LF differential interference resulting from the unbalance of the signal circuit. The HF
grounding of the signal circuit can result from stray capacitances or from the existence of decoupling
capacitors.
Arrangement f
This double shielded circuit combines the advantages of arrangements a and d giving good protection
against all types of interference over the whole frequency range. It is therefore suitable for use with
low level low frequency signals (type 2) in severe environments.
Arrangement g
A multigrounded coaxial layout is generally used for carrying very high frequency signals to equipment
which is reasonably insensitive to LF or HF interference. This is particularly so with microwave radio
equipment of which the working frequencies are much higher than the usual interference frequency
spectrum. It is also widely used for high speed digital signals (type 1a) when distances are short (a
few tens of meters) and when the existence of a good earthing network is guaranteed (see
arrangement b). It remains suitable for longer distances when the transfer impedance is low enough
and the interference currents are limited by a good earthing network or by an Earthed Conductor
Parallel (ECP) to the cable to protect.
Arrangement h
A singly grounded coaxial layout is adopted whenever the circulation of (low frequency) disturbances
in the outer conductor can interfere with the signal. This can be the case for circuits linking different
earth networks. It can also be used for connecting floating equipment like video cameras or monitors.
If necessary the floating equipment can be grounded via a capacitor (dotted line). It is clear that, like in
arrangement f, the use of a triaxial layout can sometimes solve all the possible interference problems
and, as such, can be recommended for very sensitive circuits carrying, fo example, type 1 signals.
Arrangement i
As in arrangement e, this layout makes use of capacitor for grounding the shield and ensures good HF
shielding effectiveness without the risks posed by the circulation of LF currents.
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2
(5.45)
where is the conductivity of the material, its permeability and the angular frequency.
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In general, shield is defined as an object that divides space into source and shielded regions.
Depending on the geometry of the shield, the two regions can be completely or partially separated.
Open shields partially separate source and shielded regions and closed shields completely separate
the two regions. For closed shields, the only mechanism by which magnetic fields appear in the
shielded region is penetration through the shield. If no magnetic field penetrates through the shield,
closed shields give perfect shielding, but open shields always have some non-zero level of field
leakage. Magnetic fields leak through seams, holes or around the edges of the shield.
k = (1 + j) / (5.48)
K = k ro / r (5.49)
where He is the external field, Hi the internal field, r the relative permeability and t the thickness of the
shield.
When the shield thickness is much smaller than the skin depth and ro o >> 2r, (second condition
2
is generally true for non-magnetic conductors which can be considered eddy current cancellation
shileds) it becomes possible to derive simplified expressions like (for a sphere of radius ro):
SH = 10 log { 1 + ( o ro t / 3) }
2
(5.50)
SH = 10 log { 1 + ( o rc t / 2) }
2
(5.51)
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SH = 10 log { 1 + (ri t / 2 ) }
2 2
(5.52)
Note that the shielding efficiency is directly proportional to r. This is consistent with the result that
larger, closed, eddy current cancellation shields perform better than the small ones [5.22].
ro o << 2
2
If on the other hand, shield thickness remains much smaller than the skin depth and
r, (second condition generally true for poorly conducting magnetic materials which can be considered
magnetostatic shielding mechanism shields) the simplified expressions can be derived as (for a
sphere of radius ro):
SH = 20 log { 1 + 2 r t / 3 ro } (5.53)
SH = 20 log { 1 + r t / 2 rc } (5.54)
SH = 20 log { 1 + r t / 2 ri } (5.55)
For higher frequencies when becomes comparable to t, but in the absence of any resonance
phenomenon, the above expressions give conservative values (i.e. too low).
Clearly, for magnetostatic shielding the shielding efficiency is inversely proportional to r. This result is
also consistent with the observation that smaller, closed, magnetostatic shielding mechanism shields
perform better than larger ones [5.22].
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Here, a PMC shield can be defined as a shield with infinitely large permeability and zero conductivity.
At power frequency, high permeability shields with low conductivity approach this condition. High
permeability sheilds in a DC magnetic field also approach this condition, independently of the
conductivity. When this is done, the effects of penetration through and leakage around the shield are
separated. One additional consequence of this perfect material assumption is that an analytic closed
form solution can be derived using conformal transformation theory [5.23].
Figure 5.37 Comparison between the shielding efficiency of shielding plate and U-shape open shields.
Here, for simplicity, a formula is presented for shielding effectiveness SH of a long planar shield of
width 2L, composed of PEC material (formula is for the SH directly below the center of the planar
shield (i.e. x = 0) and vertical magnetic field (Figure 36c)):
2
SH = 20 log { L ((L/y) + 1) } (5.56)
where y is the distance from the center of the shield to the observation point.
Clearly, for magnetic field leakage the shielding efficiency is proportional to shield width 2L. This
mathematical result is consistent with the observation presented earlier that the more the shield
geometry resembles a closed shield (here, infinite planar shield), the better the shielding. The
shielding efficiency is also inversely proportional to distance from the centre of the shield y. Thus,
magnetic field leakage is higher for larger distances from the centre of the shield.
It has been shown that the shielding effectiveness of open shields is strongly dependent upon the
orientation of the source and the type of shield material [5.23]. The reason for this can be illustrated as
follows. Consider a horizontal magnetic field (as in Figure 5.36b) in the absence of a shield. If a
perfect eddy current cancellation (i.e. PEC) shield with a zero normal magnetic field boundary
condition is placed along a surface for which the source normal magnetic field is already zero, then the
shield has no effect on the field. If, however, the magnetic field is vertical and the normal magnetic
field along the shield is no longer zero, then the shield will disturb the field and shielding will occur.
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It has also been shown in [5.23] that a finite width shield made of imperfect material can be
approximated as a perfect conductor when leakage around the edges of shield dominates penetration
through the shield. For example, a thin aluminium plate of finite width (2L = 4 m) can be approximated
-4
as a PEC if t >> (1.65/h)10 meters. Here, h is a distance of long dipole current source from the
shield. Thus, if h = 0.1 m, the shield must be thicker than approximately 1 cm for the PEC theory to be
applicable. Clearly, design formulas for thinner shields must account for penetration of the fields
through the shield.
This can be done by adding to the finite width perfect conductor solution the solution for the infinite
planar shield of real material. The result is a hybrid formula that combines the effects of leakage
around edges of shields and penetration of magnetic field through the shield [5.24] (An example where
hybrid formula is used to calculate shielding efficiency is illustrated in Figure 5.38):
2 2 2 2 1/2
HT = (|HFINX| + |HFINY| + |HINFX| + |HINFY| ) (5.57)
where HT is the total magnetic field after shielding is implemented, HFINX and HFINY are respectively the
values of magnetic field leakage calculated from the perfect conductor approximation methods, while
HINFX and HINFY are respectively the values of magnetic field calculated from the relevant analytic
methods for closed shields (e.g. for finite width shield, the penetration is calculated with the
expressions for infinite planar shields).
Figure 5.38 Magnetic field 0.3 m below a shielding plate of 48% NiFe mu-metal for a horizontal pair
of currents at (x, y) = (0.4, 2) and (x, y) = (-0.4, 2). In area A, penetration dominates over the leakage
of magnetic field and in area B leakage dominates.
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For shielding efficiency when leakage over the edges of a shield becomes comparable to penetration
of magnetic field, the above expression gives conservative values (i.e. too low). It has been shown
that the proposed approach to calculate shielding efficiency with hybrid formula is very useful as a
design and optimization tool for developing optimum shield designs.
As already mentioned in sub-clause 5.2.4.1, the incident wave has its own characteristic (or wave)
impedance Zw = E / H which is lower than 377 for a predominantly magnetic field (transformer,
coils, loop antenna, etc.), and higher than 377 for a predominantly electric field (rod antenna, high
voltage transmission line, etc.).
j
Zs (5.58)
j
or for a metal:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
j jr f
ZS 3.7107 (5.59)
r
where the conductivity r and the permeability r are expressed relative to copper.
The higher the mismatch between Zs and Zw, the better the shield will be, as far as reflection is
concerned. The contribution to the shielding effectiveness due to this reflection mechanism (i.e. the
reflection loss) is given by the expression:
Z s Z w 2
S R 20log (5.60)
4Z s Z w
Although the theory of travelling waves does not apply to low frequency phenomena, it is sometimes
mentioned in the literature that the easy shielding of LF electric fields is due to the fact that Zw is
always much smaller than Zs. This is nothing else than the electrostatic shielding effect presented
previously. As the value of Zw (in air), for distances R between source and shield that are much
smaller than / 2, is given by: Zw = 1 / o R, the reflection loss can be expressed in the following
way:
S RE 322 10log
r (dB) (5.62)
f R2 r
3
For the magnetic field, taking into account the lower value of Zw, the reflection loss remains always
quite poor. Here the asymptotic value Zw (in air) is given by: Zw = o R for R / 2 Hence the
corresponding reflection loss becomes:
f R2 r
S RH 14.6 10log (dB) (5.63)
r
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r (dB) (5.64)
S R 168 10log
r f
t
S A 8,7 (dB)
or (5.65)
S A 132 t f r (dB)
r
where: = skin depth; t = thickness. This is the main mechanism involved in the reduction of magnetic
fields. Since maximum absorption implies minimum skin depth, the only parameter available to
decrease , once high conductivity material is used, is the permeability of the material. Obviously
this implies that ferromagnetic materials must be used with the caveat, though, that saturation of the
material must be avoided.
Table 5.1 shows the absorption and reflection loss of a number of different and very large materials,
which may be used for shielding devices.
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Attenuation Scores
Excellent: Good: Fair: Poor: Bad: Fail:
> 150 dB 100-150 dB 50-150 dB 30-50 dB 10-30 dB < 10 dB
The previous calculations of shielding effectiveness have assumed a solid shield with no seams or
holes. In practice, however, most shields are not solid because there can be access covers, doors,
holes for conductors, ventilation, switches, meters and mechanical joints and seams. Shield
discontinuities usually have more effect on magnetic field leakage than on electric field leakage, but
minimising techniques are normally suitable both for magnetic and electric field. The effects of metallic
enclosures are reported in chapter 5.4.3.
The maximum dimension (not area) of a hole or discontinuity determines the amount of leakage. In
addition, a large number of small holes result in less leakage than a larger hole of the same area. This
is the reason why honeycomb ventilation covers, which are showed in figure 5.40, are so widely used.
In honeycomb structures the emerging field from each hexagonal cell coherently combines with its
neighbour.
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The magnetic environment in buildings has become an important issue in the design and operation of
building services. Magnetic fields can effect sensitive telecommunication equipment, computers and
CRT screens (section 7.3.3) and also need to be kept within health and safety limits particularly for
long term exposure. In general, power cables and busbars, which carry heavy currents, are
considered as the sources. They produce sufficient magnetic fields in the surrounding areas.
Uncommonly, sources are adjacent transmission lines, subway‘s grid and other sources outside
buildings.
Magnetic shielding has been recognized as one of the efficient measures to reduce the external ELF
magnetic fields. This measure can be applied in buildings. When magnetic shielding is considered in a
large area (e.g., a substation or large shielded volume, such as a room in a building), large metallic
sheets have to be used.
Two different types of shields are often employed in commercial buildings; planar shields and closed
shields (e.g., rectangular enclosures). The planar shield refers to the metallic sheet. It is usually used
for shielding larger sources such as, a transformer room or large shielded volume (e.g. affected room).
For example, for an affected room adjacent to a transformer room, a shield can be installed on the wall
facing the transformer. A shield installed on the ceiling or under the floor can be also considered for an
office area, if the transformer is located on an adjacent floor. Here, several sheets are jointed to divide
the shielded region from the sources. Air gaps or seams within the shields are unavoidable. However,
the magnetic field leakage at seams can be minimized using the method of overlapping adjacent
sheets.
Rectangular enclosures (trunking) are frequently employed to house cables or busbars in electrical
installations. The main purpose is to provide the protection for conductors against mechanical
stresses, fire, etc. These enclosures also exhibit some degree of magnetic shielding due to its metallic
nature. This was discussed in more detail in the sub-clause 5.4.3.
Because shielding effectiveness depends on the overall source-shield configuration (type of source,
orientation, and position relative to the shield), it is important to consider which shield options are
practical. Therefore, the first step is to locate and characterize the dominant sources. This can be
done during a site survey by magnetic field measurements. Through this process, it is determined first
if the fields from each source has the characteristics of single conductor source, single-phase source
or three-phase source. Then, the orientation is determined as horizontal, vertical or otherwise. With
sources determined, the Figure 5.41 can be used to help determine which shield options are practical
to implement.
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Figure 5.41 Shielding recommendations for power frequency magnetic fields in buildings.
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As referred to in subclause 5.2.1, two philosophies exist for the realisation of a bonding network:
The star network
The meshed network
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So two situations can arise: either the equipment is connected to earth by a single link and no current
will ever flow through it; or the disturbances do indeed flow through this link but come back to the
equipment by other unwanted and uncontrolled routes. Furthermore, notwithstanding this basic
principle, the earthing conductors are necessarily long and thus very inductive and inefficient at high
frequencies. Considering that modern electronics is especially sensitive to high frequency distur-
bances like fast transients and electrostatic discharges, it is easy to understand why this grounding
method is obsolete.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.43 Less accurate (a) and more accurate (b) picture of how a grounding system behaves The
thickness of the lines corresponds to the magnitude of the ground currents; therefore the grounding
system must be designed accordingly.
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In fact there is a trend to carry out equipotential bonding which constitutes not only a low impedance
return path but also a shield against electromagnetic fields (see sub-clause 5.4.1). With this technique
becoming more widespread in the electrical and telecommunication world 2, 3, all existing metallic
structural parts, both horizontal and vertical, are used (frames, rails, I-beams, concrete reinforcing,
cable supports, a.c. power conduit, etc.). In this way a three-dimensional ground plane is implemented
which can be, in turn, connected to the earth network (protective ground) at several points. The more
sensitive the installed equipment is (e.g. computers), the tighter the ground mesh should be. One of
the major advantages of the meshed bonding network - in addition to its high effectiveness - is that it is
very easy to build up, does not require any controls or checks, and is self-developing. Indeed all new
equipment, all new bonding elements and all new shields automatically reinforce the overall
effectiveness of the network. With a good meshed network, the isolated earthing conductors can be
eliminated (with the exception, of course, of the PE safety conductor) along with the incredible
"screened earth" which reappears regularly in some publications.
Finally the method of grounding all cable shields at both ends - which, it should be remembered, is
best for the majority of the cases - is practically impossible to carry out. The only principle that we
would retain from hybrid networks is that it is always worth keeping away from each other those
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circuits which can strongly interfere, i.e. circuits with large differences in voltage or current. For
example, one should avoid installing sensitive electronic equipment near a lightning down conductor
(or any conductor liable to play that role, like a ventilation shaft, or a lift). The conductors for lightning
protection are, in that respect, the only ones which we recommend to be interconnected with the
meshed network at ground level only. However, this is not always easy to implement (and sometimes
impossible like in some telecommunication buildings); also here an installation with multiple
interconnections (Figure 5.46a) will behave better than an installation with single connection to
ground, presenting a high risk of flashing over (Figure 5.46b).
Figure 5.46 Voltage induced by lightning in two different grounding structures involving multiple or
single grounding conductors.
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5.6 Appendix
Figure 5.47 Equivalence between a symmetrical circuit and an asymmetrical circuit involving its
electric image.
The per unit length value of the flux induced in circuit 1 by a current I flowing in conductor 2 and a
return conductor at infinity is:
D21'
11', 2 I ln
2 D21 (5.66)
with Dij being the distance between conductors i and j.
For the same reason:
D2'1'
11', 2' I ln
2 D2'1 (5.67)
D D D21' .D2'1
11', 22' I (ln 21' ln 2'1' ) I ln
2 D21 D2'1 2 D21.D2'1' (5.68)
which leads to a mutual inductance of:
D21' .D2'1
M12 M11', 22' ln (5.69) or:
2 D21.D2'1'
2
h1 h2 h1 h2
M 12 ln ln
2 h1 h2 h1 h2
(5.70)
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h1 h2
M '12 ln
2 h1 h2 (5.72)
D21'
(or more generally if the conductors are not in the same vertical plane: M '12 ln )
2 D21
2h
L'1 ln 1
2 r (5.73)
These expressions are also valid at high frequency when the soil is not a perfect conductor. At low
frequency the surface of the soil cannot be considered as a mirror plane. The image theory may
however be applied thanks to the introduction of a complex image plane ([5.10] Volume II, sub-clause
5.1.2) which is placed below the ground surface at a complex distance depending of the soil resistivity
and of the frequency f.
For power frequency, including harmonics, the simplified Carson - Clem formula [5.10], can be applied
for calculating the mutual and self inductance with ground return. In this calculation the equivalent
distance De of the hypothetical return path is given by:
De 659
f (5.74)
93
M '12 ln
2 h1 h2 (5.75)
93
L'1 ln
2 r (5.76)
In air, for a ground resistivity of 100 m and a conductor radius of 1 cm we get:
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This value can be compared with the traditional value of 1 H/m given for a single conductor at high
frequency.
Rto 1 j t Rto
Rt for t
sh1 j t 1 e t (5.78)
2
with the skin depth, and Rto the d.c. value of Rt
The cut-off frequency at which Rt starts to decrease is:
fc=1 / t
2
(5.79)
The higher the frequency, the lower the coupling between the two transmission lines will be. This
refers to the well known high frequency behaviour of coaxial cables (already referred to in sub-clause
5.2.1) under the influence of diffusion. This behaviour remains valid - to some extent - for other kinds
of cables where the shield arrangement approaches that of a continuous tube. This is the case, in a
certain frequency range, for braided shields with braid angles close to 45° (Figure 5.48).When this
angle is very different, other physical mechanisms, such as described below, dominate.
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Figure 5.49 Typical transfer impedances of shielded cables used in power plants.
I 3o 1 exp 1 3
U1S Zt
2 1 3 (5.80)
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1 exp 1 3
exp 3
I 3o
U 1L Zt
2 1 3 (5.81)
where Zt is the transfer impedance of the shield, is the length of the cable, 1 and 3 are respectively
the propagation constants of the waves flowing between shield and the external return conductor
(ground or neighbouring cable) and between core and shield.
Assuming low loss circuits, j / v, with v the propagation velocity, these expressions become:
U 1S I 3o Z t FS
(5.82)
U1L I 3o Z t FL
(5.83)
1
1 1
1
sin sin
2 v1 v3 2 v1 v3
FS FL
1 1 1 1
2 v1 v3 2 v1 v3
where , and (5.84)
Knowing that F x
sin x
is equal to 1 when x tends to 0 and presents different zeros, the first of
x
which appears at x = , the variation of FS and FL with frequency will look as in Figure 5.50, with:
1 1
fS and f L
1 1 1 1
v1 v3 v1 v3 (5.85)
These expressions show that the cut-off frequencies depend on the length of the cable and on the
speeds of the waves inside the cable and outside the cable.
If the current I3 in the shield, instead of having the shape of a simple progressive wave, has any other
shape, it is still possible to calculate the interference U1 by means of a Fourier expansion [5.27]. On
the other hand, let I1 be the current flowing in the inner conductor in the absence of any shielding; in
this case, the interference voltage appearing across a matched load Zc1 at the end will be:
U1 Z
k t F
U '1 2Z c1
(5.88)
and the shielding effectiveness : S = - 20 log k with F() = FS() or FL(), depending on whether
the disturbance is flowing from or towards that end.
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Figure 5.50 Envelope of the voltages measured across matched loads at the extremities of a long
cable when a progressive current wave flows along its shield.
Figure 5.51 Penetration of external magnetic field in the wall of a coaxial system.
As shown in Figure 5.51, the magnetic field Hext due to the CM current in the wall of a coaxial system
penetrate to some part through the openings in the wall. This leakage flux induces a DM voltage which
can be measured at the end of the cable and is responsible for the increase of Zt with frequency. It is
very important to note that for cables with braided shields the induced currents will therefore tend to
increase at high frequencies with the first resonance representing the first frequency where significant
coupling occurs [5.30].
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(a) By mutual coupling between the metallic sheath and the grounding mesh, a current on the mesh
generates an induced voltage to the metallic sheath which is further induced to the core conductor due
to mutual coupling between the sheath and the core.
(b) When the metallic sheath is grounded to the mesh, the sheath voltage becomes the same as the
voltage at the mesh node where the sheath is connected, although the grounding lead affects the
sheath voltage significantly. The sheath voltage induces a voltage (or a current) to the core by the
mutual coupling as in (a).
(c) When the both ends of the metallic sheath are grounded to the mesh, there exists a closed loop
composed of the sheath and the mesh which results in a circulating current. The circulating current
induces a voltage on the core.
(2-1) When lightning strikes a transmission tower, a lightning current flowing into a ground wire
propagates to a substation and flows into a grounding mesh. Then, a lightning surge is induced to the
core conductor of a control cable as explained in (1-2).
(2-2) If there is a back-flashover from the tower to a phase wire, then the same route as explained
in (1-1).
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(3) When lightning strikes a substation structure such as a microwave tower, a lightning current
flows into the grounding mesh. Then, the same as (1-2), or ground potential rise is transferred to a
control cable via the grounding mesh.
To analyze a transient voltage on the core conductor of a control cable, the above incoming routes
have to be carefully represented. It should be noted that the transient voltage appeared on the core is
superposition of surges from various routes.
Figure 5.52 Incoming routes of switching and lightning surges to a control cable.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 5.53 Example from Section 5.6.4.2 showing the use of codes to solve Incomming routes of
switching and lightning suges to a control cable.
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5.7 References
nd
[5.1] C. Christopoulos ―Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility —2 Edition‖,
CRC Press, London, UK, 2007 ISBN 0-8493-7035-3
[5.2] P. Baraton: ―Domaine de validité des différentes théories traitant du couplage onde/cable‖, EDF-
DER-Service Matériel Electrique, 1992
[5.3] S. Benda: ―Interference-free electronics‖, Studentlitteratur, 1991 - Sweden
[5.4] P.C.T. Van Der Laan & alii: ―Grounding Philosophy‖, 7th International Zurich Symposium on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, 3-5 March 1987
[5.5] ITU-T Directives, Directives concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against harmful
effects from electric power and electrified railway lines, Volume II ― Calculating induced voltages and
currents in practical cases‖ Geneva, 1998
[5.6] C.R. Paul ―Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility‖, Wiley 1992.
[5.7] F.G. Canavero, S. Pignari: ―A prediction model for interferences on twisted-wire line‖, 7th
International EMC Symposium, Zurich, 1987
[5.8] P. Degauque , J. Hamelin: "Compatibilité électromagnétique", Dunod, Paris, 1990
[5.9] M. Mardiguian: ―Manuel pratique de compatibilité électromagnétique‖, Prâna Recherche &
Développement, 1992 - France
[5.10] ITU-T Directives, Directives concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against
harmful effects from electric power and electrified railway lines, Volume III ―Capacitive, inductive and
conducting coupling: physical theory and calculation methods‖ Geneva, 1989
[5.11] ― Guide on the iInfluence of high voltage a.c. power systems on metallic pipelines‖, CIGRE W.
G. 36.02 TB 095, 1995
[5.12] M. Ianoz, C.A. Nucci, F.M. Tesche: ―Transmission line theory for field-to-transmission line
coupling calculations‖, Electromagnetics, vol. 8, n° 2-4, pp. 171-211, 1988
[5.13] F. Rachidi: ―Formulation of the field-to-transmission line coupling equations in terms of magnetic
excitation field‖, IEEE Trans. on Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 35, n° 3, August 1993
[5.14] C. Imposimato, M. Agostinelli, G. Gianmattei, A. Longhi, L. Pandini, L. Inzoli: ―A feasibility
analysis to carry out measurements on effective power transmission lines illuminated by
electromagnetic transient fields produced inside the CISAM EMP facility‖, NATO Symposium on EMC
with Partnership for Peace, San Miniato, Italy, 23-25 October 1996
[5.15] M. Ianoz, C. Mazzetti, C.A. Nucci, F. Rachidi: ―Response of multiconductor power lines to close
indirect lightning strokes‖, International CIGRE Symposium on Power Systems Electromagnetic
Compatibility, paper 200-07, Lausanne, October 1993
[5.16] M. Ianoz: ―Lightning electromagnetic effects on lines and cables‖, Proc. 12th Int. Zurich Symp.
EMC, 18-20 February 1997, paper T3
[5.17] C. Christopoulos, J.L. Herring: ―The application of Transmission-Line modeling (TLM) to
electromagnetic compatibility problems‖, IEEE Transactions on EMC, vol. 35, n° 2, May 1993
[5.18] F.M. Tesche, M. Ianoz, T. Karlsson: ―EMC analysis methods and computational models‖, J.
Wiley & Sons, New York 1997
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[5.19] P.C.T. Van Der Laan, W.J.L. Jansen, E.F. Steennis: ―The design of shielded enclosures,
especially for high-voltage laboratories‖, Kema Scientific & Technical Reports 2 (11) - 101-111, 1984 -
The Netherlands
[5.20] H. Kaden: "Wirbelströme und Schirmung in der Nachrichten Technik‖, Berlin Springer Verlag
1959
[5.21] Y. Du, T.C. Cheng and A.S. Farag, ―Principles of power frequency magnetic field shielding with
flat sheets in a source of long conductors,‖ IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compat, vol 38, pp. 450-459,
Aug. 1996.
[5.22] J. F. Hoburg. ―Principles of Quasistatic Magnetic Shielding with Cylindrical and Spherical
Shields,‖ IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compat, vol 37, Nov. 1995.
[5.23] P. Moreno and R.G. Olsen ―A simple theory for optimizing finite width ELF magnetic field shields
for minimum dependence on source orientation,‖ IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compat, vol 39, pp. 340-
348, Nov. 1997
[5.24] M. Istenič and R.G. Olsen ―A simple Hybrid method for ELF Shielding by imperfect Finite Planar
Shields,‖ IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compat, vol 46, May. 2004.
[5.25] Schelkunoff: ―Electromagnetic Waves‖, Van Nostrand, New York 1943
[5.26] IEC 1000-5-2 (Draft): Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), Part 5: Installation and mitigation
guidelines - Section 2: Earthing and cabling
[5.27] B. Demoulin, S. El Assad, P. Degauque: ―Calcul de la réponse d'un câble blindé soumis à une
distribution quelconque de courant perturbateur‖, Colloque International sur la Compatibilité
Electromagnétique, Limoges 1987
[5.28] C.A. Nucci: "Lightning-Induced Voltages on overhead power Lines Part 1, Return-stroke current
models with specified channel-base current for the evaluation of the return-stroke electromagnetic
fields‖, Electra, No 161, August 1995
[5.29] C.A. Nucci: "Lightning-induced voltages on overhead power lines. Part 2: Coupling models for
the evaluation of the induced voltages", Electra, No 162, October 1995
[5.30] D. W. P. Thomas, C Christopoulos, F. Leferink and J Bergsma, ―Practical Measure of Cable
Coupling‖, 2009, International Conf. on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications, 14-18 Sept.
2009, Torino, Italy, Paper 441.
[5.31] A. Ametani: ―EMTP study on electro-magnetic interferences in low-voltage control circuits of
power systems‖, European EMTP Users Group (EEUG) 2006 Proceedings, pp.136-144, Dresden,
Sept. 2006.
[5.32] A. Ametani, K. Ohtsuki, N, Nagaoka: ―Switcning surge characteristics in gas- insulated
substations in particular reference to low-voltage control circuits‖, UPEC 2004, Bristol, Sept. 2004.
[5.33] A. Ametani et al: ―Switching surge characteristics in gas-insulated substations‖, UPEC 2006,
Paper 12-9, Newcastle, Sept. 2006.
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This chapter describes immunity and emission tests as well as acceptable and unacceptable degrees
of interference, taking into account both the nature of the disturbances and the affected functions of
the equipment, such as control, protection, metering, recording, communication and supervision.
EMC conformance tests (type tests) on equipment, performed in the laboratory, aim to check whether
the equipment, once installed in the field, will be compatible with its electromagnetic environment (both
immunity and emission). The type tests require a rigorous test plan, specifying the test procedures,
the test levels and the acceptance criteria. The test procedures can be based on international
standards (e.g. IEC), national standards (e.g. JEC) or on a specification supplied by the manufacturer
or the user.
For equipment sourced in North America or intended for that market, IEEE and ANSI standards are
widely applied. IEEE and ANSI are aiming to align their standards with the IEC standards. For
example, in IEEE 1613: IEEE Standard Environmental and Testing Requirements for Communications
Networking Devices in Electric Power Substations [6.1] (the American equivalent to IEC 61850-3
[6.2]), the test methods are identical to those in the IEC 61000-4 series. However, in some cases the
test levels are higher, some immunity testing is absent and all emission testing is absent.
Since 1 January 1996, all electrical and electronic products placed on the market in the European
Economic Area (EEA) have had to comply with the requirements outlined in the EMC Directive
89/336/EEC (now superseded by the EMC Directive 2004/108/EC which went into effect on 20 July
2007). The EMC Directives address the essential requirements for immunity of equipment and
installations and emission from equipment and installations. Compliance is indicated by the CE
(Conformité Europeenne) mark. The harmonised standards, referenced in the EMC Directives, are
generally CENELEC, CEN or ETSI standards, with an EN prefix. These in turn are generally based on
IEC standards.
The general approach, when testing equipment, takes into account the eventual interconnection of the
apparatus within a system and the eventual location of the equipment (e.g. control room or HV yard).
A wide variety of interconnection options are now available, including where electronic apparatus is
located in the HV switchyard. These interconnection options may not be covered by the existing test
procedures and must be considered when revising or developing future EMC standards.
In addition to the laboratory tests, in-situ tests can be considered during the assembling of an
installation or as a final check. These tests have a different scope from the type tests, e.g. to verify the
efficiency of specific EMC provisions (e.g. bonding and shielding actions) or to verify the installation
EMC margin. In-situ tests also allow the flexibility of testing with waveforms not included in the basic
standards – testing with waveforms more representative of those actually experienced in the field.
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A variety of approaches and procedures have been adopted in the past by the different technical
bodies dealing with electronic equipment in the definition of the EMC requirements and tests.
Furthermore, EMC specifications and test procedures have in some cases been defined by the
manufacturers or by the utilities. These activities have not been systematically co-ordinated and
harmonised. A significant contribution in improving this situation has been made by the IEC where the
immunity requirements of an electronic system are now covered by a series of EMC basic standards
(see 6.2.1). Each basic standard gives a specific test procedure and a general guide for the selection
of a test level. Product and product family standards recommend tests and test levels for specific
equipment (e.g. IEC 60439-1 [6.3] and IEC 60870-2-1 [6.4]). Where product or product family
standards do not exist for a specific type of equipment, generic standards recommend tests and test
levels (IEC TS 61000-6-5 [6.5]). The availability of these standards now makes it easier to achieve
harmonisation of the EMC requirements of different products.
The general policy for testing automation and control systems takes into consideration different
categories of test:
type test, carried out on a representative sample in order to verify the EMC performance at the
design level;
routine test, carried out during production to confirm that each individual apparatus has been
correctly manufactured;
sample test, repeated at appropriate time intervals on representative samples in order to assess
the uniformity of the manufacturing process.
This approach should be applied to the EMC tests with some caution. In fact, the application of some
immunity tests can produce a degradation of the tested equipment.
The type tests comprise the most complete list of EMC tests and are carried out on a dedicated
sample. For the reason above, concerning the risk of degradation, this sample should not be installed,
unless properly inspected for damage. The routine tests include a limited number of tests and
generally do not include the most severe immunity tests (e.g. tests with high energy transients). Due to
the statistical nature of the electromagnetic disturbances, the test procedures with the associated
severity may not cover critical or atypical environmental conditions. In this case, the adoption of
appropriate EMC margins can reduce the risk of interference.
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interharmonics are discussed in IEC 61000-2-1 [6.7] and IEC 61000-2-2 [6.8]. A test procedure is
described in IEC 61000-4-13 [6.9].
Signal ports connected to signal cables that run to sensors and 2 kV (CM)
transducers in the field 1 kV (DM)
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1,2/50 µs (voltage) –
IEC 60255-22-5 (product standard)[6.14]
8/20 µs (current)
0,5 kV 1 kV 2 kV (L-G)
Auxiliary power supply port
0,5 kV 1 kV(L-L)
0,5 kV 1 kV 2 kV (CM)
Input/Output ports (attached cables not twisted pair)
0,5 kV 1 kV (DM)
0,5 kV 1 kV (CM)
Communication ports (connected cables >10 m)
0 kV (DM)
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The 1 MHz damped oscillatory wave test emulates the EM environment of open air substations, but it
is not appropriate for GIS substations, characterised by transients with oscillation frequencies in the
range of tens of MHz. The more recent IEC 61000-4-18 [6.16] covers this specific aspect in detail.
In some more recent standards (IEC 60255-26 (2008)[6.20]) testing at a 100 kHz repetition frequency
is also allowed – the claim is made that this repetition frequency is closer to reality.
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Table 6.7 Power frequency (50/60 Hz) magnetic field test values.
IEC TS 61000-6-5 (generic standard)[6.5] 50/60 Hz magnetic field
CRT monitors present 3,77 µT (3 A/m)
Enclosure contains components sensitive to 126 µT (100 A/m)(continuous)
magnetic fields
1260 µT (1000 A/m)(1s)
IEC 60255-22-2 (product standard)[6.29] 80 MHz – 1 GHz radiated radio frequency field
80% amplitude modulated (1 kHz)
Enclosure port 10 V/m unmodulated, rms
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Particular attention is addressed at the radio interference emission of overhead power lines and high
voltage equipment. This subject is covered in the CISPR 18 series of documents [6.36]. These
documents describe the phenomena, the method of measurement, the procedure for determining
limits and methods for minimising the generation of radio noise. Typical test values are shown in Table
6.11.
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The new standard was completed in 2004 as JEC-0103-2004 [6.38]. The summary of the standard is
given in Table 6.12.
Table 6.12 EMC Test Voltages for Low Voltage and Control Circuits in Japan [6.38].
Typical target control circuit categories in the above table are the following (main-circuit location is
category 1→ control box location is category 8 (the higher the number, the lower the interference
voltage));
Category 1: Secondary circuit and tertiary circuit of a VT/CT associated with the main circuit
Category 2-1: Control circuit where a high dielectric strength is required. In this case, a 7kV lightning
surge to earth is applied as the test voltage.
Category 2-2: Control circuit which has surge reduction countermeasures or there is no possibility of
an excessive lightning surge (for example, if control cables with a metallic sheath (CVVS) are adopted
and both ends/terminals are grounded). In this case, a 5kV lightning surge to earth is applied as the
test voltage.
Category 4: Secondary circuit and tertiary circuit of a VT/CT in a direct control board, a protective
relay board, a remote supervisory control board, other control devices, etc. In this case, a 4 kV
lightning surge to earth is applied as the test voltage.
Note that breakdown in control boards has occurred, even though the control circuits were tested and
conformed according to Category 4, i.e. 4 kV to earth. The surge voltage at the equipment is higher
than at the control board. As a result, the Category 2-1 test voltage, 7 kV to earth, is applied.
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1.E+03
Voltage (V)
GIS
Rec Imp
1.E+02
1.E+01
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 6.1 Frequency and voltage measured at CT terminals of relay units by GIS switching.
This conducted interference test, carried out on the different ports of the equipment (power, signals
and earth) verifies its immunity when subjected to repetitive rectangular impulses, with nominal rise
time of 1ns and duration 100ns. The transient is considered to be equivalent to the conductive
switching surges generated in GIS, as in Figure 6.1. The test procedure is defined in JEC-0103 [6.38].
V-peak (V p ) 1 kV±10%
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Figure 6.2 shows the voltage waveform of the standard rectangular impulse. The right side of Figure
6.2 shows the output voltage waveform at the connected relay terminal. Note that the rise time of the
output voltage waveform changes from 1ns to 5ns when connected to the relay terminal. The
equivalent frequency when connected to the relay terminal is calculated as 31.8 MHz. The test voltage
and calculated frequency are plotted on Figure 6.1.
The following functions are considered of particular relevance to electronic equipment and systems:
metering (kWh);
supervision;
man-machine interface;
alarm;
measurement;
off-line processing;
passive monitoring;
self-diagnosis.
Combinations of different functions are in general present in the apparatus and systems.
Depending on the types of electromagnetic phenomena (conducted and radiated, low and high
frequency) and the equipment port involved, the effect (interference) may be limited to one function or
to an unforeseeable number of them.
The total effect of the electromagnetic phenomena on electronic equipment and systems, and the
related consequences on the process, can therefore be described as a collection of possible
influences on the different functions involved.
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The electromagnetic disturbances relevant in HV substations and power plants can be classified as
continuous phenomena, transient phenomena with high occurrence and transient phenomena with low
occurrence, as in Table 6.13.
Slow voltage variations: Voltage dips (duration ≤ 0,02 s): Voltage dips (duration > 0,02 s):
Radiated, radio-frequency
electromagnetic field
A short description of the different functions, together with the related allowed degradation due to
electromagnetic phenomena, is reported in the following section.
Combination of electromagnetic disturbances with other environmental factors (e.g. climatic stresses)
could produce more complex effects on the equipment. This subject is not discussed here as
insufficient experience is available.
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The precision and speed of operation of electronic protection equipment shall not be subjected to
degradation of performance as a consequence of electromagnetic phenomena, such as:
loss of operation sequence recording, with subsequent unavailability of data for fault
location and analysis.
Degradation of on-line processing and regulation could occur due to lack of immunity of the equipment
and related input/output interfaces or of process instrumentation involved. A possible consequence is
unnecessary stress or damage to the process and degradation of performance.
The immunity of on-line processing and regulation systems to electromagnetic phenomena, including
transient phenomena with low probability of occurrence, is of particular importance.
Metering (kWh)
The function of metering electrical energy generated or passing through an electrical plant as well as
fuel supplies, can be of particular significance due to the contractual aspects which may be involved.
This applies to traditional watt-hour meters for electrical energy measurement, and to similar
equipment based on advanced technology, having a capability for setting operating conditions and
storing data.
This function shall be highly reliable and therefore immunity against continuous and transient
phenomena is mandatory.
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manual control by direct action of the operator. The coordination of all sources of command and
control actions is ensured by the provision of priority levels.
Insufficient reliability of the command and control functions due to lack of immunity could result in:
unavailability of the process equipment and then of the process or part of it.
Command and control units are required to operate properly in actual environmental conditions, e.g.
for continuous phenomena or high occurrence transient phenomena.
Electromagnetic phenomena with a low probability of occurrence, having only minor influence, may be
observed on a control system and accepted. For example: a delay in the execution of a command
may be insignificant compared to the time constant of the controlled process, so that the main function
is not affected.
Supervision
Supervision systems collect data from the process and related equipment for diagnostic purposes, for
maintenance programme purposes and evaluation of the process. They generally do not interact with
the process itself.
The performance degradation or temporary unavailability of the supervision system causes loss of
information on the process and deviation in the event scheduling time. These effects can occasionally
be accepted, e.g. in the case of transient phenomena with low probability of occurrence affecting
acquisition of cycling measurements.
Man-machine interface
The man-machine interface function allows the operators to directly interact with the process from
operator desks or to manage the information from the plant. Control and regulation systems interface
with the process, and the manual command to process equipment has higher priority.
This function may be activated by the operator by using this interface. High priority commands to the
running process are generally available, and are given by the operator through the use of dedicated
devices.
The absolute immunity of this function to transient phenomena having a low probability of occurrence
can therefore be considered as not binding; the operator presence allows manual restoration.
Alarm
The alarm function includes all local or remote indications able to give information on any kind of
temporary or not temporary degradation of the operating conditions of apparatus and systems.
Alarms can have different urgency, depending on whether there is the need of immediate intervention
or if the system can still operate in an acceptable mode (e.g. thanks to redundancy).
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In case of self-recovery after temporary degradation, the alarm may disappear; whenever, according
to the product specification, a chronological list (trace) of the alarms is automatically created, the alarm
function may not be affected by the electromagnetic phenomena.
Through data transmission and telecommunication, the telecontrol systems can co-ordinate the
operating condition of different electrical plants, improving the overall efficiency of the electrical
network.
Interference on data transmission and telecommunications has the effect of delaying the transfer of
command and control, affecting the telecontrol efficiency.
Depending on the telecommunication medium adopted, electromagnetic phenomena can influence the
communication link or affect the terminal equipment, producing a bit error rate degradation; full
immunity against electromagnetic phenomena can be obtained only with particular communication
supports, e.g. optical fibre.
Temporary loss of the communication function is occasionally tolerated, provided that the link is
automatically restored within an acceptable time. However the receipt of corrupted data cannot be
tolerated.
Proper design of the data acquisition system interfaces, including hardware and/or software filtering
actions, gives to data acquisition the required immunity to electromagnetic phenomena.
Temporary deviation from precise analogue data acquisition and incorrect time allocation of digital
data, due to transient phenomena, are sometimes acceptable due to the possibility of identifying these
effects through data validation.
Measurement
Measurement of some relevant parameters of the process gives direct evidence of their values and
trend. This function is carried out by using analogue or digital instruments. These instruments are
located for example on a control system panel, on display panels or in the proximity of electrical
equipment.
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Off-line processing
Off-line processing function allows simulation of the process, planning of power generation, study of
models and analysis of critical working conditions, etc.. This function implies the use of data coming
from the process or stored data. It does not interact with the on-line process itself.
Passive monitoring
The process is monitored on displays, showing the entire setting and operating condition of the plants.
Information technology equipment with CRT monitors or other devices are used to represent the
process and its parameters at different levels of detail.
Temporary degradation of this function (e.g. in the image quality) can be accepted, provided that the
consistency of the monitoring with the process condition is resumed.
Temporary loss of display with restoration within a given time, e.g. a few seconds, allowing for
possible intervention by operators, can also be accepted; an example would be the jitter of the image
on a CRT display caused by a temporary power frequency magnetic field.
Self-diagnosis
Self-diagnosis capability is increasing in complex electronic systems, and becomes of particular
relevance for the credibility of the system itself.
Self-diagnosis test cycles are generally assigned low priority in the tasks sequence.
Temporary loss of the self-diagnostic function can generally be considered as acceptable if it is self
recovered within the system working cycle and if it gives rise only to a delay in warning an operator of
a system failure condition. Such a loss of function should also not produce spurious alarm conditions
which could necessitate attendance at unmanned remote locations.
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Table 6.14 Performance criteria for the most relevant functions (in descending order of criticality)[6.5].
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In order to check the steady-state electromagnetic environment, the continuous disturbances affecting
the power and signal cables of automation and control systems, as well as the electromagnetic field in
their vicinity, could be monitored for a sufficient period of time and for different operating conditions of
the process. Spectrum analysers, oscilloscopes, power quality meters and other instrumentation can
be used for this purpose.
The monitoring can include:
the quality of the power distributed to the automation and control systems and the related
disturbances: voltage fluctuations, short interruptions, harmonic content on a.c. power
supplies, ripple on d.c. power supplies, common mode noise, etc.;
the low frequency and high frequency noise induced in control and signal cables (both
common mode and differential mode);
the efficiency of communication links: pattern generators and error detection could be used to
check the signal-to-noise ratio of the communication link;
the power frequency magnetic field in different areas of the plant, particularly where CRT
monitors are located.
The measurement results, related to operating conditions of the plant and compared to the data of
other similar plants, can help in the final evaluation of the electromagnetic environment.
Specific measurements could be carried out to investigate the RF noise radiated from HV equipment
and overhead power lines. Measurement procedures are described in CISPR 18 [36].
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
involved in a fault. During this simulation the ground potential rise and the induced voltages on
auxiliary circuits can be measured and, using a scale factor, referred to the actual fault current.
More difficult is the simulation of lightning phenomena on structures. A possible test set-up is shown in
Figure 6.3. A transient generator, consisting of a high voltage d.c. source and a capacitor bank is
installed far from the plant under investigation. A significant transient current can be injected into the
ground conductors and metallic structures by means of an HV line and a spark gap. The efficiency of
the simulation is related to the test generator capability and the layout of the test set-up. The reported
experience has indicated that transient currents of the order of some kA, giving a 1/10 reduced scale
simulation, can be obtained using a 100 kV test generator.
Figure 6.3 Example of test set up for investigating the effects of direct lightning involving a HV
substation
testing the system in its eventual state (with regard to cabling layout, earthing and bonding
practices)
testing with the actual disturbance sources (e.g. HV isolator switching)
better understanding of the actual disturbance coupling mechanisms (with more representative
levels of CM voltages and currents)
verification of existing laboratory test levels
verification of existing laboratory test waveforms and test methods
best way of investigating experienced interference
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Traditional sources of RFI in power systems are corona and sparking (in particular from overhead
lines). This RFI has the form of irregular repetitive transients with energy largely below 1 MHz and
hence poses a threat to AM radio reception.
More recent sources of RFI are power electronic equipment such as FACTs and HVDC converters.
This RFI is caused by the switching of the converters and the RFI has the form of regular repetitive
transients with energy that extends to much higher frequencies.
The threat to AM radio reception has been replaced with the threat to digital radio reception. While
quasi-peak measurements were used to quantify the effect on AM radio reception, rms measurements
are recommended to quantify the effect on digital radio reception.
In-situ measurement of the RFI emission from whole substations is difficult due to the size of the
substations (measurement close to the substations would emphasize some sources within the
substation more than others), attenuation with distance (difficult to quantify), background RFI,
changing power levels within the substation (especially important for the RFI emission of power
electronic equipment) and changing weather conditions (large influence on the RFI produced by
corona and sparking).
The measurement distance must reflect the distance of the radio receivers used by the general public.
This measurement distance should be measured from the smallest contour enclosing all the
substation elements that may radiate RFI, rather than from the substation fence which is site-specific.
The most basic criteria are the RFI limits at the radio receiver location, as shown in Figure 6.4
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Figure 6.4 Basic criteria – RFI limits at the radio receiver location.
The proposed measurement distances and respective proposed limit curves are listed in Table 6.15.
Table 6.15 Proposed measurement distances and respective proposed limit curves
The proposed limit curves referred to in Table 6.15 are shown in Figure 6.5.
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The proposed measurement positions referred to in Table 6.15 are shown in Figure 6.6.
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6.4 References
[6.1] IEEE 1613:2009, IEEE Standard Environmental and Testing Requirements for Communications
Networking Devices in Electric Power Substations
[6.2] IEC 61850-3:2002, Communication networks and systems in substations - Part 3: General
requirements
[6.3] IEC 60439-1:1999, Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies – Part 1: Type-tested
and partially type-tested assemblies
[6.4] IEC 60870-2-1:1995, Telecontrol equipment and systems - Part 2: Operating conditions - Section
1: Power supply and electromagnetic compatibility
[6.5] IEC TS 61000-6-5:2001, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-5: Generic standards -
Immunity for power station and substation environments
[6.6] IEC 61000-4-1:2006, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-1: Testing and measurement
techniques - Overview of IEC 61000-4 series
[6.8] IEC 61000-2-2:2002, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-2: Environment - Compatibility
levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-voltage power supply
systems
[6.9] IEC 61000-4-13:2009, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-13: Testing and
measurement techniques - Harmonics and interharmonics including mains signalling at a.c. power
port, low frequency immunity tests
[6.10] IEC 61000-4-11:2004, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-11: Testing and
measurement techniques - Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations immunity tests
[6.11] IEC 61000-4-29:2000, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-29: Testing and
measurement techniques - Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations on d.c. input power
port immunity tests
[6.12] IEC 60255-11:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 11: Voltage dips, short
interruptions, variations and ripple on auxiliary power supply port
[6.13] IEC 61000-4-5:2005, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-5: Testing and measurement
techniques - Surge immunity test
[6.14] IEC 60255-22-5:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-5: Electrical
disturbance tests - Surge immunity test
[6.15] IEC 61000-4-12:2006, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-12: Testing and
measurement techniques - Ring wave immunity test
[6.16] IEC 61000-4-18:2011, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-18: Testing and
measurement techniques - Damped oscillatory wave immunity test
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
[6.17] IEC 60255-22-1:2007, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-1: Electrical
disturbance tests - 1 MHz burst immunity tests
[6.18] IEC 61000-4-4:2011, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-4: Testing and measurement
techniques - Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test
[6.19] IEC 60255-22-4:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-4: Electrical
disturbance tests - Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test
[6.20] IEC 60255-26:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 26: Electromagnetic
compatibility requirements
[6.21] IEC 61000-4-6:2008, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-6: Testing and measurement
techniques - Immunity to conducted disturbances, induced by radio-frequency fields
[6.22] IEC 60255-22-6:2008, Electrical relays - Part 22-6: Electrical disturbance tests for measuring
relays and protection equipment - Immunity to conducted disturbances induced by radio frequency
fields
[6.23] IEC 61000-4-16:2011, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-16: Testing and
measurement techniques - Test for immunity to conducted, common mode disturbances in the
frequency range 0 Hz to 150 kHz
[6.24] IEC 60255-22-7:2003, Electrical relays - Part 22-7: Electrical disturbance tests for measuring
relays and protection equipment - Power frequency immunity tests
[6.25] IEC 61000-4-8:2009, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-8: Testing and measurement
techniques - Power frequency magnetic field immunity test
[6.26] IEC 61000-4-9:2001, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-9: Testing and measurement
techniques - Pulse magnetic field immunity test
[6.27] IEC 61000-4-10:2001, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-10: Testing and
measurement techniques - Damped oscillatory magnetic field immunity test
[6.28] IEC 61000-4-3:2010, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-3: Testing and measurement
techniques - Radiated, radio-frequency, electromagnetic field immunity test
[6.29] IEC 60255-22-2:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-2: Electrical
disturbance tests - Electrostatic discharge tests
[6.30] IEC 61000-4-2:2008, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-2: Testing and measurement
techniques - Electrostatic discharge immunity test
[6.31] IEC 60255-22-2:2008, Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-2: Electrical
disturbance tests - Electrostatic discharge tests
[6.32] IEC 61000-3-2:2009, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-2: Limits - Limits for
harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤16 A per phase)
[6.33] IEC 61000-3-3:2008, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-3: Limits - Limitation of
voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems, for equipment
with rated current ≤16 A per phase and not subject to conditional connection
[6.34] IEC 61000-6-4:2011, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-4: Generic standards -
Emission standard for industrial environments
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
[6.35] CISPR 16:2011, Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and
methods - ALL PARTS
[6.36] CISPR 18:2010, Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage
equipment – ALL PARTS
[6.37] IEC 60255-25:2000, Electrical relays - Part 25: Electromagnetic emission tests for measuring
relays and protection equipment
[6.38] Japanese Electrotechnical Commission: JEC-0103-2005, ―Standard of test voltage for low-
voltage control circuits in power stations and substations‖, IEE Japan, 2005 (in Japanese).
[6.41] S. Agematu et al., ―High-frequency switching surge in substation and its effects on operation of
digital relays in Japan‖, CIGRE 2006, General Meeting, Paper C4-304, Sept.2006.
[6.42] CIGRE Technical Brochure 391 (2009), Guide for the measurement of radio frequency
interference from HV and MV substations.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This chapter covers installation practice plus the importance of adopting an EMC plan throughout each
phase of a new or refurbishment project, from conceptual design through specification, construction,
installation, commissioning, testing and maintenance.
In conclusion, ―standardised‖ EMC measures should be included at the design stage of installations
and equipment, rather than being defined in a "case by case" approach.
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For automation and control systems, additional support for the application of standardised EMC
measures is provided by the legal value sometimes assigned to the EMC requirements. This is the
case of the essential requirements defined by the European EMC Directive 89/336/EEC, related to the
free circulation of goods within the European Union.
In the previous chapters of this Guide information is given about the typical sources of disturbances in
electrical installations (chapter 3), their characteristics (chapter 4), the mechanism of electromagnetic
disturbance coupling on cables and equipment and the related mitigation methods (chapter 5). This
chapter gives practical guidelines for the general arrangement and cabling of equipment and systems
on the basis of the discussions in these preceding chapters.
7.1.1 Layouts
The more common layouts that can be encountered in substations and power plants are presented
here, based on the location of the different apparatus with respect to the source of disturbance and the
possible existence of reducing factors such as the presence of earthing networks, shielding materials,
etc.
Also the disturbance level to which a specific apparatus will be submitted will depend on its own
location and on the location of all the other equipment to which its ports are connected.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Normally the main building and the switchyard are installed on the same earthing network or on two
interconnected networks. The earthing of the auxiliaries can be simple protection against lightning or
an extension of the main earthing network or even may not exist.
With respect to the general layout there are no significant differences between a classical plant and a
nuclear plant, except that this latter is more complex, requires special security measures and the use
of some very low signal level circuits (i.e. neutronic flux). Moreover, as the boiler is located in a
separated building, many of the electrical and electronic circuits are much longer.
whereas if it is a stand-alone building in a town, no special EMC measures will have to be taken.
The first factor takes into account the shielding effectiveness defined in chapter 5 and the practical
implementation of good cabling strategies is described later in this chapter.
The second factor can roughly be characterised by the amplitude (in V or A) and the bandwidth (or
speed) of the signals. Whether they are analogue or digital is, at first glance, less relevant as far as
EMC is concerned. It would also be possible to classify the different signals according to the
equipment they interconnect or according to the classes of environment to which they are submitted.
Although there exists some correlation between the three possible classifications (signal, equipment,
or environment) the first one will be adopted here because:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
the other classifications suffer from too many exceptions i.e. low level-high bandwidth signals
flowing in very disturbed environment and vice-versa
Taking these remarks into account, the classification shown in the following table can be proposed; it
contains four classes of signals listed in decreasing order of sensitivity to EM disturbances.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.1 Layout of a typical high voltage substation and related types of EMC environment. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.2 Layout of a typical generating station and related types of EMC environment. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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According to rule IV, electrical circuits should be kept at distance from grounding conductors in which
large disturbance currents can flow (see also subclause 7.4.2.2). On the other hand, rule III highlights
the necessity of installing metallically grounded electrical circuits very close to grounding conductors.
Both rules result in fact from the general principle of keeping the common magnetic flux shared by two
circuits as small as possible (Figure 7.3).
Rule IV is just a straightforward application of the "open-circuit" strategy (see chapter 5): "Keep
disturbances at a distance"; whereas rule III refers to the shielding properties of interconnected
grounding elements (see subclause 7.2.2), taking into account that very few circuits can be considered
as having no reference point grounded, and thus suitable for being kept at a distance from any ground
conductor.
The trade-off between both rules can be achieved by providing multiple grounding conductors in order
to reduce the mean current flowing in each individual conductor and to ensure a low-impedance path
for the highest currents.
The application of rule IV results also from the wish to reduce common (ground) impedance coupling
and capacitive coupling (cross-talk).
di o d di o d1
U1 ln U2 ln
dt 2 a dt 2 d2
Figure 7.3 Inductive coupling between a grounding conductor in which a disturbance; current flows
and a circuit which may be vulnerable to interference. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
A more detailed illustration of these basic rules is given in Figures 7.4 and 7.5 where a schematic
comparison is made between six different ways of interconnecting a lightning conductor (which can
also be an antenna feeder) to the grounding installation of an electrical circuit.
In Figure 7.4, the circuit consists of a vertical square loop with a relatively large area:
in layout A, part of the loop is installed in the vicinity of a grounding conductor
in layout B, part of the lightning current is directly diverted to ground
in layout C, the disturbing current is kept at distance from the circuit
It is clear, when comparing these three layouts that the disturbance level will decrease from A to C.
This is confirmed in Figure 7.6 a) where the shape and amplitudes of the current and of the induced
11
voltages are shown . However when the whole circuit is installed close to grounded conductors, the
benefits of rules I and III become more evident:
in layout D, though all the lightning current flows into the grounding installation of the
circuit, it does not induce any disturbance in it
This is due to the fact that the current is divided into two components generating through the square
(or through any rectangular) loop fluxes of the same amplitude but opposed polarity.
With the layout of the figure, the current flowing on the right side of the grounding circuit is twice as
large as that flowing on the left side but its path is half as long.
It is worth noting here that for the present layout, but also for most practical situations, the current
division between the different possible paths is practically inversely proportional to their length
(assuming conductors with approximately the same cross section).
Paradoxically, layout E and F are less favourable for this particular configuration, because the part of
the current flowing directly to ground produces in the loop a flux which cannot be counterbalanced.
So, the arrows on Figure 7.4 point to the different layouts with decreasing induced voltages.
It is clear that the circuit configuration drawn in this figure is not very representative of reality, as a
circuit seldom leaves equipment and returns to the same equipment, although this can be
encountered, for instance, in a telecommunication building where circuits start from one hierarchical
level of a multiplexer, go to a distributing frame, and come back to another hierarchical level of the
same equipment.
11
The curves shown here are the results of measurements
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.4 Inductive coupling between a closed loop and a lightning protection structure. [7.39]
A more common layout is that of Figure 7.5 which illustrates the voltage appearing at the extremity of
a circuit when the other end is grounded.
Here, intentionally, an important part of the circuit has been installed in contact with a vertical
grounding conductor into which (part of) the lightning current can flow.
The arrows again show the different layouts sorted in decreasing order of induced voltages.
The complementarity of rule III and IV is now clearly illustrated.
Indeed, in most layouts presented in this figure the circuit shares a common impedance with the
lightning down conductor, and hence is de facto installed very close to it; but thanks to the application
of rule III, the induced voltages (Figure 7.6 b) remain very similar to those measured with the layouts
of Figure 7.4.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
The conclusion of this schematic illustration is that whenever the possibility exists to avoid circulation
of large currents in grounding conductors it is worth doing it; but this is not always possible; the case
of an antenna struck by lightning is the best example. In such a situation, the only thing that can be
done is to offer to the disturbance the easiest path (i.e. with the smallest inductance) to ground.
This being said, the principle of keeping circuits which may be vulnerable to interference close to
grounding elements, in the sense of taking advantage of the shielding properties of interconnected
grounding elements, always applies; and if some doubt remains about the application of rule III and IV,
it can be eliminated by installing the different circuits in individual shields or conduit.
Figure 7.5 Common impedance coupling and inductive coupling between a grounded circuit and a
lightning protection structure. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.6 Currents and voltages in the circuits of Figures 7.4 and 7.5.[7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
length; hence their relative cross-section will play only a secondary part, at least at high frequencies.
This is one more reason for applying rule III of clause 7.2.
Another important feature of the PEC is its ability to play the part of the external shield of a triaxial
cable of which, for some specific reason, the internal shield may not be grounded at both ends (see
chapter 5, Figure 5.35f).
Screw or Bolt
Mounting Base
Bonding or Lockwasher
Current Return
Jumper Steel Lockwasher Bonding
Strip Shock
Mount
Steel Washer
Mounting
Lockwasher Structure
Plated Steel
or CR Steel
or Titanium
Steel Locknut or
plate
A flexible metal strap is used in bonding shock mounts because relative motions between parts are
foreseen [7.7].
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
R
4 A. (7.1)
Vertical or inclined driven rods can help to reduce the resistance to earth for small substations or when
the resistivity decreases with depth. However they are of little use for reducing EM disturbances.
The network shall be buried - when possible - at a depth of at least 50 cm and below the frost line. The
cross section of the conductors is based on the maximum voltage drop allowed as a consequence of
fault currents. Values ranging from 1 to 3 V/m are generally accepted. For mechanical reasons, cross
sections should not be less than 25 mm² for copper stranded cables and 90 mm² for corrosion
protected steel. In fact, larger cross-sections like copper bars of 50 x 3 mm are common practice.
The reduction of induced disturbances requires the separation of the conductors forming the earthing
network to be such that the area enclosed by adjacent conductors is not larger than 250 m² in a soil of
normal resistivity ( 200 m) and even smaller than 150 m² when the resistivity becomes higher
than 1000 m [7.9]. In the vicinity of HV equipment, the separation of the conductors should be
reduced further (e.g. 5 m x 5 m), especially near:
power transformers
surge arresters
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
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It is allowed and recommended to connect to the earthing network, either directly or by means of the
ground bar, reinforcing rods embedded in concrete walls and floors.
When different metallic enclosures are installed in a row, an extension of the ground bar must be
made starting from one wall, interconnecting all the enclosures and reaching the opposite wall.
Each extension of the bar contributes in this way to the setting up of a ground mesh being, in turn, part
of the integrated ground plane.
Every connection to the ground bar should be as short as possible (< 10 cm). The cross section is not
critical as far as EMC is concerned. Values between 4 mm² and 16 mm², depending on the magnitude
of the LF currents likely to flow in the conductors, are acceptable, taking into account that four 4 mm²
links are, by far, better than a single 16 mm² connection.
As indicated in chapter 5.5.2. it is recommended to interconnect all the cable supports, trays, racks
and raceways in order to form a three dimensional ground mesh. This means that, as far as EMC is
concerned, bonding the enclosure of equipment or a cable shield directly to this mesh will ensure a
better grounding than the use of an isolated copper conductor connected to the earthing network or
even to the bonding bar.
In this sense the ground bar and its extensions can easily be constructed using metallic structures as
far as the global copper equivalent cross section remains larger than 50 mm² and an uninsulated 16
mm² copper conductor clamped to the structure ensures the electrical continuity.
All the basic principles mentioned in subclause 7.3.1.4 are applicable, but more than anywhere else,
the concept of a three dimensional ground plane remains valid.
However, as antenna feeders usually enter the building at roof level, it is advisable to install the
ground bar and its extensions above the equipment, hanging under the roof instead of lying near the
floor (this latter layout being advised when the feeders enter the building at ground level).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This means that all cable supports are fixed to the wall, near the ceiling or to the ceiling itself and the
cabling is made at that level and penetrates the different racks and enclosures from above.
With such a cabling layout the equipment forms a cluster hanging from the ceiling of the room without
any direct electrical contact with the floor.
Splitting the cabling between top and bottom of the equipment must, in any case, be avoided because
this creates loops able to intercept or generate significant magnetic fields in case of lightning stroke.
Taking into account that lightning currents flow from the top of the building to the bottom and that radio
connections are mainly based on coaxial links or wave guides with multiple ground connections, the
only way to reduce common impedance and inductive coupling is to avoid installing vertical ground
conductors near the equipment and, instead, to locate them at all corners.
For the same reason each cable (in particular the coax cables) and its support coming from the tower
must be grounded directly at the entrance of the building by means of a conductor of at least 50 mm²
installed on the outside of the wall and connected to the earth grid of the building.
If possible, all cables (communication, power, or ground cables) linking the telecommunication building
with other buildings should enter the building at the same side as those coming from the tower, in
order to avoid lightning currents crossing the building.
It is also of great importance to correctly apply the rules listed in clause 7.2 and, in particular, to take
into account the discussion of subclause 7.2.1. In particular it is recommended to avoid installing in the
same tray, or in close proximity to each other, cables coming from the antenna tower (e.g. coax
feeders, antenna heating cables) and cables remaining inside the building (e.g. 2 Mbit or 8 Mbit pulse
code modulation cables between radios and multiplexers, wiring between multiplexers and distributing
frames, etc.).
7.3.1.8 Fences
For safety reasons (touch voltages), fences are never connected to the earthing network of the
substation, unless it is possible for a person to touch both fence and substation equipment or
structures. In this case, the earthing network must be extended beyond the substation fence.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
As already mentioned in subclause 7.3.1.2, an earthing conductor (PEC) of at least 50 mm² should be
placed in each cable trench.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
This kind of shield can be recommended for the general auxiliary cabling in HV substations.
For installation in trenches it can be advisable to reinforce the braid with one or two copper (brass)
sheets wrapped in helix. This will, of course, not only enhance the mechanical behaviour of the cable
but also its transfer impedance;
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
should never be less than 1000 Vrms at 50 or 60 Hz. A value of 2000 Vrms constitutes a good trade
off in accordance with most international standards.
Figure 7.9 Basic concept for the reduction of loop area formed by earthing the cable screen. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.10 Grounding of VT and CT secondary circuits and connecting cables to relay house. [7.39]
The neutral conductors as well as the shields of all the cables entering the junction box are connected
to the box which is, in turn, grounded.
This double grounding of the neutral conductors (at the transformer and at the junction box) has very
little influence on the common impedance disturbance level, thanks to the very short length of the
bipolar cables between transformer and junction box.
In no case is an additional grounding of the neutral conductor recommended in the relay room.
Sometimes double grounding cannot be avoided when two groups of measuring transformers are
connected to the same equipment (e.g. synchronisation circuits). In this case isolation transformers
become a necessity.
In any case, it is highly advisable to add to each bipolar cable a PEC of minimum 50 mm² cross
section.
It is clear, however, that lower disturbance voltages are obtained when the neutral conductors are
grounded at only one point. Then, if the safety rules allow it, the neutral conductors should be
grounded at only one point e.g. in the relay room or in the junction box and not at the transformers as
well (Figure 7.11).
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.11 Modified grounding configuration of VTs and CTs secondary circuits for limiting differential
transient voltages. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
On the other hand, due to the induced eddy currents it is also possible to achieve shielding with
aluminium (or copper) plates.
For the same thickness the results are usually better with steel close to the vulnerable equipment,
whereas the behaviour of aluminium seems to be better at higher distances (e.g. at a few meters).
Recourse to high permeability alloys (mumetal) allows the attainment of very high shielding
efficiencies but their very high cost limits their application to the protection of small equipment.
When the source of disturbance is a busbar, the best mitigation method is increased separation
between source and victim or reduced distance between the different phases (replacement by a three-
phase cable or an insulated busbar, see subclause 4.1.2).
CIGRE Technical Brochure 373 by WGC4.204 is a comprehensive reference on the topic of the
mitigation of power frequency magnetic fields [7.11].
Move the victim (affected device) further away from the source
Move the source of interference away from the victim
Reposition the victim with respect to the source
Reposition the source with respect to the victim
Replace the CRT with a field-immune display, such as a liquid crystal or plasma display
Shield the source (active or passive shielding)
Shield the victim (active or passive shielding)
Synchronising the vertical scan frequency of the monitor to that of the unwanted magnetic
field will make the interference less noticeable. However, a lower vertical scan frequency
can introduce flicker into the visual image
Active cancellation of the interfering magnetic field can also be achieved by injecting
current into field cancellation loops around the monitor [7.13]
The main objective with shielding is to alter the spatial distribution of the unwanted magnetic flux lines
as discussed in Chapter 5.
Combinations of high permeability and high conductivity materials can be used as a trade-off between
cost and shielding effectiveness. The following illustrative example is noted: Combined material
shields were manufactured at approximately 30% of the cost of imported mu-metal shields in South
Africa [7.12, 7.14]. The shield comprised layers of (high permeability) Silicon Steel (Si-Fe, 95% also
known in trade as M5-30 transformer steel) and layers of (high conductivity) aluminium supporting the
Silicon Steel on the outside of the shield.
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Shield A:
Trade Name MAGNA IMPRES (MI)*
Shielding Factor 17 dB
Application Shields computer monitors from
external power frequency magnetic
fields.
Suitable for unwanted fields up 7 T
to
Shield B:
Trade Name MAGNA OPUS (MO)
Shielding Factor 30 dB
Application Shields computer monitors from
external power frequency magnetic
fields.
Suitable for unwanted fields 45 T
up to
The shield comprises a four-sided enclosure, which made both manufacturing and installation easy.
With only four sides, the shield has to be positioned such that the elliptically rotating magnetic field
falls perpendicular to the sides of the shield.
Approximately 120 shields have been installed in various locations with successful elimination of
interference.
Deployment of more than 500 shields (MAGBOXes) constructed from high permeability material have
been reported by Dovan, et al [7.15].
The shield is illustrated in the Figure 7.12 below:
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.12 Magnetic field shield with 14-inch monitor inside. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
opto-isolators, low cost and widely used (alone or in combination with other electronic
circuits). They allow transmission of signals with frequency spectrum extending to the
MHz range and isolation levels up to 5 kV. The basic optical coupler consists of a light
source, usually a photo diode, driven by one circuit closely coupled by a transparent
insulator to a receiver. Both devices are contained in the same package, as shown in
Figure 7.13
Opto-isolators are especially useful in digital circuits; for analogue devices they are less
suitable because linearity through the coupler is not always satisfactory. During
implementation, care should be taken to ensure that interference is not introduced via the
power supply input to the device.
The stray capacitance (up to a few pF) between input and output can sometimes severely
limit the common mode rejection ratio at high frequency, but good designs, incorporating
a screen between input and output, do exist
isolation transformers , are the most frequently used symmetrical barrier which can
12
easily be added to any existing circuit without special adaptation and which usually don't
require any power feed at their output. Isolation transformers can be used both in signal
and in a.c. power circuits.
The main disadvantage of using transformers in signal circuits is due to the limited
bandwidth. In particular, when signal continuity is required, at direct current or very low
frequency, an isolation transformer is not practical. Signals ranging from a few Hz to
several MHz can be transmitted across such transformers with isolation levels sometimes
exceeding 20 kVrms.
The stray capacitance between primary and secondary winding is higher than in
optocouplers (up to several hundred pF) but can also be compensated by a screen
connected to ground, as shown in Figure 7.14 [7.16]
12
In some countries neutralizing transformers are used instead of isolation transformers. These devices
introduce a voltage into a telecommunication circuit pair to neutralise extraneous longitudinal voltages resulting
from ground potential rise or longitudinal induction while simultaneously allowing ac or dc metallic signals to
pass. For more details see [7.38].
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Figure 7.14 Isolation transformer with a screen connected to the ground. [7.39]
Most isolation transformers have windings with a mid-point allowing, among other
possibilities like power feeding of phantom circuits, the grounding of the circuit. This is of
great importance when dealing with common mode power frequency voltages (see
chapter 5).
Also when the communication equipment presents a high common mode impedance it
can happen that the stray capacitance of the transformer allows sparkovers between
leads and ground. In this case it becomes necessary to ground the mid-point at the
equipment side, either directly or by means of a surge protective device
fibre optic systems, are the best possible barriers against all kind of disturbances.
However, unless used for the transmission of multiplexed information (e.g. Local Area
Networks), their relatively high cost, taking into account the terminating equipment, limits
their application to sophisticated systems requiring wideband transmission (e.g.
differential digital protection or teleprotection).
On the other hand, it is worth noting that some low cost (plastic) optical fibres can be of
great interest for short distance low frequency applications requiring a very high isolation
level (e.g. telephone circuits extending outside HV substations, see subclause 7.3.4.7,
and sensors on HV equipment, etc.)
Sometimes it is necessary to have recourse to equipment combining different types of
galvanic isolation such as isolation transformers and relays or optocouplers or even
optical fibre. This occurs, for instance, with telephone circuits requiring d.c. signalling.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
(Gas-gap) arresters
(Metal oxide) varistors
breakover (avalanche) diodes
The following table summarises the main features of the three types of components.
Table 7.2 Main features of devices used for overvoltage protection.
Feature Gas-gap arresters Varistors Diodes
current handling capability high medium poor
response time low medium high
protective level (PL) high (shape dependent) any (current any
dependent)
dynamic PL /static PL >1 1 1
Capacitance very low (1 – 3pF) high medium
leakage current no yes no
Gas-gap arresters or gas tubes are mainly used in protection schemes requiring high power handling
capability (disturbances due to lightning or to power faults). These devices are small sealed spark
gaps containing rare gases (argon, neon). As a voltage pulse arrives at the arrester (above the
protection level) a gas breakdown is initiated. Unfortunately, this can take a little time to start and then
develop a low impedance. As a consequence fast rising pulses will break down at higher value than
more slowly rising pulses. Their minimum d.c. sparkover voltage is typically about 90 V while their
dynamic sparkover voltage at 1 kV/s usually exceed 500 V and can be up to 10kV. Due to this
significant level of residual transient overvoltage and due to the level of current that can be diverted to
ground, it is usually not recommended to install these components within the equipment. They are
better used as primary protection of a whole installation at the cable entry point to the building (room).
Varistors are non-linear resistive elements made of sintered blocks of zinc oxide (mixed with some
other metallic oxides).Varistors present the advantage with respect to gas-gap arresters, that they do
not short circuit the signal and they exhibit a good dynamic behaviour. For these reasons they are
widely used, mainly on power circuits. Varistors have slower speeds than avalanche diodes but higher
residual voltages than diodes, up to 2kV. However repetitive exposure to peak ratings degrades their
performance. Also due to their high capacitance, they are not suitable for HF applications such as 2
Mbit/s PCM circuits.
Breakover diodes cannot divert significant currents but their clamping voltages can be very low and
independent of current. They are therefore used mainly as surge suppressors (secondary protection)
close to the equipment or circuit to be protected (see below). Transient suppressor diodes having fast
switching speeds are used for protection of low voltage circuits-up to 400 V. For high voltages,
avalanche/zener diodes are used. They work well but can only deal with small pulse currents. They
also have a large capacitance (500 - 2000 pF).
Because all the various suppressor devices have different performance in different ranges, it is
sometimes useful to combine them to provide a good protection system.
For example, Figure 7.15 shows a 10 kV surge applied to a 24 V line protected first by a gas- gap;
then a varistor and finally a diode. In this figure it can be clearly seen how the peak value of the
residual surge is attenuated as it passes past the combination of protective devices.
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The same considerations about the correct positioning and the minimum impedance of the ground
connections of filters and I/O interface devices are also valid for surge protective devices.
If the protection devices are used for signal circuits, care should be paid to minimise the differential
mode disturbances by using a protection device working in an "integrated" way on the different
conductors.
The need to protect vulnerable equipment against surges has prompted the application of multi-stage
cascade protection schemes in which high energy SPD often called (Lighting current) arresters or
type I SPDs (according to IEC 1312) are installed at the entrance of a building, to divert the major part
of the surge energy, and SPD with lower energy handling capability called Overvoltage arresters ,
13
Suppressors or Type II SPDs are installed near the equipment to be protected .
Such a scheme needs some coordination between arrester and suppressor in order to get a good
distribution of the surge energy between both components. The coordination has to take into account
the relative clamping voltages, the response times, and the energy capability of the devices, as well as
the conductor impedance between them and the impinging surge waveform; as exemplified in Figure
7.15. This coordination problem is not always easy to solve. Guidance can be found in the work done
in that field by IEC, mainly in SC37A (Low voltage surge protective devices) and in TC81 (Lightning
protection).
7.3.4.4 Filters
Contrary to the two above mentioned methods of protection, filters don't act as overvoltage protection
but only as interference protection. The main idea related to the use of filters is that the bandwidth
used for a circuit should never extend beyond the frequency spectrum of the signals it carries. Many
EMC problems arise because disturbances penetrate equipment via circuits and ports whose
frequency spectrum handling capability has not been limited.
The best known kind of filter is the low-pass device installed at the power port of most electronic
equipment.
13
We prefer to use here the terms arrester and suppressor instead of primary and secondary protection to avoid
confusion with the usual expressions used in the distribution world where a primary arrester is installed at the
MV side of the MV/LV transformer and a secondary arrester at the service entrance of the building.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
While the first function is usually easily achieved (it is directly defined by the transfer characteristics of
the filter), the second is often a source of problems because it depends largely on the way the filter is
installed and wired within the equipment.
The only way to ensure correct rejection of the common mode conducted disturbances is to install the
filter directly at the entrance of the cable into the equipment (or into the framework or cubicle where
the equipment is mounted), and to make the ground connection by a direct contact between the filter
(metallic) case and the framework, and not (or at least not only) by a grounding wire.
The main characteristic of a filter is its insertion loss, which represents the ratio of output voltages
before and after filter insertion in a 50 Ω circuit, as a function of the frequency.
Mainly for power filters, actual attenuation may differ from the insertion loss because the impedances
of both the source and the loads of real-life installations may be significantly different from 50 Ω. Since
the frequency response of a filter is impedance-level dependent, the insertion loss is useful to
compare filters on a relative basis.
The following parameters are very important in the choice of suitable filters:
the maximum mismatch has to be reached between the input impedance of the filter and
the line carrying the disturbance
the voltage/current ratings and the insulation resistance must be properly evaluated
Figure 7.16 shows different low pass filters according to the different types of circuits which are to be
protected. As the maximum mismatch has to be reached, the following configurations are possible:
the capacitive input (output) must be connected with the source (load) at high impedance
(> several ohms)
the inductive input (output) must be connected with the source (load) at low impedance
(< several ohms)
a) capacitor; b) L filter;
c) Pi filter; d) T filter.
Figure 7.16 Different circuit solutions of filters, based on different input impedances. [7.39]
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
Since the filter must provide a high impedance (to achieve high insertion loss) any stray capacitance
(or mutual inductance) between the input and the output leads could provide a low impedance bypass
cancelling the effect of the filter as shown in Figure 7.18a).
It is therefore very important to keep the output connections well away from the input to any filter. In
situations where a noise current is diverted to a shield, as in the case of the T network shown in Figure
7.18 b), the quality of the shield connection becomes crucial.
As shown in Figure 7.18 c), any impedance Zg will deteriorate the filter performance.
The common faults reported for filters are easily applicable to any I/O interface devices (isolation
transformers, optoisolators, etc.) because the correct positioning is very important. For example, if I/O
interfaces are to be connected to ground, the impedances of the connections must be minimised to
guarantee the efficiency of the devices.
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Table 7.3 Barrier protection recommended on shielded communication circuits extending outside
buildings.
Circuit Environment
same earthing different earthing circuit incorporated in
network (*) networks (**) ground wire
14
FDM isolation transf. 2 kV isolation transf. 6 kV isolation transf. 20 kV
4 - 108 kHz (***)
2 Mbit/s isolation transf. 2 kV isolation transf. 6 kV isolation transf. 20 kV
6 - 2000 kHz (***)
64 kbit/s (G 703) isolation transf. 2 kV isolation transf. 6 kV isolation transf. 20 kV
6 - 252 kHz (***)
E/M audio isolation transf. 2 kV isolation transf. 6 kV isolation transf. 20 kV
0,3 - 3,4 kHz (***)
E/M signalling, Surge Prot. Device or Surge Prot. Device or Surge Prot. Device or
Subscriber interface Dedicated equipment Dedicated equipment Dedicated equipment
14
Frequency Division Multiplexing
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The result of this is that each circuit entering this potential "cone" (or "crater") is submitted to a
potential difference between cores and earth equal to the local potential rise. In particular, all cable
entering the substation supports the entire potential rise.
If this cable is not protected by suitable galvanic isolation (e.g. isolation transformers), or if a break
through occurs (SPD operation, insulation sparkover), its circuits will assume the potential of the
substation and "transfer" it outside the "crater", creating further disruptions (see Figure 7.20).
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15
In some countries it is customary to install between conductors, in addition to SPD's or alone, drainage
reactors with mid point connected to ground. During voltage surges (50/60 Hz, lightning), they relieve the
voltage stress between conductors and force simultaneous operation of the SPD's, thereby minimizing the
possibility of noise.
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"normal" cable and "dedicated" cable. This latter protection is meaningless if the local earth
resistance is too high (say higher than 10 ).
In addition to the previous measures it can be advisable to insert fuses between the isolation
transformers and the extension cable. The reason for this is that, in the absence of such protection
and in case of sparkover of the lightning arrester, the extension of the GPR outside the well protected
installation can cause severe destruction to other cable facilities.
For maximum effectiveness these fuses should have a length of at least 10 cm in order to limit the risk
that an electrical arc be maintained. (In fact practical experiences have shown that with currents
higher than a few hundreds amps and simultaneously voltages higher than 50 kV, the effectiveness of
fuses vanishes).
This latter measure, however, has the drawback of interrupting the circuits following fuse melting,
which can be considered unacceptable by some utilities.
Figure 7.21 shows an example of an installation that satisfies the recommendations described above.
Figure 7.21 Example of protection for communication circuits extending outside a substation.[7.39]
It is worth noting finally that all the previous mitigation measures refer to unshielded cables or to
cables with no guaranteed or sufficient shielding continuity (e.g. public telephone cable).
Most cables used by utilities are shielded cables with adequate drainage capability. In this case, the
shielding effectiveness is usually sufficient to allow the use of simple MV isolation transformers (e.g. 6
kV) without the need for other protection.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
does not exceed some particular value, typically 5 or 6 kV, so that it does not jeopardize the
telecommunication facilities and personnel. The Figure 7.22 shows schematically the dangerous
voltages due to the GPR.
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FP 1 exp (7.2)
X
R
When the telecommunication cable is simultaneously subjected to a GPR and an overvoltage induced
by the fault current, the two overvoltages shall be combined in order to have the total voltage
impressed on the cable, named here as VMAX . Considering that the symmetric GPR voltage (VSGPR) is
almost in phase with the fault current and that the induced voltage (VIND) lags the fault current by 90,
these components shall be combined as shown in the Equation 7.3:
The value of VSGPR can be assessed by the simplified procedure described in the section 4.1.3 or, for a
more accurate assessment, by the procedure described in the Reference [7.19]. The value of V IND
can be assessed by the Reference [7.19] or the Reference [7.20].
Note: as the Reference [7.20] is jointly agreed by power and telecommunication international
committees, it should be preferentially used when the calculated induced voltages are used to settle
responsibilities for the application of mitigation measures.
A. Power System
1. Reduction of the grounding impedance
As the GPR is the voltage drop through the grounding impedance of the power substation (see
Section 4.1.3), one possible measure to mitigate the GPR is to reduce this impedance. However, the
effectiveness of this measure is limited because the increase in the short circuit current due to the
reduction in the grounding impedance partially offsets the reduction in the GPR. Furthermore,
conductive coupling between the earth electrodes and economic constraints limit the reduction of the
earthing grid impedance.
2. Grounding the neutral by a resistance
The short circuit current to ground (and, as a consequence, the GPR) can be reduced by grounding
the transformer's neutral through a resistance. This procedure has to take into account the following
aspects:
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As a significant part of the line to ground voltage will be developed across this resistance, it
shall be adequately insulated and dimensioned to dissipate power
The protection against line to ground faults of the line cannot be based on devices like fuses
During a short circuit to ground of one phase, the line to ground voltage of the other phases
will reach values close to the line to line voltage, so that the insulation levels of the structures
and equipment shall be adequately dimensioned
B. Telecom system
1. Installation of SPD in the lines
A simple protection technique is the installation of surge protective devices (SPD) at the substation,
between the external and the internal lines, and bonded to the substation's local ground. These SPD
are generally of the overvoltage type (see Section 7.3.4.3). Although the overvoltage protection is
effective in limiting the voltage of the telecommunication facilities within the substation, the high
current injected in the telecom line may be sufficient to damage the line and/or the protectors, leading
to service interruption and maintenance, as well as jeopardizing the operating staff. The Eq.7.4 gives a
criterion to assess the maximum current carried by an individual telecommunication conductor due to
the GPR and induction.
VMAX
I MAX (7.4)
RCOND Z GG N COND
where:
IMAX = peak value of the maximum current carried by a telecom conductor
VMAX = peak value of the total voltage applied to the telecom cable (see Eq.7.2)
RCOND = resistance of the conductor of the telecom line
ZGG = impedance of the substation grounding grid (see Reference [7.18])
NCOND = number of telecom conductors connected to the power substation
Note: in Eq.7.4 the contribution of the telecommunication cable metallic sheath in sharing the fault
current was neglected because experience shows that the continuity of this sheath in the outside plant
is not reliable.
RCOND is given by the conductor resistance per unit length multiplied by conductor length from the
substation up to the next SPD installed in the telecom line, which can be at a cross-connected cabinet
or, more likely, at the exchange's main distribution frame (MDF).
The values of VMAX and IMAX shall be compared with the supportability of the hardware and conductors
of the telecommunication plant, as well as with the limits for personnel safety (see References [7.20]
and [7.23]). If the calculated values are within the limits, then SPD can be used at the substation in
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
order to protect the telecommunication lines against the GPR and the induced voltages. Otherwise,
other protection techniques have to be used, as described in the following.
As the GPR voltage has to be developed across the neutralizing transformer, it is often a bulky
and expensive unit
The insertion loss introduced by the neutralizing transformer may affect the data transmission,
specially for high bit rate systems
The upgrade of the protection scheme due to the installation of a new telecommunication line
may require an additional neutralizing transformer
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
be used to achieve this ground plane and can even form the basis of the IGP if the mesh size is not
larger than 5 m x 5 m. The bonding network resulting from the interconnection of this IGP with the
classical protection earthing network should have an average mesh size not exceeding 2 m x 2m.
All metallic framework should be grounded at least at two points; in particular, conductive cable trays
or ladders should be grounded at both extremities and each time they cross other metallic elements.
The GIS metal enclosure itself will be connected to the bonding network at the base of every support.
Those connections must be very short and preferably made via multiple conductors (3 or 4)
At the junction with overhead lines, the metal enclosure of the GIS has to be electrically extended to
the IGP. This can be achieved by bonding the metallic enclosure of the GIS to the IGP by means of
metal plates of several square meters (low impedance). The tubular GIS enclosure itself is connected
to the plates by 6 to 8 short straps distributed around its circumference.
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Figure 7.23 Simplified sketch of the GIS / cable transition with current-transformer arrangement. [7.39]
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Notwithstanding the fact that all these objectives are strongly correlated, we will only stress here the
EMC needs leaving the requirements for safety to the existing national and international regulations.
In particular, the cross-section of the grounding conductors in the vicinity of HV electrical equipment
will normally be specified by the level of the HV fault currents leading to values sometimes exceeding
1000 mm² of copper.
For EMC purposes (including lightning), cross-sections of 100 mm² in the case of steel strip/rod or 70
mm² in the case of copper conductors can be recommended.
An outdoor earthing network will be provided over the whole area of the generating plant. Its density
will depend on the importance (in terms of vulnerability) of the different equipment installed. Outdoor
earthing networks are generally designed with ring type or meshed electrodes laid around each
building and buried in soil at a depth of 0,5 m to 1 m.
Foundation earth electrodes are installed in the lower most concrete layer of each building with a
mesh size not exceeding 10 m. These earth electrodes are connected to the main earth grid by at
least two buried conductors following different paths.HV substations in the direct vicinity of the
generating plant are also interconnected with the main earthing network by at least two conductors.
The same is valid for all installations (building, tanks, etc.) which have some electrical connection with
the main installation but do not share the same earthing network.
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The air termination system will basically be a set of conductors forming a meshed Faraday cage, with
a spacing between conductors based on the required efficiency of the LPS. This latter depends on the
minimum value of lightning current likely to be intercepted by the LPS.
Indeed, it is currently admitted that the striking distance d between the tip of the downward leader and
the striking point at the moment at which the upward connecting leader starts, is related to the peak
amplitude of the lightning current according to the simplified expression:
d = 9,4 I
2/3
(d in m, I in kA) (7.5)
Hence, for a given mesh spacing, the higher the expected current is, the higher the probability that it
will be intercepted by the mesh.
Knowing that the probability of a lightning current higher than 8 kA is about 90 % (world mean [7.27])
and owing to the fact that it is not difficult to protect electrical and electronic circuits inside a generating
plant against the direct impact of currents smaller than 8 kA, it seems reasonable to retain this current
value for the calculation of the mesh spacing.
The application of the above formula with I = 8 kA leads to d = 37 m.
Simplifying the EG model and in order not to repeat the calculation for each particular case, it can be
recommended to choose for the mesh a conservative spacing equal to d.
Practically, however, every edge of the building will be provided with an air termination conductor. In
addition, every metallic structure such as ventilation equipment, parapets, air conditioning ducts, pipe
work reinforcing steel will be bonded to the LPS leading to an actual mesh spacing closer to 20 m.
If necessary, buildings containing very vulnerable equipment (or equipment requiring a very high level
of security) can be protected with a higher density LPS, with a mesh spacing not larger than 15 m.
Other methods like the rolling sphere method can of course be applied to determine with more
accuracy the external lightning protection system.
All the down conductors, which for a given protected structure should exceed two in number, must be
connected to the ring earth electrode.
Also, the steel rods reinforcing concrete walls and columns must be welded or lashed to the
foundation electrode or to the ring earth electrode at the bottom and to the meshed grid on the roof at
the top. Steel rods can be used as "natural" down conductors.
It should be stressed that the mesh spacing of the external LPS not only determines the probability of
capturing lightning currents of any amplitude but also plays an important part in determining the
division of the lightning current once the external LPS has been struck, and hence the amount of
induction within the protected area.
The higher the number of (down) conductors, the smaller the current in each conductor, and the
smaller also the magnetic field in the vicinity of these conductors.
On the other hand, as already mentioned in subclause 5.2.1, different theoretical and practical studies
have shown that the division of the lightning current between the different branches of a LPS occurs,
roughly speaking, in a way which is inversely proportional to the length of the different branches, if
their equivalent cross section remains constant. This important statement can be very useful in
calculating the EM level in the vicinity of every ground conductor likely to carry a partial lightning
current.
Each chimney should be equipped with two down conductors and at least one ring conductor (air
terminal system). Provision must be made to achieve a good interconnection (at least two 50 mm2
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conductors) between the earthing network of the chimney (usually a ring) and that of the main
building.
Although they don't need the same protection level as the other buildings, cooling towers will also be
equipped with at least two down conductors (better four) and, at the summit, with a ring conductor to
which the concrete reinforcing rods are connected.
Protection of chimneys and cooling towers is more to provide general protection for the whole
generating plant against significant lightning currents (I >> 8 kA) than to provide protection for
themselves.
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equipotential bonding network which will precisely be reinforced by the existence of multi-
grounded cable shields
So, even when it is not necessary to ground a cable shield at a particular end (because at that end the
equipment is not vulnerable to disturbances or cannot be the source of disturbances for other
equipment) it remains always advisable to generalise this grounding practice.
The achievement of a good equipotential bonding network requires the electrical connection of all the
following items:
building construction parts such as steel guides and steel columns
metallic piping and channels
metallic housings of subdistribution boards and switchgear systems
metallic cabinets containing electrical equipment and instrumentation
desks, cable racks, cable trays, vertical risers, supporting structures, etc
For cable trays, and more generally, for all metallic components which act as a PEC, it is important to
note that not only grounding is needed but also galvanic continuity along its full length. All the bonds
between metallic components must be made, bearing in mind that what is important is not to fix the
potential of these components but to allow disturbance currents to flow along them, following the same
path as the circuits and, in so doing, keeping the area between active circuits and grounding circuits
as small as possible (Figure 7.24).
Another important point concerns the way the metalwork is bonded to each other. The best connection
involves bolted constructions with direct contact between the different structures. If necessary,
serrated washers or lock washers can help ensure good contacts when the protective coating of the
metallic surface has not been (sufficiently) removed. Recourse to copper conductors is only needed
when direct contact between metal works is not possible.
Depending on the different electromagnetic environments which are a function of the type of
equipment installed and the proximity of the external lightning protection system it is possible to split
the indoor bonding network (internal LPS) into different zones having different mesh densities. [7.29]
In particular for vulnerable electronic equipment installed in a special room, it may be necessary not
only to make good connections between the individual cabinets or between these cabinets and the
cable trays but also to provide connections (for instance by means of steel strips) between the cabinet
rows (or the cable trays) at regular intervals of e.g. 2 m and to interconnect the whole system to a ring-
type ground bus (bonding bar) installed at the periphery of the room.
Such a ground bus can be installed at the boundaries of each protection zone and of the whole
building, making the multiple interconnections between zones easier.
In the same way the indoor bonding network has to be connected to the safety grounding system and
to the outdoor grounding system at multiple points (at least 4).
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In this situation, the only way to ensure high frequency EMC is to systematically install decoupling
capacitors between the supply lines and the frame (from 10 nF to 1 F depending on the low
frequency limit of the disturbance spectrum that has to be covered). Such a system, however, remains
vulnerable to switching current surges.
Therefore it is more advisable to use a d.c./d.c. converter (with galvanic isolation) in each cabinet in
order to be able to locally ground the circuits.
7.4.3 Cabling
1. The general electromagnetic environment of generating plants is normally less severe than
that of HV substations;
2. Due to the high level of interconnected metallic components, the equipotential bonding
network should be of higher quality within the main building of a generating plant than in an
(open air) substation;
3. The number of cables used in a generating plant is much larger than in a substation. This
means in practice that, for economic reasons, the same level of cable shielding will not
normally be possible in a generating plant;
4. The emergence of smart transducers and actuators will lead to an increased decentralisation
of the electronics and a greater need for multi-grounded cable shielding.
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EMC WITHIN POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS
bonding network. Moreover, with single point shield grounding, there is some risk of resonance excited
by disturbances at lower frequencies.
Long coaxial cables can normally also be grounded at one point only, but a capacitive HF grounding
should be provided at each piece of equipment connected to them.
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In case where commercial equipment designed for residential environments are to be installed in HV
substations or generating stations, special provisions may be necessary due to their insufficient EMC
performance. In particular cases, a dedicated ―protected area‖ can be realised within the plant,
provided with shielding and filtering properties. This kind of solution is very expensive, implies
periodical maintenance, and therefore should be considered only in case of systems with special
performance; a dedicated economical evaluation, comparing alternative solutions, is suggested.
Provisions for the reduction of electromagnetic disturbances can be difficult to apply to old plant.
The opportunity should be taken of using an upgrade which is planned for more general reasons, to
also include the EMC aspects and to introduce mitigation methods as would be used for a new
installation.
Sometimes some investigations and actions to mitigate electromagnetic disturbances may be
triggered by EMI problems. The related costs can be very high, as they include expensive in-field
investigations as well as the resulting improvements. The economical evaluation should be carried out
case by case.
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Figure 7.25 Feasibility and cost of the EMC measures within the design and life period of an
automation system. [7.39]
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The most severe disturbances transferred to automation and control systems are generally
associated with phenomena having low frequencies of occurrence, like lightning strokes in the
plant area, ground fault and short circuit conditions. As a consequence of these phenomena,
the integrity of the systems can be affected. Furthermore, interference conditions can
occasionally appear not to have a clear cause. In critical situations, relevant functions
assigned to electronic equipment could fail, with risks for the efficiency and safety of the plant
In the case of poor EMC design, the disturbances with high frequency of occurrence, e.g.
produced by switching operations, use of walkie-talkie, etc., can affect the operating condition
of the automation and control system. Periodical inspections and checks could be necessary
in this case to assure their correct operation. The associated additional costs can be of
particular relevance for telecontrolled plants
Occasional interference can produce insufficient reliability of electronic systems and affect the
confidence of the operators in the automatic control and telecontrol of the plants. As a
consequence, the automation and control systems could be excluded by the operators and
replaced by manual control
A complete approach of the electromagnetic compatibility implies proper education and training of the
technicians involved. In fact, a proper background is necessary to define the appropriate strategy for
achieving EMC at the design level, for assuring the expected quality on the products and for checking
the assembling of equipment and components in the installation.
To this purpose, several handbooks and literature are now available, dealing with the different aspects
of the EMC. These handbooks generally emphasise specific aspects, like the electronic design, testing
in laboratories, etc., and must be selected accordingly.
Technical references on EMC installation guidelines, design criteria, tests procedures, etc., are
published by different international organisations (IEC, ITU, UIE, CIRED, etc.) as technical reports,
standards or guidelines.
Training courses are available within Universities, by competent bodies and by EMC laboratories.
Broad band courses are formulated for a general introduction to the subject, but more detailed courses
are also available for specific needs of the industry operators.
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development has occurred to enable the transmission of data between the different substation devices
and the term ‗substation automation‘ has come into use.
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7.8 References
[7.1] IEC 60050 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Reference 195-01-08 (1998).
[7.2] IEEE STANDARD 1143-1994 - IEEE guide on shielding practice for low voltage cables.
[7.3] R. Anders, I. Trulsson: ―Electrical installation design procedures for minimal interference in
associated electronic equipment‖, ASEA - Industrial Electronics Division, 1981
[7.4] M.A. Van Houten: ―Electromagnetic compatibility in high voltage engineering‖, Ph.D. thesis,
Eindhoven University of Technology, October 1990
[7.5] D. Maciel: ―Etude et modélisation des risques électromagnétiques supportés par des câbles de
transmission d'informations contenus dans des chemins métalliques installés sur des sites industriels‖,
Thèse de doctorat n° 1093 - USTL Lille, France, 1993
[7.6] M.J.A.M. Van Helvoort: ―Earthing structures for the EMC protection of cabling and wiring‖, Ph.D.
thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, November 1995
[7.7] W.G. Duff: "Fundamental of Electromagnetic Compatibility", Control Technologies, Inc. Gainsville,
Virginia 1988.
[7.8] IEEE STANDARD 80-2000 - IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.
[7.9] L. Grcev: ―Transient voltages coupling to shielded cables connected to large substation earthing
systems due to lightning‖, paper 36-201, CIGRE Paris Session 1966.
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[7.10] F.M. Tesche, M. Ianoz, T. Karlsson, ―EMC Analysis Methods and Computational Models‖ (Wiley
1997), chapter 10.4.
[7.11] CIGRE Technical Brochure 373 ―Mitigation Techniques of Power-Frequency Magnetic Fields
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Page 307
ISBN: 978-2-85873-229-6