Living World

BY

V.VADIVEL M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil.,

PG ASST IN BOTANY
G.H.S.S – MORAPPUR (BOYS)
DHARMAPURI DT
 UNIT I: Diversity in Living World

• What is living? ;
• Biodiversity;
• Need for classification;
• Three domains of life; Taxonomy & Systematics; Concept of species
and taxonomical hierarchy;
• Binomial nomenclature;
• Tools for study of Taxonomy - Museums, Zoos, Herbaria, Botanical
gardens.
V.VADIVEL PG ASST IN BOTANY, G.H.S.S, MORAPPUR 2
What is living?

• Life can be defined as unique complex

organization of molecules expressing itself
through chemical reactions ( metabolism) which
lead to growth, development, responsiveness,
adaptation and reproduction.
• Living things possess certain characteristics,
which makes them different from non-living
things.

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 DEATH METABOLISM

MOVEMENT & CHARACTERISTICS GROWTH

EXCRETION
OF
LIVING BEINGS

RESPIRATION REPRODUCTION

NUTRITION

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 BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
• The planet earth is full of variety of animals and
plants. This refers to biodiversity. Every distinct
geographical location has its own set of flora and
fauna. Each different kind of plant, animal or
organism represent a species.
• The number of species that are known and
described range between 1.7 -1.8 million. The
number of known species are increasing day-by-day
because of projects like Global Biodiversity
information facility and species 2000.
• The estimated number of living organism on
earth is now between 5-30 million, most
occurring in dense tropical rain forests and
under water reefs.
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 TAXON

• - A taxon is a taxonomic group belonging to any rank

in a given system of classification. The term ‘taxon’
was introduced for the first time by ICBN in 1956.
• - Mayr( 1964) defined taxon to be taxonomic group of
any rank that is sufficiently distinct to be worthy of
being assigned a definite category.

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 SYSTEMATIC HIERARCHY
• - The systematic is the analytical
approach to understand the diversity
and relatedness of organisms.
• The system by which various
taxonomic categories are arranged in a
proper descending order is called
taxonomic or systematic hierarchy
• Kingdom is the highest rank and
species is the lowest or basic rank.
• - Hierarchy of categories is also
called Linnaean hierarchy because it
was first proposed by Carolus
Linnaeus.

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IDENTIFICATION
• - It is about finding a correct name and place of an organism
with the help of identification keys and comparing similarities
and dissimilar comparing similarities with already known
organism
CLASSIFICATION
• By observing the fundamental characteristics of organism
and their comparison with the organism already known, we
include the new organism in special class or group which
represent distinct biological entities. John Ray developed the
key for identification.
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NOMENCLATURE
• (i) Polynomial system of nomenclature : Prior to 1750, biologists used descriptive
names for organisms with each name being made up of several Latin words e.g.
‘Caryophyllumsaxnatilis, Folisgramineus, umbellatiscorymbis’ ( Caryophyllum growing
on rocks having grass-like leaves and umbellate corymb flower)
• (iii) Binomial system of nomenclature.
• This system was proposed by C Linnaeus in 1753 in his book species Plantarum.
Though the idea of binomial nomenclature was first introduced by Gaspard Bauhin.
• As per this system, name of any organism consists of two parts or epithets i.e. Generic
epithet and Specific epithets E.g. Botanical name of Mango is Mangiferaindica in which
mangiferais generic epithet, which represents its genus and indica is specific epithet
which represents its species.

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 TAXONOMY
• - It is the branch of study that
deals with principles and
procedure and classification
code for Botanical nomenclature
(ICBN) has developed a system
for identification and
classification of plants.
• Similarly international code of
zoological nomenclature (ICZN)
has developed a system for
identifying and classifying the
animals.
• The term ‘Taxonomy’ was given
by deCandolle (1813).
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 BRANCHES OF TAXONOMY
Varous branches of taxonomy are as follows:
(i) Classical taxonomy or α-taxonomy or old
systematic is based on the morphological traits.
(ii) Artificial taxonomy makes use of habit and
habitat of organisms. Pling used this system first
time
(iii) Practical taxonomy is based on the utility of
organisms
(iv) Natural taxonomy is based on natural,
similarities amongst organisms
(v) Phylogeny or evolutionary history of a
species.
(vi) Experimental taxonomy is based on
experimental determination of genetic inter-
relationship
V.VADIVEL PG ASST IN BOTANY, G.H.S.S, MORAPPUR
• (vii) Chemotaxonomy is based on the presence or
absence of chemical in cells or tissues.
• (viii) Numerical taxonomy is based on the number
of shared characters of various organisms. It is also
called phonetic or Adanosonian classification
• (ix) Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological studies.
• (x) Karyotaxonomy is based on nuclear and
chromosomal studies
• (xi) Morphotaxonomy is based on morphological
studies of organisms
• Serotaxonomy (immunotaxonomy) - serological
reactions and development of the discipline of
immunology.
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 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
• Assigning name for a plant is known as Nomenclature.
• This is based on the rules and recommendations of the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature.
• ICBN deals with the names of existing (living) and extinct (fossil)
organisms.
• The elementary rule of naming of plants was first proposed by Linnaeus in
1737 and 1751 in his Philosophia Botanica.
• In 1813 a detailed set of rules regarding plant nomenclature was given by
A.P. de Candolle in his famous work “Theorie elementaire de la botanique”.
• Then the present ICBN was evolved by following the same rules of Linnaeus, A.P.
de Candolle and his son Alphonse de Candolle.

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12
The following rules are followed for Binomial Nomenclature as
given below
(a) Names are in Greek or Latin  18th International Botanical Congress held in
language. 2011at Melbourne, Australia made the following
major changes.
(b) Names are in begins with Capital
letters (Mangifera) and is placed before  The code now permits electronic publication of
names of new taxa.
specific name small letters (indica)
 Latin diagnosis or description is not mandatory
(c) The scientific name should be either and permits the use of English or Latin for the
underlined in case of hand written or publication of a new name (Art-39).
italicized if printed
 “One fungus, one name” and “one fossil one
(d) Name of the authority should be name” are important changes, the concept of
anamorph and telomorph (for fungi) and
written after specific epithet in an morphotaxa (for fossils) have been eliminated.
abbreviate form. (Previously, sexual and asexual stages of the fungus/
fossils were provided with different names).
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The following rules are followed for Binomial Nomenclature as
given below
• Vernacular names (Common
names)
• Scientific Names / Botanical
Names
• Polynomial
• Binomial
• Author citation
• Nomen ambiguum
• Tautonym

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 CODE

• ICBN – International code of Botanical Nomenclature. (Now ICN)

• ICZN – International code of zoological Nomenclature.
• ICNB – International code for Nomenclature of Bacteria.
• ICNCP – International code for Nomenclature of cultivated Plants
• ICTV – International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

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 TAXONOMICAL AIDS Biologist use
• Key
• Taxonomic aids are the tools for
the taxonomic study. • Flora, fauna and keys in taxonomical
studies.
• Some techniques, procedures
• Herbarium,
and stored information that are
useful in identification and • Monograph
classification of organisms are • Catalogues
called taxonomical aids.
• Botanical gardens,
• Museums,
• Zoological park.

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 Keys
• Taxonomic keys are the tools for the
identification of unfamiliar plants.
• These keys are based on characters which
are stable and reliable. The most common
type of key is a dichotomous key.
• It consists of a sequence of two
contrasting statements. A pair of
contrasting statements is known as couplet.
• Each statement is known as lead.
• The plant is correctly identified with keys by
narrowing down the characters found in
plant.

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 Flora, fauna and keys in taxonomical studies.
• Local Flora – Cover limited area
• Example: ‘Flora of Thiruvannamalai District’ by R. Vijaysankar, K.
Ravikumar and P. Ravichandran.
• Regional Flora – cover Large Geographical area
• Example: ‘Flora of Tamil Nadu’ Carnatic by K.M.Matthew (1983),
‘Flora of Madras Presidency’ by J.S. Gamble and Fischer.
• Continental Flora - covers the entire continent.
• Example: ‘Flora of Europaea’ by D.A.Web.

• Electronic Floras (e - floras) It is nothing but the digitized form of a

flora published online.
• Example: ‘e – Flora China’. This provides the information and also functions
as an identification tool.
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• Monograph
• A Monograph is a complete global account of a taxon of any rank –
family, genus or species at a given time.
• Example: The Family Lentibulariaceae by Peter Tylor.
• Revisions
• Revisions normally incorporate keys to identify the taxa, short
descriptions, often confined to diagnostic characters, distribution
maps and a classification.
• Catalogues – consist Particular Botanical Titles
• Ex: Ornamental / Horticultural books

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 • (iv) Material for Botanical garden: Botanical
BOTANICAL GARDEN gardens generally have a wide range of species
growing together and offer ready material for
• A botanical garden is essentially a collection of living
botanical research, which can go a long way in
plants maintained for both pure and applied studies.
understanding taxonomic affinities.
• The botanical gardens play the following roles
• (v) Seed exchange: More than 500 botanical
• (i) On site teaching: Collection of plants is often gardens of the world operate an informal
displayed according to the families, genera or seed exchange scheme, offering annual lists of
habitats and can be used for self-instruction or available species and a free exchange of seeds.
demonstration purposes

• (ii) Conservation” Botanical gardens are now

gaining more importance for their role in conserving
genetic diversity and rare, endangered species.

• (iii) Aesthetic appeal: Botanical gardens have an

aesthetic appeals and attract large number of visitors
from the observation of general plant diversity as
also the curious plants.

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Major Botanical gardens of the
world are as follows
(a) New York Botanical garden, USA

(b) Royal Botanical Garden, Kew,

England

(c)Pisa Botanical Garden, Italy

(e) Berlin Botanical garden and

museum, Berlin – Dahlem

(f) Cambridge University Botanical

Garden USA

 Major Botanical gardens of India are

(a) Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur,

Kolkata, was established in 1787. It has an
area of 273 acre

(b) National Botanical Garden, Lucknow

now known as National Botanical Research
Institute
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 Herbarium – Preparation and uses
• Herbaria are store houses of preserved plant collections.
Plants are preserved in the form of pressed and dried
specimens mounted on a sheet of paper .
• Preparation of herbarium Specimen
i. Plant collection: Field collection, Liquid preserved
collection, Living collection, Collection for molecular
studies.
ii. Documentation of field site data
iii. Preparation of plant specimen
iv. Mounting herbarium specimen - (29cm x 41cm).
v. Herbarium labels. 4-5’’ wide and 2-3’’tall.
vi. Protection of herbarium sheets against mold and
insects – (2% Mercuric chloride, Naphthalene, DDT,
carbon disulphide. Fu- migation using formaldehyde.
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 Uses of Herbarium
• Herbarium provides resource material for systematic research and
studies.
• It is a place for orderly arrangement of voucher specimens.
• Voucher specimen serves as a reference for comparing doubtful newly
collected fresh specimens.
• Voucher specimens play a role in studies like floristic diversity,
environmental assessment, ecological mechanisms and survey of
unexplored areas.
• Herbarium provides opportunity for documenting biodiversity and
studies related to the field of ecology and conservation biology.

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 MUSEUMS
• Museums have collection of preserved
d) Musee de l’Homme, Paris (France)
plants and animal specimens for the
study and reference. e) Zoology Museum, Amsterdam
• Some important museums are listed f) Prince of Wales museum, Mumbai
below
g) Indian Museum, Kolkata
• a) Natural History Museum, London
(England) h) National Meseum of Natural History
(NMNH) Delhi
• b) United states National Museum,
Washington (USA) i) MaharajaSawai Man Singh(II)
museum,Jaipur
• c) Field Museum of Natural, History,
Chicago (USA) j) Forest Museum, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

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 SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
• These systems can be categorized
into three main types • iii) Phylogenetic system of classification
• Adolph engler and karl a prantl
• i) Artificial system of classification
• Phylogenetic system of classification
–
• Book of “die naturelichen pflanzen familien
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707 -1778)
• Written by “Species Plantarum”
• sexual system of classification
• ii) Natural system of classification
• Bentham and hooker system
• Widely followed natural system
• Three volume work as “genera
plantarum” (1862–1883)
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