Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
me/upsc_pdf
Fats.......................................................23
Lipid......................................................23
Biology is a Low Gain – High Pain topic (not Fatty Acid ..............................................23
of much use for mains; many topics to be Healthy Fats – Omega-3 and Omega-6,
covered, subject is complicated for a non- Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated 24 Page
science student, weightage is not significant in
prelims). Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans
|1
Fat ........................................................24
So, you should prepare Biology only after
finishing Indian Polity, Economy, Modern
Adipose tissue .......................................25
History, Geography, Environment….. which Metabolic Basis for Living ......................25
have good weightage in both prelims and
Animal Tissues.....................................25
mains.
Epithelial Tissue ....................................26
Contents
Connective Tissue .................................27
Cell ........................................................ 5 Muscular Tissue ....................................28
Cell Organelles ....................................... 5 Nervous Tissue ......................................29
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane ...... 5 Human Digestive System ................... 30
Cell Wall ................................................. 6 Digestive Glands....................................33
Cytoplasm .............................................. 6 Digestion – Enzyme Action in Stomach ..34
Nucleus .................................................. 6 Digestion – Enzyme Action in Small
Intestine ................................................34
Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells ..... 7
Absorption of Digested Products ............35
Vacuoles ................................................ 8
Disorders of Digestive System ................35
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) .................. 8
Respiration – Breathing and Exchange
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex .......... 9
of Gases ................................................36
Mitochondria .......................................... 9
Human Respiratory System ...................36
Plastids .................................................. 9
Mechanism of Breathing ........................37
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell.......................10
Exchange of Gases ................................38
Biomolecule .........................................11
Transport of Gases ................................38
Carbohydrates .......................................12
Regulation of Respiration.......................39
Importance of Carbohydrates.................14
Disorders of Respiratory System ............39
Amino Acids ..........................................15
Endocrine Glands and Hormones ........39
Proteins .................................................15
Hypothalamus .......................................40
Structure of Proteins .............................16
Pituitary Gland ......................................40
Enzymes ...............................................17
Pineal Gland..........................................41
Primary and Secondary Metabolites .......18
Thyroid Gland .......................................41
Vitamins ...............................................19
Parathyroid Gland .................................41
Deficiency Diseases ...............................20
Thymus .................................................41
Micronutrients – Vitamins and Minerals 20
Adrenal Gland .......................................42
Food Sources of Vitamins and Minerals .22
Pancreas ...............................................42
Dietry Fibers .........................................21
Testis ....................................................43
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Cell
Page
Robert Hooke Discovered and coined the
term cell in 1665 |5
Robert Brown Discovered Cell Nucleus in
1831
Schleiden and Presented The cell theory,
Schwann that all the plants and
animals are composed of
cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of life. Schleiden
(1838) and Schwann (1839).
Diffusion
Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The the contents of the cell away from the cell
movement of water molecules through a wall. This phenomenon is known as
selectively permeable membrane is called plasmolysis (plasma → fluid; lysis →
osmosis. disintegration, decomposition).
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region Only living cells, and not dead cells, are able
of high water concentration through a semi- to absorb water by osmosis. Cell walls permit
permeable membrane to a region of low water the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to Page
concentration. Thus, osmosis is a special withstand very dilute [hypotonic] external
case of diffusion through a selectively media without shrinkage. |6
permeable membrane. In such media the cells tend to lose water by
Unicellular freshwater organisms and most osmosis. The cell shrinks, building up
plant cells tend to gain water through pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts
osmosis. Absorption of water by plant an equal pressure against the shrunken cell.
roots is also an example of osmosis. Cell wall also prevents the bursting of cells
Thus, diffusion is important in exchange of when the cells are surrounded by a hypertonic
gases and water in the life of a cell. In medium (medium of high concentration).
additions to this, the cell also obtains In such media the cells tend to gain water by
nutrition from its environment. osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure
Different molecules move in and out of the cell against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal
through a type of transport requiring use of pressure against the swollen cell.
energy in the form of ATP. Because of their walls, plant cells can
withstand much greater changes in the
Reverse Osmosis (RO) surrounding medium than animal cells.
This membrane is also porous and allows the cells. Functional segments of dna are
movement of materials between the cytoplasm called genes.
and the inside of the nucleus [diffusion]. In a cell which is not dividing, this dna is
With a microscope of higher magnification, we present as part of chromatin material.
can see a smaller spherical body in the Chromatin material is visible as entangled
nucleus. It is called the nucleolus. mass of thread like structures. Whenever the
In addition, nucleus contains thread-like cell is about to divide, the chromatin material Page
structures called chromosomes. These carry gets organised into chromosomes.
genes and help in inheritance or transfer of The nucleus plays a central role in cellular | 7
characters from the parents to the reproduction, the process by which a single
offspring. The chromosomes can be seen cell divides and forms two new cells.
only when the cell divides. It also plays a crucial part, along with the
Gene is a unit of inheritance in living environment, in determining the way the cell
organisms. It controls the transfer of a will develop and what form it will exhibit at
hereditary characteristic from parents to maturity, by directing the chemical activities
offspring. This means that your parents pass of the cell.
some of their characteristics on to you.
Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells
acts as control center of the activities of the
cell.
Organisms whose cells lack a nuclear
The entire content of a living cell is known
membrane, are called prokaryotes (pro =
as protoplasm [cytoplasm + nucleus]. It
primitive or primary; karyote ≈karyon =
includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
nucleus).
Protoplasm is called the living substance of
Organisms with cells having a nuclear
the cell.
membrane are called eukaryotes.
The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well
Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other
organized like the cells of multicellular
cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic
organisms. There is no nuclear membrane.
cells.
Every cell has a membrane around it to keep
Many of the functions of such organelles are
its own contents separate from the external
also performed by poorly organised parts of
environment.
the cytoplasm.
Large and complex cells, including cells from
The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic
multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical
bacteria is associated with membranous
activities to support their complicated
vesicles (bag like structures) but not with
structure and function.
plastids as in eukaryotic cells.
To keep these activities of different kinds
separate from each other, these cells use
membrane-bound little structures (or Prokaryotes → defined nuclear region, the
‘organelles’) within themselves. membrane-bound cell organelles are absent.
The SER helps in the manufacture of fat Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by
molecules, or lipids, important for cell digesting any foreign material as well as worn-
function. out cell organelles.
Foreign materials entering the cell, such as
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum bacteria or food, as well as old organelles end
(ER) up in the lysosomes, which break them up
into small pieces. Lysosomes are able to do Page
this because they contain powerful digestive
Some of these proteins and lipids help in
enzymes capable of breaking down all organic | 9
building the cell membrane. This process is
material.
known as membrane biogenesis.
During the disturbance in cellular
Some other proteins and lipids function
metabolism, for example, when the cell gets
as enzymes and hormones.
damaged, lysosomes may burst and the
Although the ER varies greatly in appearance
enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore,
in different cells, it always forms a network
lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide
system.
bags’ of a cell.
Thus, one function of the ER is to serve
Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound
as channels for the transport of materials
sacs filled with digestive enzymes. These
(especially proteins) between various regions
enzymes are made by RER.
of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm
and the nucleus.
The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic Mitochondria
framework providing a surface for some of
the biochemical activities of the cell. Mitochondria are known as
In the liver cells of the group of animals the powerhouse of the cell.
called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial role The energy required for various chemical
in detoxifying many poisons and drugs. activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex Triphosphate) molecules.
Lysosomes Plastids
Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal You might have noticed several small colored
system of the cell. bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of
Tradescantia leaf. They are scattered in the
cytoplasm of the leaf cells. These are called Most plant cells have large membranous
plastids. organelles called plastids, which are of two
They are of different colours. Some of them types – chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
contain green pigment called chlorophyll. Chromoplasts that contain chlorophyll are
Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts and they perform
called chloroplasts. They provide green colour photosynthesis. Leucoplasts help in the
to the leaves. storage of oils, starch and protein granules. Page
Chloroplasts are important Most mature plant cells have a large central
for photosynthesis in plants. vacuole that helps to maintain | 10
Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or the turgidity of the cell and stores important
orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll. substances including wastes.
Plastids are present only in plant cells. There Prokaryotic cells have no membrane-bound
are two types of plastids – chromoplasts organelles, their chromosomes are composed
(coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or of only nucleic acid, and they have only very
colourless plastids). small ribosomes as organelles.
Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is an
materials such as starch, oils and protein example of a single cell which can change its
granules are stored. shape.
The internal organization of the plastids Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
consists of numerous membrane layers In egg white material is albumin which
embedded in a material called the stroma. solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is yolk. It
Plastids are similar to mitochondria in is part of the single cell.
external structure. Like the Valonia ventricosa, a species of algae with a
mitochondria, plastids also have their own diameter that ranges typically from 1 to 4
dna and ribosomes. centimetres is among the largest unicellular
species.
Summary
alkane-alkyl
Hydrate == a compound in which water Some of the carbohydrates, which are sweet in
molecules are chemically bound to another taste, are also called sugars.
compound or an element. Eg: α-d-Glucose The most common sugar, used in our homes
hydrate (C6H14O7). is named as sucrose whereas the sugar
present in milk is known as lactose.
For example, the molecular formula of glucose Carbohydrates are also
(C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means
C6(H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into sugar).
this formula may not be classified as Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of
carbohydrates. their behavior on hydrolysis. They have been
broadly divided into following three groups.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general
formula Cx(H2O)y → C2(H2O)2 but is not a Monosaccharides
carbohydrate.
One of the common disaccharides is sucrose They mainly act as the food storage or
which on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture structural materials.
of glucose and fructose. Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of
plants.
Maltose It is the most important dietary source for
human beings.
Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of High content of starch is found in cereals, Page
two α-D-glucose units roots, tubers and some vegetables.
It is a polymer of α-glucose and consists of two | 14
Lactose components — Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose is water soluble polysaccharide
which constitutes about 15-20% of starch.
It is more commonly known as milk Amylopectin is water
sugar since this disaccharide is found in insoluble polysaccharide which constitutes
milk. It is composed of β-D-galactose and β- about 80- 85% of starch.
D-glucose.
Cellulose
Polysaccharides
Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it
Carbohydrates which yield a large number of is the most abundant organic substance in
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called plant kingdom.
polysaccharides. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of
Some common examples are Starch, plant cells.
Cellulose, Glycogen, Gums, Cellulose is a straight chain
Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars. polysaccharide composed only of β-D-
Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence glucose units.
they are also called non-sugars.
They are threads (literally a cotton thread) Glycogen
containing different monosaccharides as
building blocks.
The carbohydrates are stored in animal body
For example, Cellulose is a polymeric
as
polysaccharide consisting of only one type of
It is also known as animal starch because its
monosaccharide i.e., Glucose. Cellulose is a
structure is similar to amylopectin and is
homopolymer. Starch is a variant of this but
rather more highly branched.
present as a store house of energy in plant
It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
tissues.
Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
Animals have another variant
When the body needs glucose, enzymes break
called Glycogen.
the glycogen down to glucose.
Inulin is a polymer of fructose.
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Paper
made from plant pulp and cotton fibre Importance of Carbohydrates
is cellulosic. There are more complex
polysaccharides in nature. Carbohydrates are essential for life in both
Exoskeletons of arthropods, for example, have plants and animals.
a complex polysaccharide called These They form a major portion of our food. Honey
complex polysaccharides are mostly has been used for a long time as an instant
homopolymers. source of energy in ayurvedic system of
medicine.
Starch Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules
as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
Polysaccharides contain a large number of Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of
monosaccharide units joined together cellulose which is a carbohydrate.
by glycosidic linkages. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the
These are the most commonly encountered form of wood and clothe ourselves with
carbohydrates in nature. cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
They provide raw materials for many The amino acids, which can be synthesized in
important industries like textiles, paper, the body, are known as nonessential amino
lacquers and breweries. acids.
On the other hand, those which cannot be
General Science for UPSC: Amino Acids – synthesized in the body and must be obtained
Proteins – Structure of Proteins, Fibrous through diet, are known as essential amino
proteins, Globular proteins, Role of Proteins. acids. Page
Enzymes, Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity. Amino acids are usually colorless, crystalline
solids. These are water-soluble, high melting | 15
Amino Acids solids and behave like salts rather than
simple amines or carboxylic acids.
Amino acids are organic compounds This behavior is due to the presence of
containing an amino group [NH2] and both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic
an acidic group [COOH] as substituents on (amino group) groups in the same molecule.
the same carbon i.e., the a-carbon. Hence, In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can
they are called a-amino acids. They lose a proton and amino group can accept a
are substituted methanes. proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known
as zwitter ion. This is neutral but contains
both positive and negative charges.
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids
show amphoteric behavior as they react both
with acids and bases.
Except glycine, all other naturally occurring
α-amino acids are optically active, since the
α-carbon atom is asymmetric.
Optically Active:
All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBELxxG
Amino acids contain amino (–
bzKk
NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
groups.
Depending upon the relative position of amino Proteins
group with respect to carboxyl group, the
amino acids can be classified as α, β, γ, δ and Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules
so on. of the living system.
Only α-amino acids are obtained on
hydrolysis of proteins.
All α-amino acids have trivial names, which
usually reflect the property of that compound
or its source.
Glycine is so named since it has sweet
taste (in Greek glykos means sweet)
and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese
(in Greek, tyros means cheese.)
Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or
neutral depending upon the relative number
of amino and carboxyl groups in their
molecule. Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese,
pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
1. Equal number of amino and carboxyl They occur in every part of the body and form
groups makes it neutral; the fundamental basis of structure and
2. more number of amino than carboxyl functions of life.
groups makes it basic and They are also required for growth and
3. more carboxyl groups as compared to maintenance of body.
amino groups makes it acidic.
The word protein is derived from Greek word, If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide,
“proteios” which means primary or of prime the product is called a tripeptide.
importance. A tripeptide contains three amino acids
Proteins are polypeptides. linked by two peptide linkages.
Similarly when four, five or six amino acids
[Peptide == a compound consisting of two or are linked, the respective products are known
more amino acids linked in a chain]. as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide, Page
respectively.
Proteins are linear chains of amino acids When the number of such amino acids is more | 16
linked by peptide bonds. than ten, then the products are
Each protein is a polymer of amino acids. called polypeptides.
A polypeptide with more than hundred amino
[Monomer == a molecule that can be bonded acid residues, having molecular mass higher
to other identical molecules to form a than 10,000u is called a protein.
polymer]. However, the distinction between a
polypeptide and a protein is not very sharp.
Dietary proteins are the source of Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely
essential amino acids. to be called proteins if they ordinarily have a
Therefore, amino acids can be essential or well-defined conformation of a protein such
non-essential. as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
Proteins can be classified into two types on
[Non-Essential Amino Acids == Amino Acids the basis of their molecular shape: Fibrous
that our body can make]. Proteins and Globular proteins.
Globular proteins
You have already read that proteins are the
polymers of α-amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide This structure results when the chains of
bond or peptide linkage. polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide [an shape.
organic compound containing the group - These are usually soluble in
C(O)NH2] formed between –COOH group and – water. Insulin and albumins are the common
NH2 examples of globular proteins.
The reaction between two molecules of similar
or different amino acids, proceeds through the Primary structure of proteins
combination of the amino group of one
molecule with the carboxyl group of the Proteins may have one or more polypeptide
other. chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has
This results in the elimination of a water amino acids linked with each other in a
molecule and formation of a peptide bond – specific sequence and it is this sequence of
CO–NH–. The product of the reaction is called amino acids that is said to be the primary
a dipeptide because it is made up of two structure of that protein.
amino acids.
Page
| 17
Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic to bind with the additional substrate
catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts molecules.
work efficiently at high temperatures and high The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to
pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high the presence of specific chemicals that bind to
temperatures (say above 40°C). the enzyme. When the binding of the chemical
However, enzymes isolated from organisms shuts off enzyme activity, the process is
who normally live under extremely high called inhibition and the chemical is called Page
temperatures (e.g., hot vents and sulphur an inhibitor.
springs), are stable and retain their catalytic When the inhibitor closely resembles the | 18
power even at high temperatures (up to 80°- substrate in its molecular structure and
90°C). Thermal stability is thus an important inhibits the activity of the enzyme, it is known
quality of such enzymes isolated from as competitive inhibitor.
thermophilic organisms.
Summary
Thermophile == a bacterium or other
microorganism that grows best at high Proteins are the polymers of about twenty
temperatures (above 45°C). different α-amino acids which are linked
by peptide bonds.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity Ten amino acids are called essential amino
acids because they cannot be synthesised by
The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a our body, hence must be provided through
change in the conditions which can alter the diet.
structure of the protein. These include Proteins perform various structural and
temperature, pH, change in substrate dynamic functions in the organisms.
concentration or binding of specific chemicals Proteins which contain only α-amino acids are
that regulate its activity. called simple proteins.
The secondary or tertiary structure of proteins
get disturbed on change of pH or temperature
Temperature and pH
and they are not able to perform their
functions. This is called denaturation of
Enzymes generally function in a narrow range proteins.
of temperature and pH. Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up the
Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a reactions in biosystems. They are very specific
particular temperature and pH called and selective in their action and chemically all
the optimum temperature and optimum pH. enzymes are proteins.
Activity declines both below and above the
optimum value. Primary and Secondary Metabolites, Vitamins,
Low temperature preserves the enzyme in Deficiency Diseases, Micronutrients – Vitamins
a temporarily inactive state whereas high and Minerals, Food Sources of Vitamins and
temperature destroys enzymatic Minerals.
activity because proteins are denatured by
heat. Primary and Secondary Metabolites
Minerals
Questions
Q1. Besides proteins and carbohydrates,
other elements of nutritional value found
in milk, include [1996]
http://www.thedoctorwillseeyounow.com/con
tent/kids/art3933.html
a. 2%
Q3. Prelims GS 2014: Consider the Glycerol is a simple sugar alcohol compound.
following pairs: A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol
and three fatty acids (tri + glyceride)
Vitamin Deficiency Disease Triglycerides are the main constituent of
body fat in humans and animals, as well as
1. Vitamin C Scurvy vegetable fat.
2. Vitamin D Rickets Page
3. Vitamin E Night blindness
| 23
Which of the pairs given above is/ are
correctly matched?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 3 only
c. 1, 2 and 3
d. None
Lipid
Saturated fat The omega-3 and omega-6 are fatty acids are
both polyunsaturated. The difference is in
A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids where the first of the double bonds occurs.
all have single bonds. Both omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty
A saturated fat has the maximum number of acids are important components of cell
hydrogens bonded to the carbons, and membranes.
therefore is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen atoms. There is increasing support for omega-3 fatty Page
Most animal fats are saturated whereas acids in protecting against fatal heart disease
the fats of plants and fish are generally and it is known that they have anti- | 24
unsaturated. inflammatory effects.
Many experts recommend a diet low in There is also growing interest in the role of
saturated fat. omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of
Saturated fats are popular with diabetes and certain types of cancer.
manufacturers of processed foods because Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat are
they are less vulnerable to rancidity and are, considered “heart healthy” and can help with
in general, more solid at room improving cholesterol when used in place of
temperature than unsaturated fats. unhealthy fats.
Some sources of these fats include almonds,
cashews, pecans, peanuts, pine nuts,
Unsaturated fat pumpkin, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds,
Olive oil and olives, vegetable oils (such as
An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in sunflower, safflower, corn, soybean, and
which there is at least one double bond within cottonseed).
the fatty acid chain.
Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen
atoms are eliminated.
In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat
molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e.,
fewer calories) than an equivalent amount of
saturated fat.
The greater the degree of unsaturation in a
fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the
fatty acid) the more vulnerable it is
to rancidity [lipid oxidation][rusting of fats].
Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat
from lipid oxidation.
Many saturated fats are “solid” fats that you These metabolic activities are regulated by
can see, such as the fat in meat. Other several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon and
sources of saturated fats include high-fat epinephrine).
cheeses, high-fat cuts of meat, butter, Ice
cream, palm and coconut oils, etc.. Metabolic Basis for Living
Trans fats, or trans-unsaturated fatty acids,
trans fatty acids, are a type of unsaturated Page
Metabolic pathways can lead to a more
fats that are uncommon in nature.
complex structure from a simpler structure | 25
Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into
(for example, acetic acid becomes
solid fats during food processing. There is
cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure
also a small amount of trans fat that occurs
from a complex structure (for
naturally in some meat and dairy products,
example, glucose becomes lactic acid in our
but those found in processed foods tend to be
skeletal muscle).
the most harmful to your health.
The former cases are called biosynthetic
Trans fats are worse than saturated fats. They
pathways or anabolic pathways. The latter
increase LDL (“bad” cholesterol) and
constitute degradation and hence are
decreasing HDL (“healthy” cholesterol).
called catabolic pathways.
Trans fatty acids are used as preservative in
Anabolic pathways, as expected, consume
packaged food items. Foods containing trans-
energy. Assembly of a protein from amino
fat are usually labeled as “partially
acids requires energy input.
hydrogenated”.
On the other hand, catabolic pathways lead to
Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil,
the release of energy. For example, when
so foods made with it have a longer shelf life.
glucose is degraded to lactic acid in our
Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to
skeletal muscle, energy is liberated.
produce and last a long time. Trans fats give
This metabolic pathway from glucose to lactic
foods a desirable taste and texture.
acid which occurs in 10 metabolic steps is
called glycolysis.
Q1. Statements:
Living organisms have learnt to trap this
energy liberated during degradation and store
Trans fats are considered beneficial for the it in the form of chemical bonds.
human body As and when needed, this bond energy is
Double bond chemistry of the fat molecules in utilized for biosynthetic, osmotic and
Trans fats causes a Plaque formation mechanical work that we perform.
Omega-3 fatty acids are considered healthier The most important form of energy currency
than the saturated fatty acids in living systems is the bond energy in a
chemical called adenosine triphosphate
Codes: (ATP).
The covering or protective tissues in the The squamous epithelium is made of a single
animal body are epithelial tissues. thin layer of flattened cells with irregular
Epithelium covers most organs and cavities boundaries.
within the body. They are found in the walls of blood vessels
It also forms a barrier to keep different body and air sacs of lungs and are involved in Page
systems separate. functions like forming a diffusion boundary.
| 26
The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining Different epithelia show differing structures
of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney that correlate with their unique functions. For
tubules are all made of epithelial tissue. example, in cells lining blood vessels or lung
Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and alveoli, where transportation of substances
form a continuous sheet. occurs through a selectively
They have only a small amount of cementing Permeable surface, there is a simple flat kind
material between them and almost no of epithelium. This is called the simple
intercellular spaces. Squamous epithelium.
Obviously, anything entering or leaving the Simple squamous epithelial cells
body must cross at least one layer of are extremely thin and flat and form a
epithelium. delicate lining.
As a result cells of various epithelia play an The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth
important role in regulating the exchange of are also covered with squamous epithelium.
materials between the body and the external
environment and also between different parts Stratified Squamous Epithelium
of the body.
Regardless of the type, all epithelium is The skin, which protects the body, is made of
usually separated from the underlying tissue squamous epithelium.
by an extracellular fibrous basement Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many
membrane. layers to prevent wear and tear.
There are two types of epithelial tissues Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers,
namely simple epithelium and compound the epithelium is called stratified squamous
epithelium. epithelium.
Cuboidal Epithelium
The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a All cells in epithelium are held together with
single layer of cube-like cells. This is little intercellular material. In nearly all
commonly found in ducts of glands and animal tissues, specialized junctions provide
tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys and its both structural and functional links between
main functions are secretion and absorption. its individual cells.
Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) Three types of cell junctions are found in the
forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts epithelium and other tissues. These are called Page
of salivary glands, where it as tight, adhering and gap junctions.
provides mechanical support. Tight junctions help to stop substances from | 27
leaking across a tissue. Adhering junctions
Glandular Epithelium perform cementing to keep neighboring cells
together. Gap junctions facilitate the cells to
Epithelial cells often acquire additional communicate with each other by connecting
specialization as gland cells, which can the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid
secrete substances at the epithelial surface. transfer of ions, small molecules and
Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue sometimes big molecules.
folds inward, and a multicellular gland is
formed. This is glandular epithelium. Connective Tissue
Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get
specialized for secretion and are called Connective tissues are most abundant and
glandular epithelium. They are mainly of two widely distributed in the body of complex
types: unicellular, consisting of isolated animals. They are named connective tissues
glandular cells (goblet cells of the alimentary because of their special function of linking
canal), and multicellular, consisting of cluster and supporting other tissues/organs of the
of cells (salivary gland). body.
On the basis of the mode of pouring of their They range from soft connective tissues to
secretions, glands are divided into two specialized types, which include cartilage,
categories bone, adipose, and blood.
namely EXOCRINE and ENDOCRINE. In all connective tissues except blood, the cells
Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, secrete fibres of structural proteins
earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other called collagen or elastin.
cell products. These products are released The fibres provide strength, elasticity and
through ducts or tubes. flexibility to the tissue. These cells also
In contrast, endocrine glands do not have secrete modified polysaccharides, which
ducts. Their products called hormones are accumulate between cells and fibres and act
secreted directly into the fluid bathing the as matrix (ground substance).
gland. Connective tissues are classified into three
types: (i) Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense
Compound Epithelium connective tissue and (iii) Specialized
connective tissue.
The compound epithelium consists of two or
more cell layers and has protective Loose Connective Tissue
function as it does in our skin.
Compound epithelium is made of more than Loose connective tissue has cells and fibres
one layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus has loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground
a limited role in secretion and absorption. substance, for example, areolar tissue present
Their main function is to beneath the skin.
provide protection against chemical and Often it serves as a support framework for
mechanical stresses. epithelium. It contains fibroblasts (cells that
They cover the dry surface of the skin, the produce and secrete fibres), macrophages [a
moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner large phagocytic cell found in stationary form
lining of ducts of salivary glands and of in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell,
pancreatic ducts. especially at sites of infection] and mast
cells [a cell found in connective tissue and
releasing histamine and other substances some bones is the site of production of blood
during inflammatory and allergic reactions]. cells.
Adipose tissue is a type of loose connective Two bones can be connected to each other by
tissue located mainly beneath the skin. The another type of connective tissue called
cells of this tissue are specialized to store the ligament. This tissue is very elastic. It has
fats. The excess of nutrients which are not considerable strength. Ligaments contain very
used immediately are converted into fats and little matrix. Tendons connect bones to Page
are stored in this tissue. muscles and are another type of connective
tissue. Tendons are fibrous tissue with great | 28
Dense Connective Tissue strength but limited flexibility.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue
containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC),
Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed
white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. It is
in the dense connective tissues. Orientation of
the main circulating fluid that helps in the
fibres show a regular or irregular pattern and
transport of various substances.
are called dense regular and dense irregular
Areolar connective tissue is found between
tissues.
the skin and muscles, around blood vessels
In the dense regular connective tissues, the
and nerves and in the bone marrow.
collagen fibres are present in rows between
It fills the space inside the organs, supports
many parallel bundles of fibres. Tendons,
internal organs and helps in repair of tissues.
which attach skeletal muscles to bones
and ligaments which attach one bone to
another are examples of this tissue. Muscular Tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue has
fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical
that are oriented differently. This tissue is fibres arranged in parallel arrays. These fibres
present in the skin. are composed of numerous fine fibrils,
called myofibrils.
Specialized Connective Tissue – Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to
Cartilage, Bones, Blood, Areolar stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return
to their uncontracted state in a coordinated
fashion. Muscles contain special proteins
Cartilage, bones and blood are various types
called contractile proteins, which contract
of specialized connective tissues.
and relax to cause movement.
The intercellular material of cartilage is solid
Muscles are of three types, skeletal,
and pliable and resists compression. Cells of
smooth, and cardiac.
this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed in
small cavities within the matrix secreted by
them.
Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos
are replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is
present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints,
trachea, larynx, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that
is composed of calcium and phosphorus
compounds.
Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground
substance rich in calcium salts and collagen
fibres which give bone its strength. It is the
main tissue that provides structural frame to
the body. Bones support and protect softer
tissues and organs.
The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the
spaces called lacunae. The bone marrow in
Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells
Muscles and make them stick together.
Communication junctions (intercalated discs)
at some fusion points allow the cells to
We can move some muscles by conscious will.
contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell receives
Such muscles are called voluntary muscles.
a signal to contract, its neighbors are also
These muscles are also called skeletal muscles
as they are mostly attached to bones and help
stimulated to contract. Page
in body movement. | 29
Under the microscope, these muscles show Nervous Tissue
alternate light and dark bands or striations.
As a result, they are also called striated
muscles. The cells of this tissue are long,
cylindrical, unbranched
and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to
skeletal bones. In a typical muscle such as the
biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres
are bundled together in a parallel fashion. A
sheath of tough connective tissue encloses
several bundles of such muscle fibres.
Page
| 31
Our mouth has the salivary glands which The upper surface of the tongue has small
secrete saliva. The saliva breaks down projections called papillae, some of which
the starch into sugars. bear taste buds.
The saliva secreted into the oral cavity
contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl", Foodpipe/Oesophagus
HCOs) and enzymes, SALIVARY
AMYLASE and LYSOZYME.
The oral cavity leads into a
The chemical process of digestion is initiated
short pharynx which serves as a common
in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of
passage for food and air. The esophagus and
the carbohydrate splitting enzyme,
the trachea (wind pipe) open into the pharynx.
the salivary amylase.
A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents
About 30 per cent of starch
the entry of food into the glottis during
is hydrolysed here by this enzyme (optimum
swallowing. [Glottis == opening of the wind
pH 6.8) into a disaccharide - maltose.
pipe].
The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe
or oesophagus. The oesophagus is a thin, long
tube which extends posteriorly [further back
in position] passing through the
neck, thorax [the part of the body of a
mammal between the neck and the abdomen]
and diaphragm [separates the thorax from the
abdomen in mammals] and leads to a ‘J’
shaped bag like structure called stomach.
Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and
adhering the masticated food particles into a
bolus. The bolus is then conveyed into the
pharynx and then into the oesophagus by
swallowing or deglutition.
Lysozyme present in saliva acts as The bolus further passes down through the
an antibacterial agent that prevents oesophagus by successive waves of muscular
infections. contractions called peristalsis. The gastro-
The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ oesophageal sphincter controls the passage
attached at the back to the floor of the buccal of food into the stomach.
cavity. It mixes saliva with the food during
chewing and helps in swallowing food.
The tongue is attached to the floor of the oral Stomach
cavity by the frenulum (a fold of skin beneath
the tongue).
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
The inner lining of the stomach The digested food passes into the blood
secretes mucous, hydrochloric vessels in the wall of the intestine. This
acid and digestive juices. process is called absorption.
The inner walls of the small intestine have
1. The mucous protects the lining of the thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are
stomach. called villi (singular villus). The villi increase
2. The acid kills many bacteria that enter along the surface area for absorption of the Page
with the food and makes the medium in the digested food.
stomach acidic. Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries | 32
3. The digestive juices break down and a large lymph (a colourless fluid
the proteins into simpler substances. containing white blood cells) vessel called
the lacteal.
A muscular sphincter (gastro- The absorbed substances are transported via
oesophageal) [a ring of muscle surrounding the blood vessels to different organs of the
and serving to guard or close an opening] body where they are used to build complex
regulates the opening of oesophagus into the substances such as the proteins required by
stomach. the body. This is called assimilation.
The stomach, located in the upper left portion In the cells, glucose breaks down with the
of the abdominal cavity, has three major parts help of oxygen into carbon
– a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus dioxide and water, and energy is released.
opens, a fundic region and a pyloric The food that remains undigested and
portion which opens into the first part of unabsorbed then enters into the large
small intestine. intestine.
Small intestine is distinguishable into three The large intestine is wider and shorter than
regions, a ‘C’ shaped duodenum, a long small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length.
coiled middle portion jejunum and a highly Its function is to absorb water and some salts
coiled ileum. from the undigested food material.
The opening of the stomach into the The remaining waste passes into the rectum
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The
sphincter. Ileum opens into the large faecal matter is removed through the anus
intestine. from time-to-time. This is called egestion.
The small intestine is highly coiled and is
about 5 meters long. It receives secretions Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption →
from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its Assimilation → Egestion
wall also secretes juices.
It consists of caecum, colon and rectum. forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach
Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts and small finger-like foldings called villi in the
some symbiotic micro-organisms. small intestine. Mucosal
A narrow finger -like tubular projection, the epithelium has goblet cells which secrete
vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ mucus that help in lubrication. Mucosa also
[small remnant of something that was once forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands).
more noticeable], arises from the caecum. Page
| 33
Appendix was helpful in
digesting roughage (fibrous indigestible
material in vegetable foodstuffs which aids the
passage of food and waste products through
the gut). Thousands of years ago, when man
used to eat roots, leaves, etc., it was essential.
But now it has lost its significance.
The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along hydrochloric acid gets converted into the
with the hepatic duct from the liver, forms active enzyme PEPSIN, the proteolytic
the common bile duct. (breakdown of proteins or peptides into amino
The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open acids) enzyme of the stomach.
together into the duodenum as the Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and
common hepato-pancreatic duct which is peptones (peptides).
guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter The mucus and bicarbonates present in the Page
of Oddi. gastric juice play an important role
in lubrication and protection of the mucosal | 34
epithelium from excoriation by the highly
concentrated hydrochloric acid. HCl provides
the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins.
Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in
gastric juice of infants which helps in
the digestion of milk proteins.
the mucosa along with the secretions of the substances into the blood depends upon the
goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice. concentration gradients.
This juice contains a variety of enzymes However, sometimes substances like glucose
like disaccharidases (e.g., maltase), and amino acids are absorbed with the help of
dipeptidases, lipases, nucleosidases, etc. carrier proteins. This mechanism is called
Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive the facilitated transport.
juices is carried out by local hormones Transport of water depends upon the osmotic Page
produced by the gastric and intestinal gradient. Active transport occurs against the
mucosa. concentration gradient and hence requires | 35
The mucus along with the bicarbonates from energy. Various nutrients like amino acids,
the pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like
from acid as well as provide an alkaline Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this
medium (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities. mechanism.
The breakdown of biomacromolecules Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble,
mentioned above occurs in cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are
the duodenum region of the small intestine. first incorporated into small droplets
The simple substances thus formed are called micelles which move into the intestinal
absorbed in the jejunum and ileum regions of mucosa. They are re-formed into very small
the small intestine. protein coated fat globules called
The undigested and unabsorbed substances the chylomicrons which are transported into
are passed on to the large intestine. the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These
lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed
Absorption of Digested Products substances into the blood stream.
Absorption of substances takes place in
different parts of the alimentary canal, like
Absorption is the process by which the end
mouth, stomach, small intestine and large
products of digestion pass through the
intestine. However, maximum absorption
intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
occurs in the small intestine.
Small amounts of monosaccharides like
glucose, amino acids and some electrolytes
like chloride ions are generally absorbed by Summary of Absorption in Different Parts
simple diffusion. The passage of these of Digestive System
Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large
Intestine
Certain drugs coming Absorption Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. Absorption of
in contact with the of water, The digestion is completed here and the water, some
mucosa of mouth and simple final products of digestion such as minerals and
lower side of the sugars, and glucose, fructose, fatty acids, glycerol and drugs takes
tongue are absorbed alcohol etc. amino acids are absorbed through the place.
into the blood takes place. mucosa into the blood stream and lymph.
capillaries lining them.
The absorbed substances finally reach the The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the
tissues which utilise them for their activities. most common ailment due to bacterial or
This process is called assimilation. viral infections.
The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent The infections are also caused by the parasites
faeces in the rectum initiate a neural reflex of the intestine like tapeworm, roundworm,
causing an urge or desire for its removal. The threadworm, hookworm, pin worm, etc.
egestion of faeces to the outside through the Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes
anal opening (defaecation) is a voluntary turn yellow due to the deposit of bile
process and is carried out by a mass pigments.
peristaltic movement. Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach
contents through the mouth. This reflex action
Disorders of Digestive System is controlled by the vomit centre in
the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes
vomiting.
in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above between blood and tissues. O2 and CO2 are
the atmospheric pressure causing the exchanged in these sites by
expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., simple diffusion mainly based on
expiration. We have the ability to increase the pressure/concentration gradient.
strength of inspiration and expiration with the Partial pressure of gasses, Solubility of the
help of additional muscles in the abdomen. gases as well as the thickness of the
On an average, a healthy human breathes 12- membranes involved in diffusion are some Page
16 times/minute. The volume of air involved important factors that can affect the rate of
in breathing movements can be estimated by | 38
using a spirometer which helps in clinical
assessment of pulmonary functions.
diffusion.
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a
mixture of gases is called partial pressure.
Transport of Gases
Transport of Oxygen
Haemoglobin is a red
coloured iron containing pigment present in
the RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a
reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a
maximum of four molecules of O2. Binding of
oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related
to partial pressure of O2.
Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion
concentration and temperature are the other
factors which can interfere with this binding.
enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and minute One of the major causes of this is cigarette
quantities of the same is present in the smoking.
plasma too. Nearly 70 per cent of carbon Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain
dioxide is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3) industries, especially those involving grinding
with the help of the enzyme carbonic or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced
anhydrase. that the defense mechanism of the body
At the tissue site where partial pressure of cannot fully cope with the situation. Long Page
CO2 is high due to catabolism [the breakdown exposure can give rise to inflammation leading
of complex molecules in living organisms to to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and | 39
form simpler ones, together with the release of thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in
energy], CO2 diffuses into blood (RBCs and such industries should wear protective masks.
plasma) and forms HCO3 and H+-.
At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the Endocrine Glands and Hormones -
reaction proceeds in the opposite direction Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Pineal
leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O. Gland, Thyroid Gland, Parathyroid
Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the Gland, Thymus, Adrenal
tissue level and transported to the alveoli is Gland, Pancreas, Testis, Ovary, Mechanism of
Hormone Action.
released out as CO2. Every 100 ml of
deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 Endocrine Glands and Hormones
ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
Regulation of Respiration
Invertebrates possess very simple endocrine The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity
systems with few hormones whereas a large called sella tursica and is attached to
number of chemicals act as hormones and hypothalamus by a stalk.
provide coordination in the vertebrates. The It is divided anatomically into
human endocrine system is described here. an adenohypophysis and
The endocrine glands and hormone producing a neurohypophysis.
diffused tissues/cells located in different parts Adenohypophysis consists of two Page
of our body constitute the endocrine portions, pars distalis and pars intermedia.
system. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly | 40
pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads called anterior pituitary, produces
(testis in males and ovary in females) are
the organized endocrine bodies in our body. 1. Growth Hormone (GH),
In addition to these, some other organs, 2. Prolactin (PRL),
e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, 3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH),
heart also produce hormones. 4. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH),
A brief account of the structure and functions 5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and
of all major endocrine glands and 6. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
hypothalamus of the human body is given in
the following sections. Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone
called Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Hypothalamus (MSH).
However, in humans, the pars intermedia
Hypothalamus is the part of the forebrain and is almost merged with pars distalis.
it regulates a wide spectrum of body Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known
functions. as posterior pituitary, stores and releases two
It contains several groups of neurosecretory hormones called oxytocin and vasopressin,
cells called nuclei which produce hormones. which are actually synthesised by
These hormones regulate the synthesis and the hypothalamus and are transported
secretion of pituitary hormones. axonally to neurohypophysis.
However, the hormones produced by Over-secretion of GH stimulates abnormal
hypothalamus are of two types, the releasing growth of the body leading to gigantism and
hormones (which stimulate secretion of low secretion of GH results in stunted growth
pituitary hormones) and the inhibiting resulting in pituitary dwarfism.
hormones (which inhibit secretions of Prolactin regulates the growth of
pituitary hormones). the mammary glands and formation of
For example a hypothalamic hormone milk in them.
called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone TSH stimulates the synthesis and secretion
(GnRH) stimulates the pituitary synthesis and of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
release of gonadotrophins. ACTH stimulates the synthesis and secretion
On the other hand, somatostatin from the of steroid
hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth hormones called glucocorticoids from
hormone from the pituitary. the adrenal cortex.
These hormones originating in the LH and FSH stimulate gonadal activity and
hypothalamic neurons, pass through axons hence are called gonadotrophins.
and are released from their nerve endings. In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and
These hormones reach the pituitary gland secretion of hormones called androgens from
through a portal circulatory system and testis. In males, FSH and androgens
regulate the functions of the anterior pituitary. regulate spermatogenesis.
The posterior pituitary is under the direct In females, LH induces ovulation of fully
neural regulation of the hypothalamus. mature follicles (graafian follicles) and
maintains the corpus luteum, formed from the
remnants of the graafian follicles after
Pituitary Gland
ovulation. FSH stimulates growth and
development of the ovarian follicles in females.
cortex. The adrenal medulla secretes As you know, the functions of the
epinephrine and norepinephrine. These organs/organ systems in our body must be
hormones increase alertness, pupilary coordinated to maintain homeostasis [the
dilation, piloerection, sweating, heart beat, maintenance of a stable equilibrium].
strength of heart contraction, rate of Coordination is the process through which
respiration, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, two or more organs interact and complement
proteolysis. the functions of one another. Page
The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids The neural system provides an organized
and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids network of point-to-point connections for a | 45
stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, quick coordination.
proteolysis, erythropoiesis, cardio-vascular The endocrine system provides chemical
system, blood pressure, and glomerular integration through hormones.
filtration rate and inhibit inflammatory
reactions by suppressing the immune Human Neural System
response.
Mineralocorticoids regulate water and
The human neural system is divided into two
electrolyte contents of the body. The endocrine
parts :
pancreas secretes glucagon and insulin.
Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis resulting in hyperglycemia. 1. the central neural system (CNS)
Insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake and 2. the peripheral neural system (PNS)
utilisation, and glycogenesis resulting in
hypoglycemia. Insulin deficiency and/or The CNS includes the brain and the spinal
insulin resistance result in a disease called cord and is the site of information processing
diabetes mellitus. and control.
The testis secretes androgens, which stimulate The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the
the development, maturation and functions of body associated with the CNS (brain and
the male accessory sex organs, appearance of spinal cord).
the male secondary sex characters,
spermatogenesis, male sexual behaviour, Peripheral Neural System (PNS)
anabolic pathways and erythropoiesis.
The ovary secretes estrogen and progesterone. The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types:
Estrogen stimulates growth and development
of female accessory sex organs and secondary 1. afferent fibres → tissues/organs to brain.
sex characters. Progesterone plays a major 2. efferent fibres → brain to tissues/organs.
role in the maintenance of pregnancy as well
as in mammary gland development and The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses
lactation. from tissues/organs to the CNS and the
The atrial wall of the heart produces atrial efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses
natriuretic factor which decreases the blood from the CNS to the concerned peripheral
pressure. Kidney produces erythropoietin tissues/organs.
which stimulates erythropoiesis. The PNS is divided into two divisions
The gastrointestinal tract secretes gastrin, called somatic neural
secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric system and autonomic neural system.
inhibitory peptide. These hormones regulate The somatic neural system relays impulses
the secretion of digestive juices and help in from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the
digestion. autonomic neural system transmits impulses
from the CNS to the involuntary organs and
Human Neural System - Neural Control and smooth muscles of the body.
Coordination, Peripheral Neural System
(PNS), Central Neural System (CNS), Human
Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain 1. Somatic Neural System → Brain to
and Hindbrain, Reflex Action and Reflex Arc. Voluntary muscles.
2. Autonomic Neural System → Brain to
Neural Control and Coordination Involuntary muscles.
Midbrain
The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists and response thus forms a reflex arc as shown
mainly of four round swellings (lobes) below in the knee jerk reflex.
called corpora quadrigemina. Midbrain and
hindbrain form the brain stem. Muscular and Skeletal System: Muscular
System – Muscle Types: Skeletal Muscles,
Hindbrain Visceral Muscles, Cardiac Muscles. Skeletal
System: Major Joints. Page
The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum Types of Movements | 47
and medulla (also called the medulla
oblongata).
Voluntary movements are called locomotion.
Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect
Walking, running, climbing, flying, swimming
different regions of the brain.
are all some forms of locomotory movements.
Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in
Cells of the human body exhibit three main
order to provide the additional space for many
types of movements, namely, amoeboid,
more neurons.
ciliary and muscular.
The medulla of the brain is connected to the
Some specialized cells in our body
spinal cord. The medulla contains centres
like macrophages and leucocytes in blood
which control respiration, cardiovascular
exhibit amoeboid movement. It is effected
reflexes and gastric secretions.
by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of
protoplasm (as in Amoeba).
Reflex Action and Reflex Arc Ciliary movement occurs in most of our
internal tubular organs which are lined
You must have experienced a sudden by ciliated epithelium.
withdrawal of a body part which comes in The coordinated movements of cilia in
contact with objects that are extremely hot, the trachea help us in removing dust particles
cold pointed or animals that are scary or and some of the foreign substances inhaled
poisonous. along with the atmospheric air.
The entire process of response to a peripheral Passage of ova through the female
nervous stimulation, that occurs involuntarily, reproductive tract is also facilitated by the
i.e., without conscious effort or thought and ciliary movement.
requires the involvement of a part of the Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc.
central nervous system is called a reflex require muscular movement. The contractile
action. property of muscles are effectively used for
The reflex pathway comprises at least one locomotion and other movements by human
afferent neuron (receptor) and one efferent beings and majority of multicellular
(effector or excitor) neuron appropriately organisms. Locomotion requires a perfect
arranged in a series. coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and
neural systems.
identified : (i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral [the internal them to slide over the myosin filaments and
organs in the main cavities of the body] and thereby causing contraction. Ca++ are then
(iii) Cardiac. returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum which
inactivate the actin. Cross bridges are broken
and the muscles relax.
Muscles are classified as Red and White fibres
based primarily on the amount of red Page
coloured myoglobin pigment in them.
| 48
Visceral Muscles
Joints
1. Ball and socket joints Which of the following pairs are correctly
2. Pivotal Joint: The joint where our neck joins matched
the head is a pivotal joint.
3. Hinge joints 1. Knee - Hinge joint
4. Fixed joints 2. Neck joining the head - Ball and socket
joint
3. Pelvic bones - Fixed joint
4. Elbow - Pivotal joint
Codes:
a. All
b. 1 only
c. 1, 3 only
d. 1, 4 only
Nucleic Acids
macromolecular fraction of any living tissue or transfer of characters from parents to off
cell. springs. There are two types of nucleic acids
For nucleic acids, the building block is — DNA and RNA.
a nucleotide,e. nucleic acids are polymers of A nucleic acid containing deoxyribose is called
nucleotides. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) while that which
Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of contains ribose is called ribonucleic
nucleotides, they are also acid (RNA). Page
called polynucleotides. Both DNA and RNA contain Adenine,
The nucleotides are joined to one another in a Guanine and Cytosine. The fourth base | 51
chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of is Thymine in DNA and Uracil in RNA.
one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, The structure of DNA is a double strand [helix]
resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate whereas RNA is a single strand molecule.
backbone. Hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases
A nucleotide has three chemically distinct of the two separate polynucleotide strands to
components. One is a heterocyclic make double-stranded DNA.
compound, the second is The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage,
a monosaccharide and the third and both strands of the double-stranded
a phosphoric acid or phosphate. structure store the same biological
The sugar found in polynucleotides is information. Biological information
either ribose (a monosaccharide is replicated as the two strands are
pentose) or deoxyribose. separated.
The heterocyclic compounds in nucleic acids Within cells, DNA is organized into long
are the nitrogenous bases named Adenine, structures called chromosomes. During cell
Guanine, Uracil, Cytosine, and Thymine. division these chromosomes are duplicated in
the process of DNA replication, providing
each cell its own complete set of
chromosomes.
Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi,
and protists) store most of their DNA inside
the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in
organelles, such
as mitochondria or chloroplasts.
In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and
archaea) store their DNA only in
the cytoplasm.
DNA Fingerprinting
Applications of recombinant DNA
It is known that every individual has unique technology
fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the
fingers and have been used for identification
for a long time but these can be altered by Recombinant DNA is widely used in
surgery. biotechnology, medicine and research.
A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map
a person and information regarding this is and sequence genes, and to determine their
called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every function.
cell and cannot be altered by any known
treatment. Recombinant DNA is used to produce
DNA fingerprinting is now used (i) in forensic
laboratories for identification of criminals. (ii) Recombinant human insulin,
to determine paternity of an individual. (iii) to Recombinant human growth hormone,
Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII, M Phase [Mitosis phase] == Actual cell
Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, division or Mitosis.
Insect-resistant crops etc.
The sequence of events by which a cell In the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of
duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other a human cell, cell division proper lasts for
constituents of the cell and eventually divides only about an hour. The interphase lasts
into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle. more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle.
Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic The M Phase or Mitosis starts with
increase) is a continuous process, DNA the nuclear
synthesis occurs only during one specific division or karyokinesis [separation of
stage in the cell cycle. daughter chromosomes].
The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then It usually ends with division of cytoplasm
distributed to daughter nuclei by a complex [cytokinesis].
series of events during cell division. These Interphase is called the resting phase.
events are themselves under genetic control It is the time during which the cell is
[DNA]. preparing for division by undergoing
both cell growth and DNA replication.
Cell Cycle – Phases of Cell Cycle
Interphase
A typical eukaryotic cell divides once in
approximately every 24 hours. The interphase is divided into three further
phases.
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic
vs. Prokaryotic Cells|Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell
1. G1 phase (Gap 1)
2. S phase (Synthesis)
However, this duration of cell cycle can vary 3. G2 phase (Gap 2)
from organism to organism and also from cell
type to cell type.
G1 phase
Yeast for example, can progress through the
cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
G1 phase == interval between mitosis and
Basic Phases of Cell Cycle – Interphase beginning of DNA replication [initiation of DNA
replication].
and M Phase or Mitosis
During G1 phase the cell is metabolically
active and continuously grows but does not
Interphase == Phase between two successive replicate its DNA.
M phases.
Each phase involves characteristic steps in network that will later pull the duplicated
the process of chromosome alignment and chromosomes apart.
separation.
Once mitosis is complete, the entire cell Centriole == each of a pair of minute
divides in two by way of the process called cylindrical structures near the nucleus in
In animals, mitotic cell division is only eukaryotic cells, involved in the development
seen in the diploid somatic cells. of spindle fibres in cell division. Page
But plants can show mitotic divisions in
both haploid and diploid cells. | 55
The centriole, which had undergone
duplication during S phase of interphase, now
begins to move towards opposite poles of the
cell.
A tug-of-war then ensues as the chromosomes Hence, the metaphase is characterized by all
move back and forth toward the two poles. the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator
with one chromatid of each chromosome
connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres
from one pole and its sister chromatid
connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres
from the opposite pole. Page
The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at
metaphase is referred to as the metaphase | 56
plate.
Metaphase
Thus, anaphase stage is characterized by the During telophase, the chromosomes arrive at
following key events: the cell poles, the mitotic spindle
disassembles, and the vesicles that contain
Centromeres split and chromatids separate. fragments of the original nuclear membrane
Chromatids move to opposite poles. assemble around the two sets of
chromosomes.
Climax results in the formation of a new Page
nuclear membrane around each group of
chromosomes. | 57
At the beginning of the final stage
of mitosis, i.e., telophase, the
chromosomes that have reached
their respective
poles decondense and lose their
individuality.
The individual chromosomes can
no longer be seen and chromatin
material tends to collect in a
mass in the two poles.
Cytokinesis
is the physical
process that finally splits the
parent cell into two identical
daughter cells.
Mitosis is the process of nuclear
division, which occurs just prior
to cell division, or cytokinesis.
Mitosis accomplishes not only the
segregation of duplicated
chromosomes into daughter
nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell
itself is divided into two daughter
cells by a separate process
called cytokinesis at the end of
which cell division is complete.
In an animal cell, this is achieved
by the appearance of a furrow in
the plasma membrane. The
Telophase furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins
in the center dividing the cell cytoplasm into Meiosis – Meiotic Cell Division – Production of
two. Gametes – Meiosis I and Meiosis II, Significance
Plant cells however, are enclosed by a of Meiosis. Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison.
relatively inextensible cell wall, therefore they
undergo cytokinesis by a different mechanism. Meiosis
In plant cells, wall formation starts in the
center of the cell and grows outward to meet Meiosis is a specialized kind of cell division Page
the existing lateral walls. that reduces the chromosome number by
The formation of the new cell wall begins with half and results in the production of haploid | 58
the formation of a simple precursor, called the daughter cells.
cell-plate. The production of offspring by sexual
At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles reproduction includes the fusion of
like mitochondria and plastids get distributed two gametes [sperm and ovum], each with a
between the two daughter cells. complete haploid set of chromosomes.
In some organisms karyokinesis is not These haploid gametes come into existence
followed by cytokinesis as a result of due to meiosis [meiosis type of cell division].
which multinucleate condition arises leading The gametes are formed from
to the formation of syncytium (e.g., liquid specialized diploid cells.
endosperm in coconut).
[Diploid == containing two complete sets of
Significance of Mitosis chromosomes, one from each parent].
Mitosis or the equational division is usually [Haploid == only one set of chromosomes from
restricted to the diploid cells only. However, in one of the parent].
some lower plants and in some social insects
haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
Mitosis usually results in the production of
diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement.
The growth of multicellular organisms is due
to mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing
the ratio between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for
the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-
cytoplasmic ratio.
A very significant contribution of mitosis Meiosis ensures the production of haploid
is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, organisms whereas fertilization restores the
and blood cells are being constantly replaced. diploid phase.
Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues -
the apical and the lateral cambium, result in a Meiotic events can be grouped under the
continuous growth of plants throughout their following phases
life.
Meiosis I
Onion root tip cell has 16 chromosomes in
each cell. Can you tell how many Prophase I
chromosomes will the cell have at G1 phase,
after S phase, and after M phase? Prophase of the first meiotic division is
typically longer and more complex when
Also, what will be the DNA content of the cells compared to prophase of mitosis.
at G1, after S and at G2, if the content after M It has been further subdivided into the
phase is 2C? following five phases based on chromosomal
behavior, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene,
Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Page
| 59
Leptotene
Cell cycle is divided into two phases called 1. Prophase I == leptotene, zygotene, pachytene,
(i) Interphase – a period of preparation for cell diplotene and diakinesis.
division, and (ii) Mitosis (M phase) – the 2. Metaphase I == bivalents arrange on the
actual period of cell division. equatorial plate.
Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S 3. Anaphase I == homologous chromosomes
and G2. move to the opposite poles with both their
G1 phase is the period when the cell grows chromatids. Each pole receives half the
and carries out normal metabolism. Most of chromosome number of the parent cell.
the organelle duplication also occurs during 4. Telophase I == nuclear membrane and
this phase. nucleolus reappear.
Page
| 62
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of divisions One Two – Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
DNA Replication Occurs during interphase Occurs during interphase
Role Asexual cellular reproduction Asexual cellular reproduction
and cell repair. Produces only that produces gametes.
somatic cells.
Type of cells that divide In animals, mitotic cell division Meiotic cell division is seen only
is only seen in the diploid in diploid cells.
somatic cells.
(1856-1863) and proposed the laws of the first hybrid generation. This generation is
inheritance in living organisms. also called the Filial1 progeny or the F1.
Mendel conducted such artificial Mendel observed that all the F 1 progeny
pollination/cross pollination experiments plants were tall, like one of its parents; none
using several true-breeding pea lines. were dwarf.
traits was expressed in the F1 generation way the gametes of the tall TT plants have the
while at the F 2 stage both the traits were allele T and the gametes of the dwarf tt plants
expressed in the proportion 3:1. The have the allele t.
contrasting traits did not show any blending During fertilisation the two alleles, T from one
at either F1 or F2 stage. parent say, through the pollen, and t from the
other parent, then through the egg, are united
Factors – Genes to produce zygotes that have one T allele and Page
one t allele. In other words the hybrids have
Tt. Since these hybrids contain alleles which | 64
Based on these observations, Mendel proposed
express contrasting traits, the plants
that something was being stably passed down,
are heterozygous.
unchanged, from parent to offspring through
the gametes, over successive generations. He
called these things as ‘factors’. Dominant and Recessive Factor
Now we call the ‘factors’ as genes. Genes,
therefore, are the units of inheritance. They What twould be the phenotype of a plant that
contain the information that is required to had a genotype Tt? As Mendel found the
express a particular trait in an organism. phenotype of the F1heterozygote Tt to be
exactly like the TT parent in appearance, he
Pair of Alleles - Homozygous and proposed that in a pair of dissimilar factors,
Heterozygous one dominates the other (as in the F1) and
hence is called the dominant factor while the
other factor is recessive.
Genes which code for a pair of contrasting
In this case T (for tallness) is dominant over t
traits are known as alleles, i.e., they are
(for dwarfness), that is recessive. He observed
slightly different forms of the same gene.
identical behaviour for all the other
If we use alphabetical symbols for each gene,
characters/trait-pairs that he studied.
then the capital letter is used for the trait
It is convenient (and logical) to use the capital
expressed at the F 1 stage and the small
and lower case of an alphabetical symbol to
alphabet for the other trait.
remember this concept of dominance and
For example, in case of the character of
recessiveness.
height, T is used for the Tall trait and t for the
Alleles can be similar as in the case
‘dwarf’, and T and t are alleles of each other.
of homozygotes TT and tt or can be dissimilar
Hence, in plants the pair of alleles for height
as in the case of the heterozygote Tt.
would be TT, Tt or tt.
Since the Tt plant is heterozygous for genes
Genotype and Phenotype == TT and tt are
controlling one character (height), it is
called the genotype of the plant while the
a monohybrid and the cross between TT and
descriptive terms tall and dwarf are
tt is a monohybrid cross.
the phenotype.
Mendel proposed that in a true breeding, tall
or dwarf pea variety the allelic pair of genes for Punnett Square for Monohybrid Cross
height are identical or homozygous, TT and
tt, respectively. On the other hand, the allelic The production of gametes by the parents, the
pair Tt is heterozygous. formation of the zygotes, the F1 and F2 plants
From the observation that the recessive can be understood from a diagram
parental trait is expressed without any called Punnett Square as shown in Figure
blending in the F2 generation, we can infer below.
that, when the tall and dwarf plant produce
gametes, by the process of meiosis, the alleles The Punnett Square above shows the parental
of the parental pair separate or segregate from tall TT (male) and dwarf tt (female) plants, the
each other and only one allele is gametes produced by them and, the F1 Tt The
transmitted to a gamete. F1 plants of genotype Tt are self-pollinated.
This segregation of alleles is a random process The F1 plant of the genotype Tt when self-
and so there is a 50 per cent chance of a pollinated, produces gametes of the genotype
gamete containing either allele, as has been T and t in equal proportion.
verified by the results of the crossings. In this
Test Cross
Incomplete Dominance
segregated in a 3:1 ratio; just like in a Dominance). The recessive characters are only
monohybrid cross. expressed in homozygous conditions.
The characters never blend in heterozygous
Law of Independent Assortment condition.
A recessive character that was not expressed
in heterozygous condition may be expressed
In the dihybrid cross, the phenotypes round,
again when it becomes homozygous. Hence, Page
yellow; wrinkled, yellow; round, green and
characters segregate while formation of
wrinkled, green appeared in the ratio 9:3:3:1. | 68
gametes (Law of Segregation).
Such a ratio was observed for several pairs of
Not all characters show true dominance. Some
characters that Mendel studied. The ratio of
characters show incomplete, and some show
9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series
co-dominance.
of 3 yellow: 1 green, with 3 round : 1 wrinkled.
When Mendel studied the inheritance of two
This derivation can be written as follows: (3
characters together, it was found that the
Round : 1 Wrinkled) (3 Yellow : 1 Green) = 9
factors independently assort and combine in
Round, Yellow : 3 Wrinkled, Yellow: 3 Round,
all permutations and combinations (Law of
Green : 1 Wrinkled, Green.
Independent Assortment).
Based upon such observations on dihybrid
Different combinations of gametes are
crosses (crosses between plants differing in
theoretically represented in a square tabular
two traits) Mendel proposed a second set of
form known as ‘Punnett Square’.
generalisations that we call Mendel’s Law of
The factors (now known as gene) on
Independent Assortment.
chromosomes regulating the characters are
The law states that ‘when two pairs of traits
called the genotype and the physical
are combined in a hybrid, segregation of
expression of the characters is called
one pair of characters is independent of the
phenotype.
other pair of characters’.
You can verify the law using The Punnett
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance - Linkage
square above [Inheritance of Two Genes – and Recombination - Human Genome Project -
dihybrid cross]. Applications and Benefits of Human Genome
Project.
Summary
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Genetics is a branch of biology which deals
with principles of inheritance and its Due to advancements in microscopy during
practices. 1900s, scientists were able to observe cell
Progeny resembling the parents in division. This led to the discovery of structures
morphological and physiological features has in the nucleus that appeared to double and
attracted the attention of many biologists. divide just before each cell division. These
Mendel was the first to study this were called chromosomes (colored bodies, as
phenomenon systematically. While studying they were visualised by staining).
the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of By 1902, the chromosome movement during
contrasting characters, Mendel proposed the meiosis had been worked out. The behavior of
principles of inheritance, which are today chromosomes was parallel to the behavior of
referred to as ‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’. genes and used biologists used chromosome
He proposed that the ‘factors’ (later named as movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
genes) regulating the characters are found in
pairs known as alleles. [Mitosis (equational division) and meiosis
He observed that the expression of the (reduction division) were explained in previous
characters in the offspring follow a definite posts].
pattern in different–first generations (F1),
second (F2) and so on. Some characters are The important things to remember are that
dominant over others. chromosomes as well as genes occur in pairs.
The dominant characters are expressed when The two alleles of a gene pair are located on
factors are in heterozygous condition (Law of homologous sites on homologous
chromosomes.
During Anaphase of meiosis I, the two colleagues, led to discovering the basis for the
chromosome pairs can align at the metaphase variation that sexual reproduction
plate independently of each other. produced.
To understand this, compare the Morgan worked with the tiny fruit flies,
chromosomes of four different colour in the Drosophila melanogaster, which were found
left and right columns. In the left column very suitable for such studies.
(Possibility I) orange and green is segregating Page
together. But in the right hand column Linkage and Recombination
(Possibility II) the orange chromosome is | 69
segregating with the red chromosomes.
Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in
Sutton and Boveri argued that the pairing and
Drosophila to study genes that were sex-
separation of a pair of chromosomes would
linked. The crosses were similar to the
lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they
dihybrid crosses carried out by Mendel in
carried. Sutton united the knowledge
peas.
of chromosomal segregation with Mendelian
For example Morgan hybridised yellow-bodied,
principles and called it the chromosomal
white-eyed females to brown-bodied, red-eyed
theory of inheritance.
males and intercrossed their F 1 progeny. He
observed that the two genes did not
segregate independently of each other and
the F 2 ratio deviated very significantly from
the 9:3:3:1 ratio (expected when the two genes
are independent).
Morgan and his group knew that the genes
were located on the X chromosome and saw
quickly that when the two genes in a dihybrid
cross were situated on the same chromosome,
the proportion of parental gene combinations
were much higher than the non-parental type.
Morgan attributed this due to the physical
association or linkage of the two genes and
coined the term linkage to describe this
physical association of genes on a
chromosome and the term recombination
to describe the generation of non-parental
gene combinations.
Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of
recombination between gene pairs on the
same chromosome as a measure of the
distance between genes and ‘mapped’ their
position on the chromosome.
Today genetic maps are extensively used as a
starting point in the sequencing of whole
genomes as was done in the case of the
Human Genome Sequencing Project.
[A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of Closely located genes assorted together, and
two nucleobases bound to each other distantly located genes, due to recombination,
by hydrogen bonds. They form the building assorted independently. Linkage maps,
blocks of the DNA double helix, and therefore, corresponded to arrangement of
contribute to the folded structure of both DNA genes on a chromosome.
and RNA.] Many genes were linked to sexes also, and
called as sex-linked genes. The two sexes Page
Human Genome Project was formally (male and female) were found to have a set of
launched in 1990, and finally declared chromosomes which were common, and | 70
complete in 2003. another set which was different.
The "genome" of any given individual is The chromosomes which were different in two
unique; mapping "the human genome" sexes were named as sex chromosomes. The
involves sequencing multiple variations of remaining set was named as autosomes. In
each gene. humans, a normal female has 22 pairs of
All our genes together are known as our autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes
‘genome.’ The HGP has revealed that there are (XX).
probably about 20,500 human genes. Human Genome Project is a collaborative
scientific research project aimed at identifying
Applications and Benefits of Human and mapping all of the genes of the human
Genome Project genome.
Human genome project is helpful in wide
ranging biotechnology applications.
Can help us
Sex Determination, Genetic Disorders -
1. understand diseases including: genotyping of Pedigree Analysis, Mutation, Mendelian
specific viruses to direct appropriate Disorders: Haemophilia, Sickle-cell anaemia,
treatment, Phenylketonuria. Chromosomal disorders:
2. in identification of mutations linked to Down’s Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome,
different forms of cancer, Turner’s Syndrome.
3. understand the design of medication and more
accurate prediction of their effects, Sex Determination
4. in advancement of forensic applied sciences,
biofuels and other energy applications, Henking (1891) could trace a specific nuclear
agriculture, animal husbandry, etc.. structure all through spermatogenesis in a few
5. understand evolution much more accurately. insects, and it was also observed by him that
50 per cent of the sperm received this
Another proposed benefit is the commercial structure after spermatogenesis, whereas the
development of genomics research related to other 50 per cent sperm did not receive it.
DNA based products, a multibillion-dollar Henking gave a name to this structure as the
industry. X body but he could not explain its
significance.
Summary Further investigations by other scientists led
to the conclusion that the ‘X body’ of Henking
was in fact a chromosome and that is why it
After knowing that the genes are located on was given the name X-chromosome.
the chromosomes, a good correlation was
It was also observed that in a large number of
drawn between Mendel’s laws: segregation and
insects the mechanism of sex determination is
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis. of the XO type, i.e., all eggs bear an additional
The Mendel’s laws were extended in the form
X-chromosome besides the other
of ‘Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance’. chromosomes (autosomes). On the other
Later, it was found that Mendel’s law of hand, some of the sperms bear the X-
independent assortment does not hold true for
chromosome whereas some do not.
the genes that were located on the same Eggs fertilized by sperm having an X-
chromosomes. These genes were called as
chromosome become females and, those
‘linked genes’. fertilized by sperms that do not have an X-
chromosome become males.
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Due to the involvement of the X-chromosome Both males and females bear same number
in the determination of sex, it was designated of autosomes. Hence, the males have
to be the sex chromosome, and the rest of autosomes plus XY, while female have
the chromosomes were named as autosomes. autosomes plus XX.
Grasshopper is an example of XO type of sex
determination in which the males have only [one pair of sex chromosome (XX or XY) +
one X-chromosome besides the autosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes == total 23 pairs of Page
whereas females have a pair of X- chromosomes in a human cell nucleus]
chromosomes. | 71
These observations led to the investigation of a In human beings and in Drosophila the males
number of species to understand the have one X and one Y chromosome, whereas
mechanism of sex determination. females have a pair of X-chromosomes besides
In a number of other insects and mammals autosomes.
including man, XY type of sex determination is In the above description you have studied
seen where both male and female have same about two types of sex determining
number of chromosomes. mechanisms, i.e., XO type and XY type. But in
both cases males produce two different types
of gametes, (a) either with or without X-
chromosome or (b) some gametes with X-
chromosome and some with Y-chromosome.
Such types of sex determination mechanism is
designated to be the example of male
heterogamety.
In some other organisms, e.g., birds, a
different mechanism of sex determination is
observed. In this case the total number of
chromosome is same in both males and
females. But two different types of gametes in
terms of the sex chromosomes, are produced
by females, i.e., female heterogamety.
In order to have a distinction with the
mechanism of sex determination described
earlier, the two different sex chromosomes of a
female bird has been designated to be the Z
and W chromosomes. In these organisms the
females have one Z and one W chromosome,
whereas males have a pair of Z-chromosomes
besides the autosomes.
Females, however, produce only one type of the genetic material is referred to
ovum with an X-chromosome. There is an as mutation.
equal probability of fertilization of the ovum A number of disorders in human beings have
with the sperm carrying either X or Y been found to be associated with the
chromosome. inheritance of changed or altered genes or
In case the ovum fertilizes with a sperm chromosomes.
carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops Page
into a female (XX) and the fertilization of ovum Mutation
with Y-chromosome carrying sperm results | 72
into a male offspring.
Mutation is a phenomenon which results
Thus, it is evident that it is the genetic
in alteration of DNA sequences and
makeup of the sperm that determines the sex
consequently results in changes in the
of the child. It is also evident that in each
genotype and the phenotype of an organism.
pregnancy there is always 50 per cent
In addition to recombination, mutation is
probability of either a male or a female child.
another phenomenon that leads to variation in
It is unfortunate that in our society women
DNA.
are blamed for giving birth to female children
DNA helix runs continuously from one end to
and have been ostracized and ill-treated
the other in each chromatid, in a highly
because of this false notion.
supercoiled form. Therefore loss
(deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of
Genetic Disorders a segment of DNA, result in alteration in
chromosomes.
Pedigree Analysis Since genes are known to be located on
chromosomes, alteration in chromosomes
The idea that disorders are inherited has been results in abnormalities or aberrations.
prevailing in the human society since long. Chromosomal aberrations are commonly
This was based on the heritability of certain observed in cancer cells.
characteristic features in families. In addition to the above, mutation also arise
After the rediscovery of Mendel’s work the due to change in a single base pair of DNA.
practice of analyzing inheritance pattern of This is known as point mutation. A classic
traits in human beings began. example of such a mutation is sickle cell
Since it is evident that control crosses that anemia.
can be performed in pea plant or some other Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA,
organisms, are not possible in case of human causes frame-shift mutations.
beings, study of the family history about There are many chemical and physical factors
inheritance of a particular trait provides an that induce mutations. These are referred to
alternative. as mutagens. UV radiations can cause
Such an analysis of traits in a several of mutations in organisms – it is a mutagen.
generations of a family is called the pedigree
analysis. Mendelian Disorders
In the pedigree analysis the inheritance of a
particular trait is represented in the family Broadly, genetic disorders may be grouped
tree over generations. into two categories – Mendelian
In human genetics, pedigree study provides a disorders and Chromosomal disorders.
strong tool, which is utilized to trace the Mendelian disorders are mainly determined
inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or by alteration or mutation in the single
disease. gene. These disorders are transmitted to the
Each and every feature in any organism is offspring on the same lines as we have studied
controlled by one or the other gene located on in the principle of inheritance.
the DNA present in the chromosome. DNA is The pattern of inheritance of such Mendelian
the carrier of genetic information. It is hence disorders can be traced in a family by
transmitted from one generation to the other the pedigree analysis.
without any change or alteration. Most common and prevalent Mendelian
However, changes or alteration do take place disorders are Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis,
occasionally. Such an alteration or change in
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Sickle-cell anaemia, Colour blindness, sixth position of the beta globin chain of
Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, etc. the haemoglobin molecule.
It is important to mention here that such The substitution of amino acid in the globin
Mendelian disorders may be dominant or protein results due to the single base
recessive. substitution at the sixth codon of the beta
By pedigree analysis one can easily globin gene from GAG to GUG.
understand whether the trait in question is The mutant haemoglobin molecule undergoes Page
dominant or recessive. polymerization under low oxygen
Similarly, the trait may also be linked to the tension causing the change in the shape of | 73
sex chromosome as in case of haemophilia. the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated
It is evident that this X-linked recessive trait sickle like structure.
shows transmission from carrier female to
male progeny.
Haemophilia
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Chromosomal Disorders
Page
The chromosomal disorders on the other hand | 74
are caused due to absence or excess or
abnormal arrangement of one or more sex
chromosomes. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Failure of segregation of chromatids during
cell division cycle results in the gain or loss of This genetic disorder is also caused due to the
a chromosome(s), called aneuploidy. presence of an additional copy of X-
For example, Down’s syndrome results in the chromosome resulting into a karyotype of 47,
gain of extra copy of chromosome 21. XXY.
Similarly, Turner’s syndrome results due to Such an individual has overall masculine
loss of an X chromosome in human females. development, however, the feminine
Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of development (development of breast, i.e.,
cell division results in an increase in a whole Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such
set of chromosomes in an organism and, this individuals are sterile.
phenomenon is known as polyploidy. This
condition is often seen in plants. Turner’s Syndrome
The total number of chromosomes in a normal
human cell is 46 (23 pairs). Out of these 22
pairs are autosomes and one pair of
chromosomes are sex chromosome.
Sometimes, though rarely, either an additional
copy of a chromosome may be included in an
individual or an individual may lack one of
any one pair of chromosomes. These
situations are known
as trisomy or monosomy of a chromosome,
respectively.
Such a situation leads to very serious
consequences in the individual. Down’s
syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s
syndrome are common examples of
chromosomal disorders.
Down’s Syndrome
including lack of other secondary sexual This helped in understanding the mutational
characters. basis of genetic disorders.
Down’s syndrome is due to trisomy of
Summary chromosome 21, where there is an extra copy
of chromosome 21 and consequently the total
number of chromosome becomes 47.
After knowing that the genes are located on
In Turner’s syndrome, one X chromosome is Page
the chromosomes, a good correlation was
missing and the sex chromosome is as XO,
drawn between Mendel’s laws: segregation and
and in Klinefelter’s syndrome, the condition is | 75
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis.
XXY. These can be easily studied by analysis
The Mendel’s laws were extended in the form
of Karyotypes.
of ‘Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance’.
Later, it was found that Mendel’s law of
Microbes or Microorganisms – Diseases Caused
independent assortment does not hold true for by Microorganisms – Diseases Caused By
the genes that were located on the same Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoans and Fungi.
chromosomes. These genes were called as
‘linked genes’. Microbes or Microorganisms
Closely located genes assorted together, and
distantly located genes, due to recombination,
Microorganisms [microbes] include bacteria,
assorted independently. Linkage maps,
fungi, protozoa, some algae, viruses,
therefore, corresponded to arrangement of
viroids and also prions that are proteinacious
genes on a chromosome.
infectious agents. Viruses reproduce only
Many genes were linked to sexes also, and
inside the cells of the host organism, which
called as sex-linked genes. The two sexes
may be a bacterium, plant or animal.
(male and female) were found to have a set of
chromosomes which were common, and
another set which was different.
The chromosomes which were different in two
sexes were named as sex chromosomes. The
remaining set was named as autosomes. In
humans, a normal female has 22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes
(XX).
A male has 22 pairs of autosomes and a pair
of sex chromosome as XY. In chicken, sex
Microorganisms may be single-celled like
chromosomes in male are ZZ, and in females
bacteria, some algae and protozoa,
are ZW.
or multicellular, such as algae and fungi.
Mutation is defined as change in the genetic
They can survive under all types of
material. A point mutation is a change of a
environment, ranging from ice cold climate to
single base pair in DNA.
hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.
Sickle-cell anemia is caused due to change of
Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone,
one base in the gene coding for beta-chain of
while fungi and bacteria may live in colonies.
hemoglobin.
Inheritable mutations can be studied by
generating a pedigree of a family. Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
Some mutations involve changes in whole set
of chromosomes (polyploidy) or change in a
subset of chromosome number (aneuploidy).
Disease Causative Agent Mode Of Transmission Type Of Details
Organism
Affected
Diseases Caused By Bacteria
Acne vulgaris (or simply Propionibacterium Direct contact/close Humans/ Skin disease that occurs when
acne or pimples) acnes contact hair follicles become clogged with
dead skin cells and oil from the
Adolescents
skin.
Peptic ulcers Helicobacter pylori Humans Ulcers in the lining of stomach and
starting part of small intestine
Plague Yersinia pestis Air/ direct contact Humans Unhygienic conditions is the main
cause. [You know why Surat is one
of the cleanest cities in India?]
Foot and Mouth Disease Picornavirus[genus Close-contact animal- Animals Serious problem to animal farming
Aphthovirus] to-animal spread in India.
Hepatitis B hepatitis B virus Blood Exchange, STD Humans Affects the liver. Acute as well as
(HBV) [Sexually transmitted chronic.
disease]
Measles measles virus Air Humans Complications occur in about 30%
and may include
diarrhea, blindness,
inflammation of the brain, and
pneumonia among others.
Polio or Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Water/faecal-mouth Humans Weak muscles leading to
deformations.
in organ-transplant patients, is produced by Similarly the dough, which is used for making
the fungus Tnchoderma polysporum. bread, is fermented using baker’s
Statins produced by the yeast Monascus yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
purpureus have been commercialized as A number of traditional drinks and foods are
blood-cholesterol lowering agents. It acts by also made by fermentation by the microbes.
competitively inhibiting the enzyme ‘Toddy’, a traditional drink of some parts of
responsible for synthesis of cholesterol. southern India is made by fermenting sap Page
from palms.
Milk to Curd Microbes are also used to ferment fish, | 80
soyabean and bamboo- shoots to make foods.
Cheese, is one of the oldest food items in
Micro-organisms such as Lactobacillus and
which microbes were used. The large holes in
others commonly called lactic acid bacteria
‘Swiss cheese’ are due to production of a large
(LAB) grow in milk and convert it to curd.
amount of CO2 by a bacterium
During growth, the LAB produce acids that
named Propionibacterium sharmanii.
coagulate and partially digest the milk
proteins.
Fermented Beverages
While growing, these microbes consume the cellulose and play an important role in the
major part of the organic matter in the nutrition of cattle. Thus, the excreta (dung) of
effluent. This significantly reduces the BOD cattle, commonly called gobar, is rich in these
(biochemical oxygen demand) of the effluent. bacteria. Dung can be used for generation of
BOD refers to the amount of the oxygen that biogas, commonly called gobar gas. [Humans
would be consumed if all the organic matter in cannot digest cellulose. Hence their faecal
one liter of water were oxidized by bacteria. waste cannot produce methane]. Page
The sewage water is treated till the BOD is
reduced. BOD is a measure of the organic | 81
Microbes as biocontrol agents
matter present in the water. The greater the
BOD of waste water, more is its polluting
Biocontrol refers to the use of biological
potential.
methods for controlling plant diseases and
Once the BOD of sewage or waste water is
pests. Biological agents are a better alternative
reduced significantly, the effluent is then
to weedicides and pesticides.
passed into a settling tank where the bacterial
‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment. This sediment
Biological control of pests and diseases
is called activated sludge.
A small part of the activated sludge is pumped
back into the aeration tank to serve as the In agriculture, there is a method of controlling
inoculum or starter. pests that relies on natural predation rather
The remaining major part of the sludge is than introduced chemicals.
pumped into large tanks called anaerobic A key belief of the organic farmer is that
sludge digesters. Here, other kinds of biodiversity furthers health. The more variety
bacteria, which grow anaerobically, digest the a landscape has, the more sustainable it is.
bacteria and the fungi in the sludge. The organic farmer, therefore, works to create
During this digestion, bacteria produce a a system where the insects that are sometimes
mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen called pests are not eradicated, but instead
sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases are kept at manageable levels by a complex
form biogas and can be used as source of system of checks and balances within a living
energy as it is inflammable. and vibrant ecosystem.
The effluent from the secondary treatment Contrary to the ‘conventional’ farming
plant is generally released into natural water practices which often use chemical methods to
bodies like rivers and streams. kill both useful and harmful life forms
indiscriminately, this is a holistic approach
Microbes in production of biogas that seeks to develop an understanding of the
webs of interaction between the myriad of
organisms that constitute the field fauna and
Biogas is a mixture of gases (containing flora.
predominantly methane) produced by the The organic farmer holds the view that the
microbial activity and which may be used as eradication of the creatures that are often
fuel. described as pests is not only possible, but
Certain bacteria, which also undesirable, for without them the
grow anaerobically on cellulosic material, beneficial predatory and parasitic insects
produce large amount which depend upon them as food or hosts
of methane [greenhouse gas] along would not be able to survive. Thus, the use of
with CO2 and H2. These bacteria are biocontrol measures will greatly reduce our
collectively called methanogens, and one dependence on toxic chemicals and pesticides.
such common bacterium An important part of the biological farming
is Methanobacterium. These bacteria are approach is to become familiar with the
commonly found in the anaerobic sludge various life forms that inhabit the field,
during sewage treatment. predators as well as pests, and also their life
These bacteria are also present in cycles, patterns of feeding and the habitats
the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle. A lot that they prefer. This will help develop
of cellulosic material present in the food of appropriate means of biocontrol.
cattle is also present in the rumen. In rumen,
these bacteria help in the breakdown of
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
The very familiar beetle with red and black associations absorbs phosphorus from soil
markings - the Ladybird, and Dragonflies are and passes it to the plant.
useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes, Plants having such associations show other
respectively. benefits also, such as resistance to root-borne
An example of microbial biocontrol agents that pathogens, tolerance to salinity and drought,
can be Introduced in order to control butterfly and an overall increase in plant growth and
caterpillars is the bacteria Bacillus development. Page
thuringiensis (often written as Bt). Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes
These are available in sachets as dried spores widely distributed in aquatic and terrestrial | 82
which are mixed with water and sprayed onto environments many of which can fix
vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit atmospheric nitrogen, e.g. Anabaena,
trees, where these are eaten by the insect Nostoc, Oscillatona, etc.
larvae. In the gut of the larvae, the toxin is In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an
released and the larvae get killed. The important biofertiliser. Blue green algae also
bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars, but add organic matter to the soil and increase its
leave other insects unharmed. fertility.
Because of the development of methods of
genetic engineering in the last decade or so, Preservatives
the scientists have
introduced thuringiensis toxin genes into
Salts and edible oils are the common
plants. Such plants are resistant to attack by
chemicals generally used to check the growth
insect pests. Bt-cotton is one such example,
of microorganisms. Therefore they are
which is being cultivated in some states of our
called preservatives. We add salt or acid
country.
preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack
A biological control being developed for use in
of microbes. Sodium benzoate and sodium
the treatment of plant disease is the fungus
metabisulphite are common preservatives.
Trichoderma. Trichoderma species are free-
These are also used in the jams and squashes
living fungi that are very common in the root
to check their spoilage.
ecosystems. They are effective biocontrol
Common salt has been used to preserve meat
agents of several plant pathogens.
and fish for ages. Meat and fish are covered
Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack
with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria.
insects and other arthropods. They have been
Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw
shown to have no negative impacts on plants,
mangoes, tamarind, etc.
mammals, birds, fish or even on non-target
Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by
insects.
sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture content
which inhibits the growth of bacteria which
Microbes as biofertilisers spoil food.
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of
Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the pickles because bacteria cannot live in such
nutrient quality of the soil. The main sources an environment. Vegetables, fruits, fish and
of biofertilisers are bacteria, meat are often preserved by this method.
fungi and cyanobacteria. Pasteurized milk can be consumed without
You may be knowing about the nodules on the boiling as it is free from harmful microbes.
roots of leguminous plants formed by the The milk is heated to about 700 C for 15 to 30
symbiotic association of Rhizobium. These seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored.
bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic By doing so, it prevents the growth of
forms, which is used by the plant as nutrient. microbes. This process was discovered
Other bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
while free-living in the soil
(examples Azospirillum and Azotobacter), Summary
thus enriching the nitrogen content of the soil.
Fungi are also known to form symbiotic
Microbes are a very important component of
associations with plants (mycorrhiza). Many
life on earth. Not all microbes are pathogenic.
members of the genus Glomus form
mycorrhiza. The fungal symbiont in these
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Many microbes are very useful to human Physical Barriers: Skin on our body is the
beings. main barrier which prevents entry of the
We use microbes and microbially derived micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the
products almost every day. epithelium lining the respiratory,
Bacteria called lactic acid bacteria (LAB) grow gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also
in milk to convert it into curd. help in trapping microbes entering our body.
The dough, which is used to make bread, is Physiological Barriers: Acid in the stomach, Page
fermented by yeast called Saccharomyces saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes-all
cerevisiae. prevent microbial growth. | 83
Certain dishes such as idli and dosa, are Cellular Barriers: Certain types of leukocytes
made from dough fermented by microbes. (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclear
Bacteria and fungi are used to impart leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils)
particular texture, taste and flavor to cheese. and monocytes and natural killer (type
Microbes are used to produce industrial of lymphocytes) in the blood as well
products like lactic acid, acetic acid and as macrophages in tissues
alcohol, which are used in a variety of can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
processes in the industry. Cytokine Barriers: Virus-infected cells
Antibiotics like penicillins produced by useful secrete proteins called interferons which
microbes are used to kill disease-causing protect non-infected cells from further viral
harmful microbes. infection.
Antibiotics have played a major role in
controlling infectious diseases like diphtheria, Acquired Immunity
whooping cough and pneumonia.
For more than a hundred years, microbes are
Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It is
being used to treat sewage (waste water) by
characterized by memory. This means that
the process of activated sludge formation and
our body when it encounters a pathogen for
this helps in recycling of water in nature.
the first time produces a response
Methanogens produce methane (biogas) while
called primary response which is of low
degrading plant waste.
intensity.
Biogas produced by microbes is used as a
Subsequent encounter with the same
source of energy in rural areas.
pathogen elicits a highly
Microbes can also be used to kill harmful
intensified secondary or anamnestic
pests, a process called as biocontrol.
response. This is ascribed to the fact that our
The biocontrol measures help us to avoid
body appears to have memory of the first
heavy use of toxic pesticides for controlling
encounter.
pests.
The primary and secondary immune
responses are carried out with the help of two
Immunity – Innate Immunity - Acquired
Immunity, Active - Passive Immunity.
special types of lymphocytes present in our
Vaccination and Immunization, Allergies, Auto blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-
Immunity, Immune System in the Body. lymphocytes.
The B-lymphocytes produce an army
Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate of proteins in response to pathogens into our
immunity and (ii) Acquired immunity. blood to fight with them. These proteins are
called Antibodies [a blood protein produced
by the body in response to and counteracting
Innate Immunity
an antigen].
The T-cells themselves do not secrete
Innate immunity is non-specific type of antibodies but help B cells produce them.
defense, that is present at the time of birth. Each antibody molecule has four peptide
Innate immunity is accomplished by providing chains, two small called light chains and two
different types of barriers to the entry of the longer called heavy chains. Hence, an
foreign agents into our body. antibody is represented as H2L2.
Different types of antibodies are produced in
Innate immunity consist of four types of our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them.
barriers. These are —
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Because these antibodies are found in the pregnancy. These are some examples
blood, the response is also called as humoral of passive immunity.
immune response. This is one of the two
types of our acquired immune response – Vaccination and Immunization
antibody mediated. The second type is
called cell-mediated immune response or cell
The principle of immunization or vaccination
mediated immunity (CMI). The T- Page
is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the
lymphocytes mediate CMI.
immune system. | 84
Very often, when some human organs like
In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic
heart, eye, liver, kidney fail to function
proteins of
satisfactorily, transplantation is the only
pathogen or inactivated/weakened
remedy to enable the patient to live a normal
pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the
life. Then a search begins - to find a suitable
body.
donor. Why is it that the organs cannot be
The antibodies produced in the body against
taken from just anybody? What is it that the
these antigens would neutralize the
doctors check?
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
Grafts from just any source - an animal,
The vaccines also generate memory - B and T-
another primate, or any human beings cannot
cells that recognize the pathogen quickly on
be made since the grafts would be rejected
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the
sooner or later. Tissue matching, blood
invaders with a massive production of
group matching are essential before
antibodies.
undertaking any graft/transplant and even
If a person is infected with some deadly
after this the patient has to take immuno-
microbes to which quick immune response is
suppresants all his/her life. The body is able
required as in tetanus, we need to directly
to differentiate ‘self’ and ‘nonself’ and the cell-
inject the preformed antibodies,
mediated immune response is responsible
or antitoxin (a preparation containing
for the graft rejection.
antibodies to the toxin).
Even in cases of snakebites, the injection
Active and Passive Immunity which is given to the patients, contain
preformed antibodies against the snake
When a host is exposed to antigens [a venom. This type of immunization is
substance which the body recognizes as alien called passive immunization.
and which induces an immune response], Recombinant DNA technology has allowed
which may be in the form of living or dead the production of antigenic polypeptides of
microbes or other proteins, antibodies are pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines
produced in the host body. This type of produced using this approach allow large
immunity is called active immunity. scale production and hence greater availability
Active immunity is slow and takes time to give for immunization, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine
its full effective response. Injecting the produced from yeast.
microbes deliberately during immunization or
infectious organisms gaining access into body Allergies
during natural infection induce active
immunity.
Did this happen to you? When you have gone
When ready-made antibodies are directly
to a new place and suddenly you started
given to protect the body against foreign
sneezing, wheezing for no explained reason,
agents, it is called passive immunity.
and when you came away, your symptoms
Do you know why mother’s milk is considered
disappeared?
very essential for the newborn infant? The
Some of us are sensitive to some particles in
yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother
the environment. The above-mentioned
during the initial days of lactation has
reaction could be because of allergy to pollen,
abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the
mites, etc., which are different in different
infant.
places.
The foetus also receives some antibodies from
The exaggerated response of the immune
their mother, through the placenta during
system to certain antigens present in the
environment is called allergy. The substances recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these
to which such an immune response is and remembers them. The immune system
produced are called allergens. The antibodies also plays an important role in allergic
produced to these are of IgE type. reactions, auto-immune diseases and organ
Common examples of allergens are mites in transplantation.
dust, pollens, animal dander, etc. Lymphoid Organs: These are the organs
Symptoms of allergic reactions include where origin and/or maturation and Page
sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and proliferation of Lymphocytes
difficulty in breathing. The primary lymphoid organs are bone | 85
Allergy is due to the release of chemicals marrow and thymus where immature
like histamine and serotonin from the mast lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-
cells. sensitive lymphocytes.
For determining the cause of allergy, the After maturation the lymphocytes migrate
patient is exposed to or injected with very to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen,
small doses of possible allergens, and the lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of
reactions studied. small intestine and appendix.
The use of drugs like anti-histamine, The secondary lymphoid organs provide the
adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the
symptoms of allergy. antigen, which then proliferate to
Somehow, modern-day life style has resulted become effector cells.
in lowering of immunity and more sensitivity The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ
to allergens - more and more children in metro where all blood cells including lymphocytes
cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma are produced.
due to sensitivity to the environment. This The thymus is a lobed organ located near the
could be because of the protected environment heart and beneath the breastbone. The
provided early in life. thymus is quite large at the time of birth but
keeps reducing in size with age and by the
Auto Immunity time puberty is attained it reduces to a very
small size.
Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-
Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in
environments for the development and
higher vertebrates based on the ability to
maturation of T-lymphocytes.
differentiate foreign organisms (e.g.,
The spleen is a large bean shaped organ. It
pathogens) from self-cells.
mainly
While we still do not understand the basis of
contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It
this, two corollaries of this ability have to be
acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-
understood.
borne micro-organisms. Spleen also has a
One, higher vertebrates can distinguish
large reservoir of erythrocytes.
foreign molecules as well as foreign
The lymph nodes are small solid structures
organisms. Most of the experimental
located at different points along the lymphatic
immunology deals with this aspect.
system. Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-
Two, sometimes, due to genetic and other
organisms or other antigens, which happen to
unknown reasons, the body attacks self-
get into the lymph and tissue fluid.
cells. This results in damage to the body and
Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are
is called auto-immune disease.
responsible for the activation of lymphocytes
Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many
present there and cause the immune
people in our society is an auto-immune
response.
disease.
There is lymphoid tissue also located within
the lining of the major tracts (respiratory,
Immune System in the Body digestive and urogenital tracts)
called mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue
The human immune system consists (MALT). It constitutes about 50 per cent of the
of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble lymphoid tissue in human body.
molecules like antibodies. As you have read,
immune system is unique in the sense that it
Causes of AIDS
Picture Credits: Wikipedia
AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno
Summary Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group
of viruses called Retrovirus, which have
Health is not just the absence of disease. It is an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
a state of complete physical, mental, social Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs
and psychological well-being. by
Diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia,
fungal infections of skin, malaria and many 1. sexual contact with infected person,
others are a major cause of distress to human 2. by transfusion of contaminated blood and
beings. blood products,
Vector-borne diseases like malaria especially 3. by sharing infected needles as in the case
one caused by Plasmodium falciparum, if not of intravenous drug abusers and
treated, may prove fatal. 4. from infected mother to her child through
Our immune system plays the major role in placenta.
preventing these diseases when we are
exposed to disease-causing agents. So, people who are at high risk of getting this
The innate defenses of our body like skin, infection includes
mucous membranes, antimicrobial
substances present in our tears, saliva and 1. individuals who have multiple sexual
the phagocytic cells help to block the entry of partners,
pathogens into our body. 2. drug addicts who take drugs intravenously,
If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to 3. individuals who require repeated blood
our body, specific antibodies (humoral transfusions and
immune response) and cells (cell mediated 4. children born to an HIV infected mother.
immune response) serve to kill these
pathogens. It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not
Immune system has memory. On subsequent spread by mere touch or physical contact; it
exposure to same pathogen, the immune spreads only through body fluids. It is, hence,
response is rapid and more intense. This imperative, for the physical and psychological
forms the basis of protection afforded by well-being, that the HIV/AIDS infected
vaccination and immunization. persons are not isolated from family and
society.
AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome There is always a time-lag between the
– Causes of AIDS – Mechanism of HIV infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms.
Proliferation in Human Body – Prevention of This period may vary from a few months to
AIDS. many years (usually 5-10 years).
Types of Tumors
Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to The most common warning signs of drug and
release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into alcohol abuse among youth include drop in
blood circulation, both of which raise blood academic performance, unexplained absence
pressure and increase heart rate. from school/college, lack of interest in
Smoking is associated with increased personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation,
incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious
and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary behaviour, deteriorating relationships with Page
heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc. family and friends, loss of interest in hobbies,
Tobacco chewing is associated with increased change in sleeping and eating habits, | 90
risk of cancer of the oral cavity. Smoking fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc.
increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in There may even be some far-reaching
blood and reduces the concentration implications of drug/alcohol abuse. If an
of haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen abuser is unable to get money to buy
deficiency in the body. drugs/alcohol he/she may turn to stealing.
When one buys packets of cigarettes one The adverse effects are just not restricted to
cannot miss the statutory warning that is the person who is using drugs or alcohol. At
present on the packing which warns against times, a drug/alcohol addict becomes the
smoking and says how it is injurious to cause of mental and financial distress to
health. Yet, smoking is very prevalent in his/her entire family and friends.
society, both among young and old. Those who take drugs intravenously (direct
Knowing the dangers of smoking and chewing injection into the vein using a needle and
tobacco, and its addictive nature, the youth syringe), are much more likely to acquire
and old need to avoid these habits. Any addict serious infections like AIDS and hepatitis B.
requires counselling and medical help to get The viruses, which are responsible for these
rid of the habit. diseases, are transferred from one person to
another by sharing of infected needles and
syringes.
Both AIDS and Hepatitis B infections are
chronic infections and ultimately fatal. AIDS
can be transmitted to one’s life partner
through sexual contact while Hepatitis B is
transmitted through infected blood .
The use of alcohol during adolescence may
also have long-term effects. It could lead to
heavy drinking in adulthood. The chronic use
of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system
and liver (cirrhosis). The use of drugs and
alcohol during pregnancy is also known to
adversely affect the foetus.
Another misuse of drugs is what certain
sportspersons do to enhance their
performance. They (mis)use narcotic
Pic Credits: Nwdrugtaskforce
analgesics, anabolic steroids,
diuretics and certain hormones in sports to
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse increase muscle strength and bulk and to
promote aggressiveness and as a result
The immediate adverse effects of drugs and increase athletic performance.
alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of The side-effects of the use of anabolic steroids
reckless behavior, vandalism and violence. in females include masculinization (features
Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma like males), increased aggressiveness, mood
and death due to respiratory failure, heart swings, depression, abnormal menstrual
failure or cerebral hemorrhage. cycles, excessive hair growth on the face and
A combination of drugs or their intake along body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of
with alcohol generally results in overdosing voice.
and even deaths.
In males it includes acne, increased Looking for danger signs - Alert parents and
aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, teachers need to look for and identify the
reduction of size of the testicles, decreased danger signs discussed above. Even friends, if
sperm production, potential for kidney and they find someone using drugs or alcohol,
liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, should not hesitate to bring this to the notice
premature baldness, enlargement of the of parents or teacher in the best interests of
prostate gland. These effects may be the person concerned. Appropriate measures Page
permanent with prolonged use. would then be required to diagnose the
In the adolescent male or female, severe facial malady and the underlying causes. This would | 91
and body acne, and premature closure of the help in initiating proper remedial steps or
growth centers of the long bones may result in treatment.
stunted growth. Seeking professional and medical help - A lot
of help is available in the form of highly
Prevention and Control qualified psychologists, psychiatrists, and de-
addiction and rehabilitation programmes to
help individuals who have unfortunately got in
The age-old adage of ‘prevention is better than
the quagmire of drug/alcohol abuse. With
cure’ holds true here also. It is also true that
such help, the affected individual with
habits such as smoking, taking drug or
sufficient efforts and will power, can get rid of
alcohol are more likely to be taken up at a
the problem completely and lead a perfectly
young age, more during adolescence. Hence, it
normal and healthy life.
is best to identify the situations that may
push an adolescent towards use of drugs or
Acute and Chronic Diseases, Communicable
alcohol, and to take remedial measures well in Diseases, Organ-Specific Diseases, Principles of
time. In this regard, the parents and the Treatment, Principles of Prevention, Diseases
teachers have a special responsibility. in Indian Children.
Parenting that combines with high levels of
nurturance and consistent discipline, has Acute and Chronic Diseases
been associated with lowered risk of
substance (alcohol/drugs/tobacco) abuse. Some diseases last for only very short periods
Some of the measures mentioned here would of time, and these are called acute diseases.
be particularly useful for prevention and We all know from experience that the common
control of alcohol and drugs abuse among cold lasts only a few days.
adolescents Other ailments can last for a long time, even
Avoid undue peer pressure - Every child has as much as a lifetime, and are called chronic
his/her own choice and personality, which diseases. An example is the infection
should be respected and nurtured. A child causing elephantiasis, which is very common
should not be pushed unduly to perform in some parts of India.
beyond his/her threshold limits; be it studies,
sports or other activities.
Education and counselling - Educating and Communicable Diseases
counselling him/ her to face problems and
stresses, and to accept disappointments and Microbial diseases that can spread from an
failures as a part of life. It would also be infected person to a healthy person through
worthwhile to channelize the child’s energy air, water, food or physical contact are
into healthy pursuits like sports, reading, called communicable diseases.
music, yoga and other extracurricular Examples of such diseases include cholera,
activities. common cold, chicken
Seeking help from parents and peers - Help pox and tuberculosis.
from parents and peers should be sought Example of a carrier is the female Anopheles
immediately so that they can guide mosquito, which carries the parasite
appropriately. Help may even be sought from of malaria. Female Aedes mosquito acts as
close and trusted friends. Besides getting carrier of dengue virus.
proper advise to sort out their problems, this Robert Köch (1876) discovered
would help young to vent their feelings of the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which
anxiety and guilt. causes anthrax
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
How do infectious diseases spread? Many bacteria. Or they can go to the liver, like the
microbial agents can commonly move from an viruses that cause jaundice.
affected person to someone else in a variety of An infection like HIV, that comes into the body
ways. In other words, they can be via the sexual organs, will spread to lymph
‘communicated’, and so are also nodes all over the body.
called communicable diseases. Malaria-causing microbes, entering through a
Such disease-causing microbes can spread mosquito bite, will go to the liver, and then to Page
through the air. Examples of such diseases the red blood cells.
spread through the air are the common cold, The virus causing Japanese Encephalitis, | 92
pneumonia and tuberculosis. or brain fever, will similarly enter through a
Diseases can also be spread through water. mosquito bite. But it goes on to infect the
This occurs if the excreta from someone brain.
suffering from an infectious gut disease, such The signs and symptoms of a disease will thus
as cholera, get mixed with the drinking water depend on the tissue or organ which the
used by people living nearby. microbe targets. If the lungs are the targets,
The sexual act is one of the closest physical then symptoms will be cough and
contact two people can have with each other. breathlessness. If the liver is targeted, there
Not surprisingly, there are microbial diseases will be jaundice. If the brain is the target, we
such as Syphilis or AIDS that are transmitted will observe headaches, vomiting, fits or
by sexual contact from one partner to the unconsciousness.
other. In addition to these tissue-specific effects of
Other than the sexual contact, the aids virus infectious disease, there will be other common
can also spread through blood-to-blood effects too.
contact with infected people or from an Most of these common effects depend on the
infected mother to her baby during pregnancy fact that the body’s immune system is
or through breast feeding. activated in response to infection.
We live in an environment that is full of many An active immune system recruits many cells
other creatures apart from us. It is inevitable to the affected tissue to kill off the disease-
that many diseases will be transmitted by causing microbes. This recruitment process is
other animals. These animals carry the called inflammation. As a part of this
infecting agents from a sick person to another process, there are local effects such as
potential host. These animals are thus the swelling and pain, and general effects such as
intermediaries and are called vectors. The fever.
commonest vectors we all know are In some cases, the tissue-specificity of the
mosquitoes. infection leads to very general-seeming effects.
In many species of mosquitoes, For example, in HIV infection, the virus goes
the females need highly nutritious food in the to the immune system and damages its
form of blood in order to be able to lay mature function. Thus, many of the effects of HIV-aids
eggs. Mosquitoes feed on many warm-blooded are because the body can no longer fight off
animals, including us. In this way, they can the many minor infections that we face every
transfer diseases from person to person. day. Instead, every small cold can
become pneumonia. Similarly, a minor gut
Organ-Specific And Tissue Specific infection can produce major diarrhoea with
Diseases blood loss. Ultimately, it is these other
infections that kill people suffering from HIV-
aids.
Different species of microbes seem to have
evolved to home in on different parts of the
body. In part, this selection is connected to
Principles of Treatment
their point of entry.
If they enter from the air via the nose, they are There are two ways to treat an infectious
likely to go to the lungs. This is seen in the disease. One would be to reduce the effects of
bacteria causing tuberculosis. the disease and the other to kill the cause of
If they enter through the mouth, they can stay the disease.
in the gut lining like typhoid causing For the first, we can provide treatment that
will reduce the symptoms. The symptoms are
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
usually because of inflammation. For example, result, drugs that block one of these life
we can take medicines that bring down fever, processes in one member of the group is likely
reduce pain or loose motions. We can take bed to be effective against many other members of
rest so that we can conserve
our energy. This will enable us
to have more of it available to
focus on healing. Page
But this kind of symptom-
directed treatment by itself will | 93
not make the infecting microbe
go away and the disease will
not be cured. For that, we
need to be able to kill off the
microbes.
How do we kill microbes? One
way is to use medicines that
kill microbes. We have seen
earlier that microbes can be
classified into different
categories. They are viruses,
bacteria, fungi or protozoa.
Each of these groups of organisms will have the group. But the same drug will not work
some essential biochemical life process which against a microbe belonging to a different
is peculiar to that group and not shared with group.
the other groups. These processes may be
pathways for the synthesis of new substances As an example, let us take antibiotics. They
or respiration. These pathways will not be commonly block biochemical pathways
used by us either. important for bacteria. Many bacteria, for
For example, our cells may make new example, make a cell-wall to protect
substances by a mechanism different from themselves. The antibiotic penicillin blocks the
that used by bacteria. We have to find a drug bacterial processes that build the cell wall. As
that blocks the bacterial synthesis pathway a result, the growing bacteria become unable
without affecting our own. This is what is to make cell-walls, and die easily.
achieved by the antibiotics that we are all Human cells don’t make a cell-wall anyway, so
familiar with. Similarly, there are drugs that penicillin cannot have such an effect on us.
kill protozoa such as the malarial parasite. Penicillin will have this effect on any bacteria
that use such processes for making cell-walls.
Why are Antibiotics effective against Similarly, many antibiotics work against many
Bacterial Infections but not Viral species of bacteria rather than simply working
Infections? against one group.
But viruses do not use these pathways at all,
and that is the reason why antibiotics do not
One reason why making anti-viral medicines
work against viral infections. If we have a
is harder than making antibacterial medicines
common cold, taking antibiotics does not
is that viruses have few biochemical
reduce the severity or the duration of the
mechanisms of their own. This means that
disease. However, if we also get a bacterial
there are relatively few virus-specific targets to
infection along with the viral cold, taking
aim at.
antibiotics will help. Even then, the antibiotic
Despite this limitation, there are now effective
will work only against the bacterial part of the
anti-viral drugs, for example, the drugs that
infection, not the viral infection.
keep HIV infection under control.
Taxonomically, all bacteria are closely related
to each other than to viruses and vice versa. Principles of Prevention
This means that many important life
processes are similar in the bacteria group but What are the specific ways of prevention? They
are not shared with the virus group. As a relate to a peculiar property of the immune
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
system that usually fights off microbial of recent widespread incidences of the vector-
infections. borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases
Let us cite an example to try and understand like dengue and chikungunya in many parts
this property. These days, there is no smallpox of India.
anywhere in the world. But as recently as a Traditional Indian and Chinese medicinal
hundred years ago, smallpox epidemics were systems sometimes deliberately rubbed the
not at all uncommon. skin crusts from smallpox victims into the Page
In such an epidemic, people used to be very skin of healthy people. They thus hoped to
afraid of coming near someone suffering from induce a mild form of smallpox that would | 94
the disease since they were afraid of catching create resistance against the disease.
the disease. Famously, two centuries ago, an English
However, there was one group of people who physician named Edward Jenner, realized
did not have this fear. These people would that milkmaids who had had cowpox did not
provide nursing care for the victims of catch smallpox even during epidemics.
smallpox. Cowpox is a very mild disease. Jenner tried
This was a group of people who had had deliberately giving cowpox to people, and
smallpox earlier and survived it, although found that they were now resistant to
with a lot of scarring. In other words, if you smallpox. This was because the smallpox
had smallpox once, there was no chance of virus is closely related to the cowpox virus.
suffering from it again. ‘Cow’ is ‘Vacca’ in latin, and cowpox is
So, having the disease once was a means of ‘Vaccinia’.
preventing subsequent attacks of the same
disease. This happens because when the Diseases in Indian Children
immune system first sees an infectious
microbe, it responds against it and then Gastroentitis
remembers it specifically.
So the next time that particular microbe, or its
Gastroentitis is an infection in the digestive
close relatives enter the body, the immune
system responds with even greater vigour. system and it is one of the most common
childhood illnesses.
This eliminates the infection even more
quickly than the first time around. This is the Symptoms of gastroentitis include diarrhoea,
nausea and vomiting, tummy cramps, and
basis of the principle of ‘vaccination’ has
come into our usage. fever.
One of the main risks with gastroentitis is that
We can now see that, as a general principle,
we can ‘fool’ the immune system into it causes dehydration in children.
developing a memory for a particular infection
by putting something, that mimics the Rickets
microbe we want to vaccinate against, into the
body. This does not actually cause the disease Rickets occurs due to Vitamin D deficiency.
but this would prevent any subsequent Deficiency of Vitamin D occurs in a child
exposure to the infecting microbe from turning because of lack of exposure to sunlight.
into actual disease. Lack of adequate calcium in the diet can also
Many such vaccines are now available for cause rickets.
preventing a whole range of infectious Rickets is a disease which involves softening
diseases, and provide a disease-specific means and weakening of bones in children.
of prevention. Children between the ages of 6 to 24 months
There are vaccines against tetanus, are at the highest risk of developing the
diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, disease because that is the age when their
polio and many others. bones are rapidly growing.
Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds
that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of Conjunctivitis
insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and
swamps, etc. can prevent proliferation of
Conjunctivitis is caused due to inflammation
mosquitoes. Such precautions have become
of the conjunctiva.
all the more important especially in the light
Conjunctiva is the outermost layer of the eye their immune system is under developed or
and the inner surface of the eyelids. still developing.
Conjunctivitis often starts in one eye at first Tuberculosis is completely curable and early
and then spreads to the other eye. diagnosis can help in effective treatment.
For children suffering from conjunctivitis it is
important to see a doctor to know what kind Typhoid
of conjunctivitis it is. Page
Symptoms of conjunctivitis include redness of
It is a water borne disease rampant in | 95
eyes, irritation in the eye, and eye watering.
children due to poor sanitation.
Cases of typhoid are more common in
Scabies countries like India and some other South
Asian countries and in other low developed
Scabies is an infection of the skin. nations and have been seen lesser in
Scabies is caused by tiny insects called mites. countries like the USA.
These scabies mites burrow into the skin and Symptoms of typhoid in children are poor
lay eggs which become adult mites very soon. appetite, body ache, discomfort in abdomen,
Symptoms of this infection include superficial lethargy and weakness, fever with rising and
burrows, rash and severe itching. falling pattern.
Blisters on the palm and soles of the feet are Some children may also experience headache,
characteristic symptoms of scabies in infants. chest congestion, diarrhoea and vomiting and
Scabies is one of the highly contagious rose spots on the abdomen.
diseases and a child can develop it by coming
into contact with someone else who has been Bronchitis and Asthma
infected.
Children with scabies must not be sent to
Bronchitis and asthma are common in
school or day care until it gets completely
children.
cured.
Bronchitis and asthma are caused due to high
exposure to air borne pollutants.
Upper Respiratory Tract infection Bronchitis and asthma need to be treated with
(URTI) antibiotics and bronchodilators.
filariasis. The genital organs are also often The clot is formed because of the presence of
affected, resulting in gross deformities. The another type of cells in the blood,
pathogens are transmitted to person through called platelets.
the bite by the female mosquite.
Blood Vessels
Old Age Diseases: Dementia
Page
They are two types of blood vessels
Dementia is “one of the major causes of namely arteries and veins. | 96
disability and dependency among older people Veins are the blood vessels that carry carbon
worldwide” dioxide-rich blood [impure blood] from all
parts of the body back to the heart.
Pollution related diseases: Silicosis Pulmonary vein is an exception as it
carries oxygen-rich blood [pure blood] from
Silicosis is a lung disorder caused by lungs to heart. The veins have thin walls.
inhalation, retention and pulmonary reaction Arteries are the blood vessels that
to crystalline silica, as a result of exposure carry oxygen-rich blood from heart to all
during mining, stone crushing and quarrying parts of the body. Pulmonary artery is an
activities. exception as it carries carbon dioxide-rich
blood from heart to lungs. The arteries
have thick walls as the pressure acting on
Zoonotic Diseases then is high.
present in the plasma as they are always in Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist
transit in the body. infections and are also associated
Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are with allergic reactions.
also present in the plasma in an inactive form. Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two major
Plasma without the clotting factors is types - ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms. Both B and T
called serum. lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses of the body. Page
Formed Elements
| 97
Platelets
Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are
collectively called formed elements and they Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell
constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood. fragments produced
from megakaryocytes (special cells in the
Red Blood Cells (RBC) bone marrow).
Blood normally contains 1,500,00-3,500,00
platelets mm-3.
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are
Platelets can release a variety of substances
the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
most of which are involved in the coagulation
A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5
or clotting of blood.
million to 5.5 million of RBCs mm-3 of blood.
RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in
the adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in Coagulation of Blood
most of the mammals and are biconcave in
shape. Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in
They have a red coloured, iron containing response to an injury or trauma. This is a
complex protein called haemoglobin, hence mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood
the colour and name of these cells. from the body.
RBCs have an average life span of 120 Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site
days after which they are destroyed in of a cut or an injury over a period of time. It is
the spleen (graveyard of RBCs). a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a
network of threads called fibrins in
White Blood Cells (WBC) which dead and damaged formed elements of
blood are trapped.
Fibrins are formed by the conversion of
Leucocytes are also known as white blood
inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the
cells (WBC) as they are colorless due to the
enzyme thrombin.
lack of haemoglobin. They are nucleated and
Thrombins, in turn are formed from another
are relatively lesser in number which averages
inactive substance present in the plasma
6000-8000 mm-3 of blood. Leucocytes are
called prothrombin. An enzyme
generally short lived. We have two main
complex, thrombokinase, is required for the
categories of WBCs -
above reaction. This complex is formed by a
granulocytes and agranulocytes.
series of linked enzymic reactions (cascade
Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are
process) involving a number of factors present
different types of granulocytes,
in the plasma in an inactive state.
while lymphocytes and monocytes are the
An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets
agranulocytes.
in the blood to release certain factors which
Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-
activate the mechanism of coagulation.
65 per cent) of the total WBCs and basophils
Certain factors released by the tissues at the
are the least (0.5-1 per cent) among them.
site of injury also can initiate
Neutrophils and monocytes (6-8 per cent)
coagulation. Calcium ions play a very
are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign
important role in clotting.
organisms entering the body.
Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin,
heparin, etc., and are involved Lymph (Tissue Fluid)
in inflammatory reactions.
As the blood passes through the capillaries in ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene
tissues, some water along with many small I. The plasma membrane of the red blood cells
water soluble substances move out into the has sugar polymers that protrude from its
spaces between the cells of tissues leaving the surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by
larger proteins and most of the formed the gene. The gene (I) has three alleles IA,
elements in the blood vessels. This fluid IB and i.
released out is called the interstitial fluid or The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly Page
tissue fluid. different form of the sugar while allele i
Interstitial fluid or tissue fluid has the same does not produce any sugar. | 98
mineral distribution as that in plasma. Because humans are diploid organisms, each
Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between person possesses any two of the three I gene
the blood and the cells always occur through alleles.
this fluid. IA and IB are completely dominant over i,
An elaborate network of vessels called in other words when IA and i are present only
the lymphatic system collects this fluid and IA expresses (because i does not produce any
drains it back to the major veins. The fluid sugar), and when IB and i are present IB
present in the lymphatic system is called expresses.
the lymph. But when IA and IB are present together they
Lymph is a colourless fluid both express their own types of sugars: this is
containing specialized lymphocytes which because of co-dominance. Hence red blood
are responsible for the immune responses of cells have both A and B types of sugars.
the body. Lymph is also an important Since there are three different alleles, there
carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc. are six different combinations of these three
Fats are absorbed through lymph in the alleles that are possible, and therefore, a total
lacteals present in the intestinal villi. of six different genotypes of the human ABO
blood types. How many phenotypes are
Blood Groups possible?
ABO grouping
It is protected by a double
walled membranous bag,
pericardium, enclosing
the pericardial fluid.
Our heart has four chambers, two
relatively small upper chambers
called atria and two larger lower Page
chambers called ventricles.
A thin, muscular wall called |
the interatrial septum separates 100
the right and the left atria,
whereas a thick-walled, the inter-
ventricular septum, separates the
left and the right ventricles.
The atrium and the ventricle of the
same side are also separated by a
thick fibrous tissue called
the atrio-ventricular septum.
However, each of these septa are
provided with an opening through
which the two chambers of the
same side are connected.
Human Circulatory System The opening between the right atrium and the
right ventricle is guarded by a valve formed of
Heart three muscular flaps or cusps, the tricuspid
valve, whereas a bicuspid or mitral
The heart has four chambers. The two upper valve guards the opening between the left
chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium and the left ventricle.
atrium) and the two lower chambers are called The openings of the right and the left
the ventricles. ventricles into the pulmonary artery and
The partition between the chambers helps to the aorta respectively are provided with
avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with the semilunar valves.
the blood rich in carbon dioxide. The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood
only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to the
ventricles and from the ventricles to the
Heartbeat
pulmonary artery or aorta. These valves
prevent any backward flow.
The walls of the chambers of the heart are The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles.
made up of muscles. These muscles contract The walls of ventricles are much thicker than
and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic that of the atria.
contraction followed by its relaxation A specialized cardiac musculature called
constitutes a heartbeat. the nodal tissue is also distributed in the
Human circulatory system, also called heart. A patch of this tissue is present in the
the blood vascular system consists of a right upper corner of the right atrium called
muscular chambered heart, a network of the sino-atrial node (SAN).
closed branching blood vessels and blood, the Another mass of this tissue is seen in the
fluid which is circulated. lower left corner of the right atrium close to
Heart, the mesodermally derived organ [the the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio-
middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, ventricular node (AVN).
or the parts derived from this (e.g. cartilage, A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular
muscles, and bone)], is situated in the bundle (AV bundle) continues from the AVN
thoracic cavity, in between the two lungs, which passes through the atrio-ventricular
slightly tilted to the left. It has the size of a septa to emerge on the top of the inter-
clenched fist. ventricular septum and immediately divides
into a right and left bundle. These branches
give rise to minute fibres throughout the As the ventricular pressure increases further,
ventricular musculature of the respective the semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary
sides and are called purkinje fibres. These artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are
fibres along with right and left bundles are forced open, allowing the blood in the
known as bundle of His. ventricles to flow through these vessels into
The nodal musculature has the ability to the circulatory pathways.
generate action potentials without any The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) Page
external stimuli, i.e., it is autoexcitable. and the ventricular pressure falls causing the
However, the number of action potentials that closure of semilunar valves which prevents the |
could be generated in a minute vary at backflow of blood into the ventricles. 101
different parts of the nodal system. As the ventricular pressure declines further,
The SAN can generate the maximum number the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are pushed
of action potentials, i.e., 70-75/min, and is open by the pressure in the atria exerted by
responsible for initiating and maintaining the the blood which was being emptied into them
rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. by the veins. The blood now once again moves
Therefore, it is called the pacemaker. Our freely to the ventricles. The ventricles and
heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute atria are now again in a relaxed (joint
(average 72 beats/min). diastole) state, as earlier.
Soon the SAN generates a new action potential
Cardiac Cycle and the events described above are repeated
in that sequence and the process continues.
This sequential event in the heart which is
Watch these videos for easy understanding
cyclically repeated is called the cardiac
cycle and it consists
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gn6Q of systole and diastole of both the atria and
mETEm8s; ventricles.
As mentioned earlier, the heart beats 72 times
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yGlFB per minute, i.e., that many cardiac cycles are
zaTuoI; performed per minute. From this it could be
deduced that the duration of a cardiac cycle is
To begin with, all the four chambers of heart 0.8 seconds.
are in a relaxed state, i.e., they are in joint During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps
diastole. out approximately 70 mL of blood which is
As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, called the stroke volume. The stroke volume
blood from the pulmonary veins and vena cava multiplied by the heart rate (no. of beats per
flows into the left and the right ventricle min.) gives the cardiac output.
respectively through the left and right atria. Therefore, the cardiac output can be defined
The semilunar valves are closed at this stage. as the volume of blood pumped out by each
The SAN now generates an action potential ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL
which stimulates both the atria to undergo a or 5 litres in a healthy individual.
simultaneous contraction - the atrial systole. The body has the ability to alter the stroke
This increases the flow of blood into the volume as well as the heart rate and thereby
ventricles by about 30 per cent. the cardiac output. For example, the cardiac
The action potential is conducted to the output of an athlete will be much higher than
ventricular side by the AVN and AV bundle that of an ordinary man.
from where the bundle of His transmits it During each cardiac cycle two prominent
through the entire ventricular musculature. sounds are produced which can be easily
This causes the ventricular muscles to heard through a stethoscope. The first heart
contract, (ventricular systole), the atria sound (lub) is associated with the closure of
undergoes relaxation (diastole), coinciding the tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas
with the ventricular systole. the second heart sound (dub) is associated
Ventricular systole increases the ventricular with the closure of the semilunar valves.
pressure causing the closure of tricuspid and These sounds are of clinical diagnostic
bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of significance.
blood into the atria.
Neural signals through the sympathetic called congestive heart failure because
nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of congestion of the lungs is one of the main
heart beat, the strength of ventricular symptoms of this disease.
contraction and thereby the cardiac output. Heart failure is not the same as cardiac
On the other hand, parasympathetic neural arrest (when the heart stops beating) or
signals (another component of a heart attack (when the heart muscle is
ANS) decrease the rate of heart beat, speed of suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood Page
conduction of action potential and thereby the supply).
cardiac output. Adrenal |
medullary hormones can also increase the Summary 103
cardiac output.
Vertebrates circulate blood, a fluid connective
Disorders of Circulatory System tissue, in their body, to transport essential
substances to the cells and to carry waste
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) substances from there. Another fluid, lymph
(tissue fluid) is also used for the transport of
Hypertension is the term for blood pressure certain substances.
that is higher than normal (120/80). Blood comprises of a fluid matrix, plasma and
In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres formed elements. Red blood cells (RBCs,
of mercury pressure) is the systolic, or erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs,
pumping, pressure and 80 mm Hg is the leucocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
diastolic, or resting, pressure. constitute the formed elements. Blood of
If repeated checks of blood pressure of an humans are grouped into A, B, AB and O
individual is 140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it systems based on the presence or absence of
shows hypertension. two surface antigens, A, B on the RBCs.
High blood pressure leads to heart diseases Another blood grouping is also done based on
and also affects vital organs like brain and the presence or absence of another antigen
kidney. called Rhesus factor (Rh) on the surface of
RBCs. The spaces between cells in the tissues
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) contain a fluid derived from blood called
tissue fluid. This fluid called lymph is almost
similar to blood except for the protein content
Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to
and the formed elements.
as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that
All vertebrates and a few invertebrates have a
supply blood to the heart muscle. It is caused
closed circulatory system. Our circulatory
by deposits of calcium, fat,
system consists of a muscular pumping organ,
cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes
heart, a network of vessels and a fluid, blood.
the lumen of arteries narrower.
Heart has two atria and two ventricles.
Cardiac musculature is auto-excitable. Sino-
Angina atrial node (SAN) generates the maximum
number of action protentials per minute (70-
It is also called ‘angina pectoris’. A symptom 75/min) and therefore, it sets the pace of the
of acute chest pain appears when no enough activities of the heart. Hence it is called the
oxygen is reaching the heart muscle. Pacemaker.
Angina can occur in men and women of any The action potential causes the atria and then
age but it is more common among the middle- the ventricles to undergo contraction (systole)
aged and elderly. It occurs due to conditions followed by their relaxation (diastole). The
that affect the blood flow. systole forces the blood to move from the atria
to the ventricles and to the pulmonary artery
Heart Failure and the aorta. The cardiac cycle is formed by
sequential events in the heart which is
Heart failure means the state of heart when it cyclically repeated and is called the cardiac
is not pumping blood effectively enough to cycle.
meet the needs of the body. It is sometimes A healthy person shows 72 such cycles per
minute. About 70 mL of blood is pumped out
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
by each ventricle during a cardiac cycle and it The kidneys, ureters, bladder and
is called the stroke or beat volume. urethra form the excretory system.
Volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle An adult human being normally passes
of heart per minute is called the cardiac about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours, and the
output and it is equal to the product of stroke urine consists of 95% water, 2.5 % urea and
volume and heart rate (approx 5 litres). 2.5% other waste products.
The electrical activity of the heart can be Page
recorded from the body surface by using Excretory Products and their
electrocardiograph and the recording is called |
Elimination
electrocardiogram (ECG) which is of clinical 104
importance.
We have a complete double circulation, i.e., Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric
two circulatory pathways, namely, pulmonary acid, carbon dioxide, water and ions like
and systemic are present. Na+, K+, Cl-, phosphate, sulphate,, either by
The pulmonary circulation starts by the metabolic activities or by other means like
pumping of deoxygenated blood by the right excess ingestion. These substances have to be
ventricle which is carried to the lungs where it removed totally or partially.
is oxygenated and returned to the left atrium. Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major
The systemic circulation starts with the forms of nitrogenous wastes excreted by the
pumping of oxygenated blood by the left animals.
ventricle to the aorta which is carried to all The way in which waste chemicals are
the body tissues and the deoxygenated blood removed from the body of the animal depends
from there is collected by the veins and on the availability of water.
returned to the right atrium. Ammonia is the most toxic form and
Though the heart is autoexcitable, its requires large amount of water for its
functions can be moderated by neural and elimination, whereas uric acid, being the
hormonal mechanisms. least toxic, can be removed with a minimum
loss of water.
Human Excretory System – Kidneys, Urine
Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste
Formation, Tubules: Proximal Convoluted in gaseous form (ammonia) which directly
Tubule (PCT), Henle’s Loop, Distal Convoluted dissolves in water.
Tubule (DCT), Collecting Duct. Some land animals like birds, lizards, snakes
excrete a semi-solid, white coloured
Excretory System compound (uric acid).
The major excretory product in humans
When our cells perform their functions, is urea which is excreted through urine.
certain waste products are released in to the Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop
blood stream. These are toxic and hence need working due to infection or injury. As a result
to be removed from the body. of kidney failure, waste products start
The process of removal of wastes produced in accumulating in the blood. Such persons
the cells of the living organisms is called cannot survive unless their blood is filtered
excretion. The parts involved in excretion periodically through an artificial kidney. This
forms the excretory system. process is called dialysis.
Waste removal is done by the blood capillaries The process of excreting ammonia is Many
in the kidneys. bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic
When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it insects are ammonotelic in nature.
contains both useful and harmful substances. Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally
The useful substances are absorbed back into excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or
the blood. The wastes are removed as urine. through gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium
From the kidneys, the urine goes into ions. Kidneys do not play any significant
the urinary bladder through tube- role in its removal.
like ureters. It is stored in the bladder and is Terrestrial adaptation necessitated the
passed out through the urinary opening at the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes
end of a muscular tube called urethra. like urea and uric acid for conservation of
water.
Kidneys
Each nephron has two parts - The ascending limb continues as another
the glomerulus and the renal tubule. highly coiled tubular region called distal
Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by convoluted tubule (DCT).
the afferent arteriole - a fine branch of renal The DCTs of many nephrons open into a
artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried straight tube called collecting duct, many of
away by an efferent arteriole. which converge and open into the renal pelvis
The renal tubule begins with a double walled through medullary pyramids in the calyces. Page
cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule, The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of
which encloses the glomerulus. the nephron are situated in the cortical region |
of the kidney whereas the loop of Henle dips 106
into the medulla.
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is
too short and extends only very little into the
medulla. Such nephrons are called cortical
nephrons.
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is
very long and runs deep into the medulla.
These nephrons are called juxta medullary
nephrons.
The efferent arteriole emerging from the
glomerulus forms a fine capillary network
around the renal tubule called the peritubular
capillaries.
A minute vessel of this network runs parallel
to the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa
recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced
in cortical nephrons.
Urine Formation
Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is
called the malpighian body or renal Urine formation involves three main processes
corpuscle. namely, glomerular filtration,
reabsorption and secretion, that takes place
in different parts of the nephron.
The first step in urine formation is the
filtration of blood, which is carried out by the
glomerulus and is called glomerular
filtration.
On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is
filtered by the kidneys per minute.
The glomerular capillary blood pressure
causes filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e.,
the endothelium of glomerular blood
vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s
capsule and a basement membrane between
these two layers.
The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule
called podocytes are arranged in an intricate
The tubule continues further to form a highly manner so as to leave some minute spaces
coiled network - proximal convoluted tubule called filtration slits or slit pores. Blood is
(PCT). filtered so finely through these membranes,
A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part that almost all the constituents of the
of the tubule which has a descending and an plasma except the proteins pass onto the
ascending limb. lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it
is considered as a process of ultra-filtration.
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
The amount of the filtrate formed by the electrolytes. This concentrates the filtrate as it
kidneys per minute is called glomerular moves down.
filtration rate (GFR). GFR in a healthy The ascending limb is impermeable to water
individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, but allows transport of electrolytes actively or
i.e., 180 liters per day! passively. Therefore, as the concentrated
The kidneys have built-in mechanisms for the filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to the
regulation of glomerular filtration rate. One passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid. Page
such efficient mechanism is carried out
by juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA). |
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
A comparison of the volume of the filtrate 107
formed per day (180 liters per day) with that of
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water
the urine released (1.5 litres), suggest that
takes place in this segment. DCT is also
nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be
capable of reabsorption of HCO3- and
reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This process
selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium
is called reabsorption.
ions and NH3 to maintain the pH and
The tubular epithelial cells in different
sodium-potassium balance in blood.
segments of nephron perform this either by
active or passive mechanisms. For example,
substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, Collecting Duct
etc., in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively
whereas the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed This long duct extends from the cortex of the
by passive transport. Reabsorption of water kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
also occurs passively in the initial segments of Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed
the nephron. from this region to produce a concentrated
During urine formation, the tubular cells urine.
secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia This segment allows passage of small amounts
into the filtrate. Tubular secretion is also an of urea into the medullary interstitium to keep
important step in urine formation as it helps up the osmolarity.
in the maintenance of ionic and acid base It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH
balance of body fluids. and ionic balance of blood by the selective
secretion of H+ and K+ ions.
Function of the Tubules
Mechanism of Concentration of the
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) Filtrate
Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal
thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s parts of the tubule. This also leads to an
loop which is transported back to the increase in blood pressure and GFR. This
interstitium by the collecting tubule. complex mechanism is generally known as
The above described transport of substances the Renin-Angiotensin mechanism.
facilitated by the special arrangement of An increase in blood flow to the atria of the
Henle’s loop and vasa recta is called heart can cause the release of Atrial Page
the counter current mechanism. This Natriuretic Factor (ANF). ANF can cause
mechanism helps to maintain a concentration vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and |
gradient in the medullary interstitium. thereby decrease the blood pressure. ANF 108
Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the
an easy passage of water from the collecting renin-angiotensin mechanism.
tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate
(urine). Human kidneys can produce urine Micturition
nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.
Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately
carried to the urinary bladder where it is
Regulation of Kidney Function stored till a voluntary signal is given by the
central nervous system (CNS). This signal is
The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently initiated by the stretching of the urinary
monitored and regulated by hormonal bladder as it gets filled with urine. In
feedback mechanisms involving response, the stretch receptors on the walls of
the hypothalamus, JGA and to a certain the bladder send signals to the CNS. The CNS
extent, the heart. passes on motor messages to initiate the
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder
changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and simultaneous relaxation of the urethral
and ionic concentration. An excessive loss of sphincter causing the release of urine. The
fluid from the body can activate these process of release of urine is
receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus called micturition and the neural
to release antidiuretic hormone mechanisms causing it is called
(ADH) or vasopressin from the micturition reflex.
the neurohypophysis. An adult human excretes, on an average, 1 to
ADH facilitates water reabsorption from 1.5 litres of urine per day. The urine formed
latter parts of the tubule, thereby is a light yellow coloured watery fluid which
preventing diuresis [increased or excessive is slightly acidic (pH-6.0) and has a
production of urine]. characterestic odour.
An increase in body fluid volume can switch On an average, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted
off the osmoreceptors and suppress the ADH out per day. Various conditions can affect the
release to complete the feedback. characteristics of urine.
ADH can also affect the kidney function by its Analysis of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of
constrictory effects on blood vessels. This many metabolic discorders as well as
causes an increase in blood pressure. An malfunctioning of the kidney. For example,
increase in blood pressure can increase the presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone
glomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR. bodies (Ketonuria) in urine are indicative
The JGA plays a complex regulatory role. A fall of diabetes mellitus.
in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood
pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to Role of other Organs in Excretion
release renin which
converts angiotensinogen in blood to
Other than the kidneys, lungs,
angiotensin I and further to angiotensin II.
liver and skin also help in the elimination of
Angiotensin II, being a powerful
excretory wastes.
vasoconstrictor, increases the glomerular
Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2
blood pressure and thereby GFR.
(approximately 200mL/ minute) and also
Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex
significant quantities of water every day.
to release Aldosterone. Aldosterone causes
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of
bile-containing substances like bilirubin, crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within
biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid the kidney.
hormones, vitamins and drugs. Most of Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of
these substances ultimately pass out glomeruli of kidney.
alongwith digestive wastes.
The sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin Summary Page
can eliminate certain substances through
their secretions. Sweat produced by the sweat |
Many nitrogen containing substances, ions,
glands is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small
CO2, water, etc., that accumulate in the body 109
amounts of urea, lactic acid, etc.
have to be eliminated.
Though the primary function of sweat is to
Nature of nitrogenous wastes formed and their
facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface,
excretion vary among animals, mainly
it also helps in the removal of some of the
depending on the habitat (availability of
wastes mentioned above.
water).
Sebaceous glands eliminate certain
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major
substances like sterols, hydrocarbons and
nitrogenous wastes excreted.
waxes through sebum. This secretion provides
Protonephridia, nephridia, malpighian
a protective oily covering for the skin. Small
tubules, green glands and the kidneys are
amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be
the common excretory organs in animals.
eliminated through saliva too.
They not only eliminate nitrogenous wastes
but also help in the maintenance of ionic and
Disorders of the Excretory System acid-base balance of body fluids.
In humans, the excretory system consists of
Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to one pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a
accumulation of urea in blood, a condition urinary bladder and a urethra.
called uremia, which is highly harmful and Each kidney has over a million tubular
may lead to kidney failure. In such patients, structures called nephrons. Nephron is the
urea can be removed by a process functional unit of kidney and has two portions
called hemodialysis. - glomerulus and renal tubule.
Blood drained from a convenient artery is Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed from
pumped into a dialyzing unit after adding an afferent arterioles, fine branches of renal
anticoagulant like heparin. The unit contains artery.
a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid The renal tubule starts with a double
(dialyzing fluid) having the same walled Bowman’s capsule and is further
composition as that of plasma except the differentiated into a proximal convoluted
nitrogenous wastes. tubule (PCT), Henle’s loop (HL) and distal
The porous cellophane membrane of the tube convoluted tubule (DCT).
allows the passage of molecules based on The DCTs of many nephrons join to a common
concentration gradient. As nitrogenous wastes collecting duct many of which ultimately open
are absent in the dialyzing fluid, these into the renal pelvis through the medullary
substances freely move out, thereby clearing pyramids. The Bowman’s capsule encloses the
the blood. glomerulus to form Malpighian or renal
The cleared blood is pumped back to the body corpuscle.
through a vein after adding anti-heparin to it. Urine formation involves three main
This method is a boon for thousands of processes, i.e., filtration,
uremic patients all over the world. reabsorption and secretion.
Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method Filtration is a non-selective process performed
in the correction of acute renal failures by the glomerulus using the glomerular
(kidney failure). A functioning kidney is used capillary blood pressure. About 1200 ml of
in transplantation from a donor, preferably a blood is filtered by the glomerulus per minute
close relative, to minimise its chances of to form 125 ml of filtrate in the Bowman’s
rejection by the immune system of the host. capsule per minute (GFR).
Modern clinical procedures have increased the
success rate of such a complicated technique.
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
JGA, a specialised portion of the nephrons, There was no atmosphere on early earth.
plays a significant role in the regulation of Methane, carbondioxide and ammonia
GFR. released from molten mass covered the
Nearly 99 per cent reabsorption of the filtrate surface.
takes place through different parts of the The UV rays from the sun
nephrons. brokeup water into Hydrogen and Oxygen an
PCT is the major site of reabsorption and d the lighter H2 escaped. Oxygen combined Page
selective secretion. HL [Henle’s Loop] primarily with ammonia and methane to form water,
helps to maintain osmolar gradient within CO2 and others. |
the kidney interstitium. The ozone layer was formed. As earth cooled, 110
DCT and collecting duct allow the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the
extensive reabsorption of water and certain depressions and form oceans.
electrolytes, which help in osmoregulation: Life appeared 500 million years after the
H+, K+ and NH3 could be secreted into the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion
filtrate by the tubules to maintain the ionic years back. Some scientists believe that the
balance and pH of body fluids. life came from outerspace.
A counter current mechanism operates The first non-cellular forms of life could have
between the two limbs of the loop of Henle and originated 3 billion years back. They would
those of vasa recta (capillary parallel to have been giant molecules
Henle’s loop). The filtrate gets concentrated as (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.). These
it moves down the descending limb but is capsules reproduced their molecules perhaps.
diluted by the ascending limb. Electrolytes The first cellular form of life did not possibly
and urea are retained in the interstitium by originate till about 2000 million years ago.
this arrangement. These were probably single-cells. All life forms
DCT and collecting duct concentrate the were in water environment only.
filtrate about four times, an excellent The version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form
mechanism of conservation of water. of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces
Urine is stored in the urinary bladder till a from non-living molecules is accepted by
voluntary signal from CNS carries out its majority.
release through urethra, i.e., micturition. However, once formed, how the first cellular
Skin, lungs and liver also assist in excretion. forms of life could have evolved into the
complex biodiversity of today is the fascinating
Origin of Life on Earth - Evolution of Life on story that will be discussed below.
Earth - Adaptive Radiation -
Biological Evolution - Origin and Evolution of Evolution of Life on Earth
Man – Timeline of Evolution.
evolving for the same function and hence A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given
having similarity. medium has built- in variation in terms of
Other examples of analogy are the eye of the ability to utilise a feed component.
octopus and of mammals or the flippers of A change in the medium composition would
Penguins and Dolphins. bring out only that part of the population (say
One can say that it is the similar habitat that B) that can survive under the new conditions.
has resulted in selection of similar adaptive In due course of time this variant population Page
features in different groups of organisms but outgrows the others and appears as new
toward the same function: Sweet potato (root species. This would happen within days. |
modification) and potato (stem For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl 111
modification) is another example for analogy. would take million of years as life spans of
these animals are in years.
Q1. Which one of the following is a Hence, there must be a genetic basis for
modified stem? [1996] getting selected and to evolve.
Another way of saying the same thing is that
a. Carrot some organisms are better adapted to survive
b. Sweet potato in an otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive
c. Coconut ability is inherited. It has a genetic
d. Potato basis. Fitness is the end result of the ability
to adapt and get selected by nature.
Carrot → Modified root
A Brief Account of Evolution
Coconut → Modified seed
About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first
Adaptive Radiation cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
The mechanism of how non-cellular
During his journey, Charles Darwin went to aggregates of giant macromolecules could
Galapagos Islands. There he observed an evolve into cells with membranous envelop is
amazing diversity of creatures. not known.
Of particular interest, small black birds later Some of these cells had the ability to release
called Darwin’s Finches amazed him. O2. The reaction could have been similar to
He realized that there were many varieties of the light reaction in photosynthesis where
finches in the same island. All the varieties, he water is split with the help of solar energy
conjectured, evolved on the island itself. captured and channelized by appropriate light
From the original seed-eating features, many harvesting pigments.
other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling Slowly single-celled
them to become insectivorous and vegetarian organisms became multi-cellular life forms.
finches. This process of evolution of different By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were
species in a given geographical area starting formed and active. Jawless fish probably
from a point and literally radiating to other evolved around 350 mya. Sea weeds and
areas of geography (habitats) is called few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
adaptive radiation. We are told that the first organisms that
invaded land were plants. They were
widespread on land when animals invaded
Biological evolution
land.
Fish with stout and strong fins could move on
The essence of Darwinian theory about land and go back to water. This was about
evolution is natural selection. The rate of 350 mya. These animals called lobefins
appearance of new forms is linked to the life evolved into the first amphibians that lived on
cycle or the life span. both land and water. These were ancestors of
Microbes that divide fast have the ability to modern day frogs and salamanders.
multiply and become millions of individuals
within hours.
Page
|
112
The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and
lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in avoiding danger at least. When reptiles came
sun unlike those of amphibians. Again we down mammals took over this earth. T
only see their modern day descendents, the here were in South America mammals
turtles, tortoises and crocodiles. resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit,
In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of etc. Due to continental drift, when South
different shapes and sizes dominated on America joined North America, these animals
earth. Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were were overridden by North American fauna.
present along with reptiles but they all fell to Due to the same continental drift pouched
form coal deposits slowly. mammals of Australia survived because
Some of these land reptiles went back into of lack of competition from any other
water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably mammal.
200 mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs).
The land reptiles were, of course, the Q2. With reference to the evolution of
dinosaurs. The biggest of living organisms, which one of the
them were Tyrannosaurus and Ultrasaurus. following sequences is correct? [2009]
About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly
disappeared from the earth. We do not know a. Octopus-Dolphin-Shark
the true reason. Some say climatic changes b. Pangolin-Tortoise-Hawk
killed them. Some say most of them evolved c. Salamander-Python-Kangaroo
into birds. The truth may live in between. d. Frog-Crab-Prawn
Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
The first mammals were like shrews. Their Answer: Evolution == Single cellular →
fossils are small sized. Mammals Multicellular → Fishes → Amphibians →
were viviparous and protected their unborn Reptiles → Birds → Mammals.
young inside the mother’s body.
Page
|
114
Origin and Evolution of Man hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate
fruit.
About 15 mya, primates Some of the bones among the bones
discovered were different. This creature was
called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were
existing. They were hairy and walked like called the first human-like being the hominid
gorillas and chimpanzees. Ramapithecus was and was called Homo habilis. The brain
more man-like while Dryopithecus was more capacities were between 650-800cc. They
probably did not eat meat.
ape-like.
Few fossils of man-like bones have been Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed
discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5
revealed hominid features leading to the belief mya. Homo erectus had a large brain around
900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked
in eastern Africa. They were probably not The Neanderthal man with a brain size of
taller than 4 feet but walked up right. 1400cc lived in near east and central Asia
Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They
East African grasslands. Evidence shows they used hides to protect their body and buried
their dead.
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Classification of life forms will be closely There is a need to standardize the naming of
related to their evolution. Charles living organisms such that a particular
Darwin first described this idea of evolution in organism is known by the same name all over
1859 in his book, The Origin of Species. the world. This process is
The number of species that are known and called nomenclature.
described range between 1.7-1.8 million. Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only
Rough estimates state that there are about ten possible when the organism is described
million species on the planet. This refers correctly and we know to what organism the
to biodiversity or the number and types of name is attached to. This is identification.
organisms present on earth. For plants, scientific names are based on
The warm and humid tropical regions of the agreed principles and criteria, which are
earth, between the tropic of cancer and the provided in International Code for Botanical
tropic of capricorn, are rich in diversity of Nomenclature (ICBN).
plant and animal life. This is called the region Animal taxonomists have evolved International
of megadiversity. Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The
Of the biodiversity of the planet, more than scientific names ensure that each organism
half is concentrated in a few countries within has only one name.
tropics. Biologists follow universally accepted
principles to provide scientific names to
In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse known organisms. Each name has two
countries are: components - the Generic name and
the specific epithet.
1. Australia This system of providing a name with two
2. Brazil components is called Binomial
3. China nomenclature. This naming system given
4. Colombia by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by
5. Democratic Republic of the Congo biologists all over the world.
6. Ecuador The scientific name of mango is written
7. India as Mangifera indica. In this name Mangifera
8. Indonesia represents the genus while indica, is a
9. Madagascar particular species, or a specific epithet. Other
10. Malaysia universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
11. Mexico Biological names are generally in Latin and
12. Papua New Guinea written in italics. They are Latinised or
13. Peru derived from Latin irrespective of their origin.
14. Philippines The first word in a biological name represents
15. South Africa the genus while the second component
16. United States denotes the specific epithet.
Genus comprises a group of related species Kingdom Animalia in the classification system
which has more characters in common in of animals.
comparison to species of other genera. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is
We can say that genera are aggregates of distinct, and comprises all plants from various
closely related species. For example, potato divisions. Henceforth, we will refer to these
and brinjal are two different species but both two groups as animal and plant kingdoms.
belong to the genus Solanum. Page
Lion (Panthera leo), leopard ( pardus) and tiger Taxonomical Aids
(P. tigris) with several common features, are |
all species of the genus Panthera. This genus Herbarium 117
differs from another genus Felis which
includes cats. Herbarium is a store house of collected
plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
Family preserved on sheets. Further, these sheets are
arranged according to a universally accepted
The next category, Family, has a group of system of classification.
related genera with still less number of The herbarium sheets also carry a label
similarities as compared to genus and species. providing information about date and place of
Families are characterised on the basis of both collection, English, local and botanical names,
vegetative and reproductive features of plant family, collector’s name, etc.
species. Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems
Among animals for example, genus Panthera, in taxonomical studies.
comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along
with genus, Felis (cats) in the family Botanical Gardens
Similarly, if you observe the features of a cat
and a dog, you will find some similarities and These specialized gardens have collections
some differences as well. They are separated of living plants for reference.
into two different families - Felidae and The famous botanical gardens are at Kew
Canidae, respectively. (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
(India) and at National Botanical Research
Order Institute, Lucknow (India).
This category includes related orders. These are the places where wild animals are
kept in protected environments under human
Phylum care and which enable us to learn about their
food habits and behavior.
Classes comprising animals like fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds along with Key
mammals constitute the next higher category
called Phylum. Key is used for identification of plants and
animals based on the similarities and
Kingdom dissimilarities.
The keys are based on the contrasting
All animals belonging to various phyla are characters generally in a pair called couplet.
assigned to the highest category called
Flora, manuals, monographs and catalogues understand, but, a large number of organisms
are some other means of recording did not fall into either category. Hence the two
descriptions. kingdom classification used for a long time
was found inadequate.
Biological Classification Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894),
Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese
(1977) have tried to classify all living Page
In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of
organisms into broad categories, called
classification |
kingdoms.
with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was
The classification Whittaker proposed has five 118
developed.
kingdoms and is widely used:
This system did not distinguish between
the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular
and multicellular 1. Monera,
organisms and photosynthetic (green 2. Protista,
algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) 3. Fungi,
Classification of organisms into plants and 4. Plantae and
animals was easily done and was easy to 5. Animalia
The main criteria for classification used by showed a characteristic difference in their
him include cell structure, thallus walls composition - the fungi had chitin in
organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction their walls while the green plants had
etc. a cellulosic cell wall.
It brought together the prokaryotic When such characteristics were considered,
bacteria and the blue green algae with other the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom -
groups which were eukaryotic. Kingdom Fungi.
It also grouped together the unicellular All prokaryotic organisms were grouped
organisms and the multicellular ones. together under Kingdom Monera and
The classification did not differentiate between the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were
the heterotrophic group - fungi, and the placed in Kingdom Protista.
autotrophic green plants, though they also
Eubacteria Reproduction
Mycoplasma 121
The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-
green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to
green plants and are photosynthetic The Mycoplasma are organisms that
autotrophs. completely lack a cell wall.
The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial, They are the smallest living cells known and
filamentous, freshwater/marine or can survive without oxygen.
terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals
surrounded by gelatinous sheath. and plants.
They often form blooms [algal blooms] in
polluted water bodies. Kingdom Protista
Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric
nitrogen in specialized cells
All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under
called heterocysts,
Protista [Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic
e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Cells].
Boundaries of this kingdom are not well
Chemosynthetic bacteria defined. This kingdom forms a link with the
others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise In this group we include Chrysophytes,
various inorganic substances such as nitrates, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds
nitrites and ammonia and use the released and Protozoans. Examples are
energy for their ATP production. unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.
They play a great role in recycling Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron heterotrophic.
and sulphur. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
Some have flagella or cilia that helps in
Heterotrophic bacteria movement.
Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant a process involving cell fusion and zygote
in nature. The majority are formation.
important decomposers.
Many of them have a significant impact on Chrysophytes
human affairs. They are helpful in
making curd from milk, production of This group includes diatoms and golden
antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, algae (desmids).
etc {Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Most of them
Microbes}. are photosynthetic. Diatoms are the chief
Some are pathogens causing damage to ‘producers’ in the oceans.
human beings, crops, farm animals and pets. They are found in fresh water as well as in
Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are marine environments. They are microscopic
well known diseases caused by different and float passively in water currents
bacteria {Diseases Caused by (plankton).
Microorganisms, Diseases | Acute, Chronic, In diatoms the cell walls form two thin
Communicable Diseases}. overlapping shells. The walls are embedded
with silica and thus the walls are
indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores
large amount of cell wall deposits in their possess true walls. They are extremely
habitat; this accumulation over billions of resistant and survive for many years, even
years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. under adverse conditions. The spores are
Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, dispersed by air currents.
filtration of oils and syrups.
Protozoans Page
Dinoflagellates
|
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live
These organisms are as predators or parasites. They are believed 122
mostly marine and photosynthetic. to be primitive relatives of animals. There
They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red are four major groups of protozoans.
depending on the main pigments present in
their cells. Amoeboid protozoans
The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the
outer surface. These organisms live in fresh water, sea water
Most of them have two flagella; one lies or moist soil.
longitudinally and the other transversely in a They move and capture their prey by putting
furrow between the wall plates. out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.
Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Marine forms have silica shells on their
Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication surface. Some of them such
that they make the sea appear red (red as Entamoeba are parasites.
tides).
Toxins released by such large numbers may Flagellated protozoans
even kill other marine animals such as fishes.
The members of this group are either free-
Euglenoids
living or parasitic. They have flagella.
The parasitic forms cause diseases such
Majority of them are fresh water as sleeping sickness.
organisms found in stagnant water. Example: Trypanosoma.
Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich
layer called pellicle which makes their body Ciliated protozoans
flexible.
They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
These are aquatic, actively moving organisms
Though they are photosynthetic in the
because of the presence of thousands of cilia.
presence of sunlight, when deprived of
They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the
sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by
outside of the cell surface. The coordinated
predating on other smaller organisms.
movement of rows of cilia causes the water
Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are
laden with food to be steered into the gullet.
identical to those present in higher plants.
Example: Paramoecium.
Example: Euglena.
Sporozoans
Slime Moulds
This includes diverse organisms that have an
Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
The body moves along decaying twigs and The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial
leaves engulfing organic material. parasite) which causes malaria, a disease
Under suitable conditions, they form an which has a staggering effect on human
aggregation called plasmodium which may population {Diseases Caused by
grow and spread over several feet. Microorganisms}.
During unfavorable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting
Page
|
123
When your bread develops a mould or your Commonly known as imperfect fungi because
orange rots it is because of fungi. only the asexual or vegetative phases of these
The common mushroom you eat and fungi are known.
toadstools are also fungi.
White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to Kingdom Plantae
a parasitic fungus.
Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to Page
These are multicellular eukaryotes with cell
make bread and beer.
walls mainly made of cellulose {Plant Cell vs. |
Other fungi cause diseases in plants and
Animal Cell}.
animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an
They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for 124
important example.
photosynthesis.
Some are the source of antibiotics,
A few members are partially heterotrophic
e.g., Penicillium.
such as the insectivorous
plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus
Phycomycetes fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants
and Cuscuta is a parasite.
Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores Plantae includes algae, bryophytes,
(motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). pteridophytes,
These spores are endogenously produced in gymnosperms and angiosperms.
sporangium. Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases -
A zygospore is formed by fusion of two the diploid sporophytic and the haploid
gametes. gametophytic - that alternate with each
These gametes are similar in morphology other.
(isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases,
oogamous). and whether these phases are free-living or
Some common examples are dependent on others, vary among different
Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould mentioned groups in plants. This phenomenon is
earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on called alternation of generation.
mustard).
Kingdom Animalia
Ascomycetes
These include all organisms which
Commonly known as sac-fungi, the as are multicellular eukaryotes without cell
comycetes are mostly multicellular, walls. They are heterotrophs.
e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, They directly or indirectly depend on plants
e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). for food. They digest their food in an internal
cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or
Basidiomycetes fat { Carbohydrates , Fats - Healthy Fats and
Unhealthy Fats}.
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes Their mode of nutrition is holozoic - by
are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs. ingestion of food.
They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and They follow a definite growth pattern and grow
in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts into adults that have a definite shape and
and smuts. size.
The asexual spores are generally not found, Higher forms show elaborate sensory and
but vegetative reproduction neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are
by fragmentation is common. capable of locomotion.
The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy The sexual reproduction is by copulation of
is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or male and female followed by embryological
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. development.
The resultant structure is dikaryotic.
Viruses, Viroids and Lichens
Deuteromycetes
In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e.
{Biological Classification} there is no mention mutually useful associations, between algae
of some acellular organisms and fungi.
like viruses and viroids, and lichens. These The algal component is known as phycobiont
are briefly introduced here. and fungal component as mycobiont, which
Viruses did not find a place in classification are autotrophic and heterotrophic,
since they are not truly ‘living’, if we respectively. Page
understand living as those organisms that Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide
have a cell structure. shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and |
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that water for its partner. 125
are characterized by having an inert So close is their association that if one saw a
crystalline structure outside the living cell. lichen in nature one would never imagine that
Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they they had two different organisms within them.
infect a cell they take over the machinery of Lichens are very good pollution indicators -
the host cell to replicate themselves, killing they do not grow in polluted areas.
the host.
The name virus that means venom or Plant Parts – Root, Stem, Leaf, Transpiration,
poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur. Respiration in Plants, Flower, Androecium,
In addition to proteins, viruses Gynoecium, Fruit, Transport Of Water And
also contain genetic material, that could be Minerals In Plants.
either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both
RNA and DNA.
Plant Parts and Their Functions –
In general, viruses that infect plants have Structural Organization in Plants
single stranded RNA and viruses that infect
animals have either single or double stranded
RNA or double stranded DNA.
Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses
that infect the bacteria) are usually double
stranded DNA viruses
The protein coat called capsid made of small
subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged
in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small
pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is
also caused by a virus.
In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic
formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing
and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted
growth.
Viroids
The Leaf
reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a The food has to be transported to all parts of
filament and an anther. Each anther is the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue
usually bilobed and each lobe has two called the phloem. Thus, xylem and phloem
chambers, the pollen-sacs. The pollen grains transport substances in plants.
are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen
is called staminode. Summary
Page
Gynoecium Flowering plants exhibit enormous variation in |
shape, size, structure, mode of nutrition, life
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of span, habit and habitat. They have well 129
the flower and is made up of one or more developed root and shoot systems.
carpels. A carpel consists of three parts Root system is either tap root or fibrous.
namely stigma, style and ovary. Generally, dicotyledonous plants have tap
After fertilization, the ovules develop into roots while monocotyledonous plants have
seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit. fibrous roots.
Placentation: The arrangement of ovules The roots in some plants get modified for
within the ovary is known as placentation. storage of food, mechanical support and
respiration. The shoot system is differentiated
The Fruit into stem, leaves, flowers and fruits.
The morphological features of stems like the
presence of nodes and internodes,
The fruit is a characteristic feature of the
multicellular hair and positively phototropic
flowering plants.
nature help to differentiate the stems from
It is a mature or ripened ovary, developed
roots. Stems also get modified to perform
after fertilisation.
diverse functions such as storage of food,
If a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the
vegetative propagation and protection under
ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit.
different conditions.
The Seed: The ovules after fertilisation,
Leaf is a lateral outgrowth of stem developed
develop into seeds.
exogeneously at the node. These are green in
colour to perform the function of
Transport Of Water And Minerals In photosynthesis. Leaves exhibit marked
Plants variations in their shape, size, margin, apex
and extent of incisions of leaf blade (lamina).
Plants absorb water and minerals by the Like other parts of plants, the leaves also get
roots. The roots have root hair. The root hair modified into other structures such as
increase the surface area of the root for the tendrils, spines for climbing and protection
absorption of water and mineral nutrients respectively.
dissolved in water. The root hair is in contact The flower is a modified shoot, meant for
with the water present between the soil sexual reproduction. The flowers are arranged
particles. in different types of inflorescences. They
Can you guess how water moves from the root exhibit enormous variation in structure,
to the leaves? What kind of transport system symmetry, position of ovary in relation to
is present in plants? other parts, arrangement of petals, sepals,
Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport ovules etc.
water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels After fertilisation, the ovary is converted into
are made of special cells, forming the vascular fruits and ovules into seeds. Seeds either may
tissue. be monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous. They
The vascular tissue for the transport of water vary in shape, size and period of viability. The
and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem. floral characteristics form the basis of
The xylem forms a continuous network of classification and identification of flowering
channels that connects roots to the leaves plants. This can be illustrated through semi-
through the stem and branches and thus technical descriptions of families. Hence, a
transports water to the entire plant leaves flowering plant is described in a definite
synthesise food. sequence by using scientific terms. The floral
Plantae
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with cell [Thallus == a plant body not differentiated
walls mainly made of cellulose {Plant Cell vs. into stem, leaves, and roots and without a
Animal Cell}. vascular system, typical of algae, fungi,
They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for lichens, and some liverworts].
photosynthesis. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous They occur in a variety of other habitats:
plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them
fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants also occur in association with fungi
and Cuscuta is a parasite. (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, The form and size of algae is highly variable.
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and The size ranges from the microscopic
angiosperms. unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to
Fungi, and members of colonial forms like Volvox and to the
the Monera and Protista having cell filamentous forms
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
like Ulothrix and Spirogyra. A few of the Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall
marine forms such as kelps, form massive made of an inner layer of cellulose and an
plant bodies. outer layer of pectose.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by
and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction fragmentation or by formation of different
is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops types of spores.
into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated Page
Asexual reproduction is by the production of zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
different types of spores, the most common The sexual reproduction shows considerable |
being the zoospores [capable of swimming by variation in the type and formation of sex cells 131
means of a flagellum]. They are flagellated and it may be isogamous, anisogamous or
(motile) and on germination gives rise to new oogamous.
plants. Some commonly found green algae
Sexual reproduction takes place through are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix,
fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be Spirogyra and Chara.
flagellated and similar in size (as in
Chlamydomonas) or non-flagellated (non- Phaeophyceae – Brown Algae
motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra).
Such reproduction is called isogamous
The members of phaeophyceae or brown
[Fusion of two gametes similar in size].
algae are found primarily in marine habitats.
Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in
They show great variation in size and form.
some species of Chlamydomonas is termed
They range from simple branched, filamentous
as anisogamous.
forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched
Fusion between one large, non-motile (static)
forms as represented by kelps, which may
female gamete and a smaller, motile male
reach a height of 100 metres.
gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox,
They possess chlorophyll a, c,
Fucus. [Compare this with human sperm and
carotenoids and xanthophylls. They vary in
ovum]
colour from olive green to various shades of
brown depending upon the amount of
the xanthophyll pigment,
fucoxanthin present in them.
The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall
usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous
coating of algin. The protoplast contains, in
addition to plastids, a centrally located
vacuole and nucleus.
Vegetative reproduction takes place by
fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is
by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped
Chlorophyceae – Green Algae
and have two unequal laterally attached
flagella.
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly Sexual reproduction maybe isogamous,
called green algae. anisogamous or oogamous.
The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or Union of gametes may take place in water or
filamentous. within the oogonium (oogamous species).
They are usually grass green due to the The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and
dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b. bear two laterally attached flagella.
The pigments are localised in definite The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota,
chloroplasts. Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus.
Most of the members have one or more storage
bodies called pyrenoids located in the Rhodophyceae – Red Algae
chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein
besides starch. Some algae may store food in
the form of oil droplets.
The members of rhodophyceae are commonly fixation on earth is carried out by algae
called red algae because of the predominance through photosynthesis.
of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their Being photosynthetic they increase the level of
body. dissolved oxygen in their immediate
Majority of the red algae are marine with environment.
greater concentrations found in the warmer They are of paramount importance as primary
areas. producers of energy-rich compounds which Page
They occur in both well-lighted regions close form the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic
to the surface of water and also at great animals. |
depths in oceans where relatively little light Many species of Porphyra, 132
penetrates. Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70
The red thalli of most of the red algae are species of marine algae used as food.
multicellular. Some of them have complex Certain marine brown and red algae produce
body organisation. large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding
The food is stored as floridean starch which is substances), e.g., algin (brown
very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in algae) and carrageen (red algae) which are
structure. used commercially.
The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively Agar, one of the commercial products
by fragmentation. obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are
They reproduce asexually by non-motile used to grow microbes and in preparations
spores and sexually by non-motile gametes. of ice-creams and jellies.
Sexual reproduction is oogamous. Chlorella a unicellular alga, rich
The common members are: Polysiphonia, in proteins is used as food supplement even
Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium. by space travellers.
The algae are divided into three main
Uses of algae classes: Chlorophyceae,
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways.
At least a half of the total carbon dioxide
found commonly growing in damp, humid and Mosses along with lichens are the first
shaded localities. They play an important role organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of
in plant succession on bare rocks/soil. great ecological importance. They decompose
rocks making the substrate suitable for the
growth of higher plants.
Since mosses form dense mats on the soil,
they reduce the impact of falling rain Page
and prevent soil erosion. The bryophytes are
divided into liverworts and mosses. |
133
Pteridophytes
These gametophytes require cool, damp, others (Cgcas) small specialised roots called
shady places to grow. Because of this specific coralloid roots are associated with N2-fixing
restricted requirement and the need for water cyanobacteria.
for fertilisation, the spread of living The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted
pteridophytes is limited and restricted to to withstand extremes of temperature,
narrow geographical regions. humidity and wind.
In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the Page
Cryptogamae surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken
stomata also help to reduce water loss. |
The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they 134
The thallophytes, the bryophytes and
produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
the pteridophytes have naked embryos that
The two kinds of spores are produced within
are called spores.
sporangia that are borne on sporophylls which
The reproductive organs of plants in all these
are arranged spirally along an axis to form lax
three groups are very inconspicuous, and they
or compact strobili or cones.
are therefore called ‘cryptogamae’, or ‘those
with hidden reproductive organs’.
currents and come in contact with the opening polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce a
of the ovules borne on megasporophylls. diploid secondary nucleus.
The pollen tube carrying the male gametes Pollen grain, after dispersal from the anthers,
grows towards archegonia in the ovules and are carried by wind or various other agencies
discharge their contents near the mouth of the to the stigma of a pistil. This is termed
archegonia. as pollination.
Following The pollen grains germinate on the stigma and Page
fertilisation, zygote the resulting pollen tubes grow through the
develops into an tissues of stigma and style and reach the |
embryo and the ovule. 135
ovules into seeds. The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac where
These seeds are not two male gametes are discharged. One of the
covered. male gametes fuses with the egg cell to form
a zygote (syngamy).
Figure: The other male gamete fuses with the diploid
Gymnosperms: (a) secondary nucleus to produce the triploid
Cycas (b) Pinus (c) primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
Ginkgo Because of the involvement of two fusions,
this event is termed as double fertilisation,
Angiosperms an event unique to angiosperms.
Permanent Tissue
Simple Permanent
Tissue
Parenchyma
Nutrition in Plants
and the leaves. They form a continuous path The membrane system is responsible
or passage for the nutrients to reach the leaf. for trapping the light energy and also for
The leaves have a green pigment the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. [light
called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to capture reactions]
the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used In the light reaction the light energy is
to synthesise (prepare) food from carbon absorbed by the pigments present in the
dioxide and water. Since the synthesis of food antenna, and funnelled to special chlorophyll Page
occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is a molecules called reaction centre
called photosynthesis (Photo: light; chlorophylls. |
synthesis: to combine). In stroma, enzymatic reactions incorporate 141
So we find that chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon CO2 [chemosynthetic pathway- carbon fixing
dioxide and water are necessary to carry out reactions] into the plant leading to
the process of photosynthesis. Thus, sun is the synthesis of sugar, which in turn
the ultimate source of energy for all living forms starch. [dark reactions]
organisms. The former set of reactions, since they are
Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes directly light driven are called light reactions.
place in other green parts of the plant — The latter are not directly light driven but are
in green stems and green branches. dependent on the products of light reactions
The desert plants have scale or spine-like (ATP and NADPH). Hence, to distinguish the
leaves to reduce loss of water by latter they are called, by convention, as dark
transpiration. These plants have green stems reactions. However, this should not be
which carry out photosynthesis. construed to mean that they occur in
During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing darkness or that they are not lightdependent.
cells of leaves, in the presence of sunlight, use
carbon dioxide and water to
synthesise carbohydrates. The carbohydrates
ultimately get converted into starch.
The leaves other than green also have
chlorophyll. The large amount of red, brown
and other pigments mask the green colour.
Photosynthesis takes place in these leaves
also.
Chlorophyll Pigments
the factor which directly affects the process if This mode of nutrition in which organisms
its quantity is changed. take in nutrients in solution form from dead
For example, despite the presence of a green and decaying matter is called saprotrophic
leaf and optimal light and CO2 conditions, the nutrition.
plant may not photosynthesise if the Plants which use saprotrophic mode of
temperature is very low. This leaf, if given the nutrition are called
optimal temperature, will start saprotrophs. Mushrooms are best example. Page
photosynthesising.
|
Symbiosis
Carbon dioxide Concentration 142
Some organisms live together and share
The concentration of CO 2 is very low in the shelter and nutrients. This is called symbiotic
atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04 per cent). relationship. For example, certain fungi live in
Increase in concentration upto 0.05 per cent the roots of trees. The tree provides nutrients
can cause an increase in CO 2 fixation rates; to the fungus and, in return, receives help
beyond this the levels can become damaging from it to take up water and nutrients from
over longer periods. the soil.
Plants absorb mineral nutrients from the soil.
Temperature So, their amounts in the soil keep on
declining. Fertilisers and manures contain
The dark reactions being enzymatic plant nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium,
are temperature controlled. Though the light phosphorous, etc.
reactions are also temperature sensitive they Usually crops require a lot of nitrogen to make
are affected to a much lesser extent. proteins. After the harvest, the soil becomes
The temperature optimum for photosynthesis deficient in nitrogen.
of different plants also depends on the habitat Though nitrogen gas is available in plenty in
that they are adapted to. Tropical plants have the air, plants cannot use it in the manner
a higher temperature optimum than the they can use carbon dioxide. They need
plants adapted to temperate climates. nitrogen in a soluble form.
The bacterium called Rhizobium can take
Water atmospheric nitrogen and converts it into a
soluble form. But Rhizobium cannot make its
own food. So it lives in the roots of gram, peas,
Water stress causes the stomata to
moon beans and other legumes and provides
close hence reducing the CO 2 availability.
them with nitrogen (symbiosis).
Besides, water stress also makes leaves wilt,
Most of the pulses (dals) are obtained
thus, reducing the surface area ofthe leaves
from leguminous plants. In return, the plants
and their metabolic activity as well.
provide food and shelter to the bacteria. They
have a symbiotic relationship.
Light
Parasites
There is a linear relationship between incident
light and CO2 fixation rates at low light
intensities. A parasite is an organism which lives in or on
At higher light intensities, gradually the rate another organism and benefits by deriving
does not show further increase as other nutrients at the other's expense.
factors become limiting. Plants like cuscuta are parasites. They take
food from the host plant.
Saprotrophs – Fungi
Amarbelis an example of: (i) autotroph (ii)
parasite (iii) saprotroph (iv) host
Fungi have a different mode of nutrition. They
secrete digestive juices on the dead and
Mineral Nutrition
decaying matter and convert it into a solution.
Then they absorb the nutrients from it.
The basic needs of all living organisms are Nitrogen is one of the major constituents
essentially the same. They require of proteins, nucleic
macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, acids, vitamins and hormones.
proteins and fats, and water and minerals for
their growth and development. Phosphorus
Only a few elements have been found to be
absolutely essential for plant growth and Phosphorus is a constituent of cell Page
metabolism. These elements are further membranes, certain proteins, all nucleic acids |
divided into two broad categories based on and nucleotides, and is required for all
their quantitative requirements. phosphorylation reactions. 143
Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Potassium
Plants
In plants, this is required in more abundant
Macronutrients are generally present in plant quantities in the meristematic tissues, buds,
tissues in large amounts. The macronutrients leaves and root tips.
include Potassium helps to maintain an anion-cation
balance in cells and is involved in protein
1. Carbon synthesis, opening and closing of stomata,
2. Hydrogen activation of enzymes and in the maintenance
3. Oxygen of the turgidity of cells.
4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorous Calcium
6. Sulphur
7. Potassium Calcium is required by meristematic and
8. Calcium and differentiating tissues. During cell division it is
9. Magnesium. used in the synthesis of cell wall,
particularly as calcium pectate in the middle
Micronutrients or trace elements, are needed lamella.
in very small amounts. These include It accumulates in older leaves. It is involved in
the normal functioning of the cell membranes.
1. Iron It activates certain enzymes and plays an
2. Manganese important role in regulating metabolic
3. Copper activities.
4. Molybdenum
5. Zinc Magnesium
6. Boron
7. Chlorine and
It activates the enzymes of respiration,
8. Nickel.
photosynthesis and are involved in
the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
In addition to the 17 essential elements
named above, there are some beneficial
elements such as
Nitrogen Cycle [Explained in detail in
Environment Notes Chemical Cycles]
1. Sodium
Symbiotic Biological Nitrogen Fixation
2. Silicon
3. Cobalt and
4. Selenium. They are required by higher plants. Several types of symbiotic biological nitrogen
fixing associations are known. The most
Nitrogen prominent among them is the legume-bacteria
relationship.
Species of rod-shaped Rhizobium has such
Nitrogen is required by all parts of a plant, relationship with the roots of several legumes
particularly the meristematic tissues and the such as alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea,
metabolically active cells.
lentils, garden pea, broad bean, clover very sensitive to oxygen. Most of the
beans, etc. processes take place in anaerobic
The most common association on roots is The energy, ATP, required is provided by the
as nodules. These nodules are small respiration of the host cells. Ammonia
outgrowths on the roots. The microbe, produced following N2 fixation is incorporated
Frankia, also produces nitrogen-fixing nodules into amino acids as the amino group.
on the roots of nonleguminous plants (e.g., Page
Alnus). Sexual and Asexual Reproduction in Plants –
Both Rhizobium and Frankia. are free- living Asexual Reproduction: Vegetative Propagation, |
in soil, but as symbionts, can fix atmospheric Budding, Spores – Sexual Reproduction:
Unisexual, Bisexual.
144
nitrogen.
Modes Of Reproduction in Plants
Summary
There are several ways by which plants
Plants obtain their inorganic nutrients from produce their offspring. These are categorised
air, water and soil. into two types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual
Plants absorb a wide variety of mineral In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to
elements. new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual
Not all the mineral elements that they absorb reproduction, new plants are obtained from
are required by plants. seeds.
Out of the more than 105 elements discovered
so far, less than 21 are essential and
beneficial for normal plant growth and Asexual Reproduction in Plants
development.
The elements required in large quantities are Asexual reproduction occurs through:
called macronutrients while those required in
less quantities or in trace are termed as 1. Vegetative Propagation,
micronutrients. 2. Budding,
These elements are either essential 3. Fragmentation and
constituents of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, 4. Spore formation.
nucleic acid etc., and/or take part in various
metabolic processes. Vegetative Propagation
Deficiency of each of these essential elements
may lead to symptoms called deficiency
Most plants have roots, stems and leaves.
symptoms.
These are called the vegetative parts of a
Chlorosis, necrosis, stunted growth,
plant.
impaired cell division, etc., are some
Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual
prominent deficiency symptoms.
reproduction in which new plants are
Plants absorb minerals through roots by
produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds.
either passive or active processes. They are
Since reproduction is through the vegetative
carried to all parts of the organism through
parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative
xylem along with water transport.
propagation.
Nitrogen is very essential for the sustenance of
Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in
life. Plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen
the margins of leaves. If a leaf of this plant
directly. But some of the plants in association
falls on a moist soil, each bud can give rise to
with N2-fixing bacteria, especially roots of
a new plant.
legumes, can fix this atmospheric nitrogen
into biologically usable forms. Nitrogen
fixation requires a strong reducing agent and
energy in the form of ATP.
N2-fixation is accomplished with the help of
nitrogenfixing microbes, mainly Rhizobium.
The enzyme nitrogenase which plays an
important role in biological N2 fixation is
Page
|
145
Budding
Pollination Page
|
147
2. Occurs in bisexual plants having anther 2. Occurs in bisexual flowers having anther and
and stigma maturing at same time. stigma maturing at different times.
3. It takes place in plants like wheat, peas 3. It takes place in plants like lady- finger, tomato,
etc. brinjal etc.
Fertilization The cell which results after fusion of the
gametes is called a zygote. The process of
fusion of male and female gametes (to form a
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
zygote) is called fertilization. The zygote a) Only one parent plant is involved. a) Both
develops into an embryo. b) Occurs in unisexual plants. b) Occur
c) Occurs in lower plants. c) Occur
Fruits and seed formation d) Reproductive organs are not present. d) Fully
e) In most of the methods the original e) Origi
After fertilization, the ovary grows into a parent disappears. reproduct
fruit and other parts of the flower fall off. The f) Process like gamete formation or f) Page
Fertil
fruit is the ripened ovary. fertilization is not seen.
|
The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed g) Characteristics of only one parent is g) Chara
contains an embryo enclosed in a protective inherited. 148
seed coat. Some fruits are fleshy and juicy h) No need of seeds. h) Seeds
such as mango, apple and orange. Some fruits Classification of Animal Kingdom - Porifera,
are hard like almonds and walnuts. Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Chordata.]
Seed dispersal
Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification
Some seeds are dispersed by animals,
especially spiny seeds with hooks which get Classification of Animal Kingdom is based on
attached to the bodies of animals and are various fundamental features like -
carried to distant places. Examples are
Xanthium and Urena. 1. Levels of Organisation,
Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits 2. Symmetry,
burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are 3. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation,
scattered far from the parent plant. This 4. Coelom development,
happens in the case of Castor and Balsam. 5. Segmentation of the body and
6. Presense or absence of Notochord.
Asexual reproduction vs Sexual
reproduction The broad classification of Animalia based on
common fundamental features:
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Levels of Organization
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Though all members of Animalia are right halves in only one plane,
multicellular, all of them do not exhibit the exhibit bilateral symmetry.
same pattern of organisation of cells.
For example, in sponges, the cells are
arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e., they
exhibit cellular level of organisation. Some
division of labour (activities) occur among the Page
cells.
In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is |
more complex. Here the cells performing the 149
same function are arranged into tissues,
hence is called tissue level of organisation.
A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ
level [organ level of organisation] is exhibited
by members of Platyhelminthes and other
higher phyla where tissues are grouped
together to form organs, each specialised for a
particular function.
In animals like Annelids, Arthropods,
Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates, organs
have associated to form functional systems,
each system concerned with a specific
physiological function. This pattern is
called organ system level of organisation.
Organ systems in different groups of animals
exhibit various patterns of complexities.
For example, the digestive system
in Platyhelminthes (incomplete digestive
system) has only a single opening to the
outside of the body that serves as both mouth
and anus, and is hence called incomplete.
A complete digestive system has two
openings, mouth and anus.
Similarly, the circulatory system may be of
two types: open type in which the blood is
pumped out of the heart and the cells and
tissues are directly bathed in it and closed
type in which the blood is circulated through
a series of vessels of varying diameters
(arteries, veins and capillaries).
Symmetry
Page
|
150
1. Phylum - Porifera
2. Phylum - Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Phylum - Ctenophora
4. Phylum - Platyhelminthes
5. Phylum - Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) Annelida
6. Phylum - Arthropoda
7. Phylum - Mollusca
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
be made. There is
thus some degree
of tissue formation
[organ level of
organisation].
The body is
flattened Page
dorsiventrally,
meaning from top |
to bottom, which is 152
why these animals
are
called flatworms.
They may be
freeliving
or parasitic.
Hooks and suckers are present in the
parasitic forms.
Phylum - Ctenophora Some examples are freeliving animals
like planarians, or parasitic animals like
Parisites are mostly endoparasites found in
Ctenophora are commonly known as sea
animals including human beings. Some of
walnuts or comb jellies.
them absorb nutrients from the host directly
They exclusively marine, radially
through their body surface.
symmetrical, diploblastic
Acoelomate: There is no true internal body
They exhinit tissue level of organisation.
cavity or coelom, in which well developed
The body bears eight external rows of ciliated
organs can be accommodated.
comb plates, which help in locomotion.
Specialised cells called flame cells help in
Digestion is both extracellular and
osmoregulation and excretion.
intracellular.
Sexes are not separate.
Bioluminescence (the property of a living
Fertilisation is internal and development
organism to emit light) is well-marked in
is indirect.
ctenophores.
Some members like Planaria possess high
Sexes are not separate and reproduction takes
regeneration capacity.
place only by sexual means.
Fertilisation is external [fertilization occurs
outside the body] with indirect
development [zygote →
larvae → animal].
Examples: Pleurobrach
ia and Ctenoplana.
Phylum -
Platyhelminthes
Platyhelminthes are
more complexly
designed than the
earlier groups.
They are bilaterally
symmetrical.
They are triploblastic.
Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda)
This allows outside and
inside body linings as
well as some organs to
Body in aschelminthes (Nemotoda) They are coelomate [true body cavity]. This
is cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical] rather allows true organs to be packaged in the body
than flattened. structure.
They exhibit organ-system level of body They are bilateral
organization [there are tissues, but no real symmetric and triploblastic.
organs]. They possess longitudinal and circular
They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or muscles which help in locomotion. Page
a pseudocoelom, is present. Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral
They are freeliving, aquatic, terrestrial or appendages, parapodia, which help in |
parasitic in plants and animals. swimming. 153
These are very familiar as parasitic A closed circulatory system is present.
worms causing diseases, such as the worms Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in
causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the osmoregulation and excretion.
worms in the intestines (roundworm or Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing.
pinworms). ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a
The body is circular in cross-section, hence, double ventral nerve cord.
the name roundworms. Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious [Sexes
Alimentary canal is complete. are separate],
An excretory tube removes body wastes from but earthworms and leeches are monoecious
the body cavity through the excretory pore. [having both the male and female reproductive
Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and organs in the same individual].
females are distinct. Reproduction is sexual.
Often females are longer than males.
Fertilisation is internal and development may
be direct (the young ones resemble the adult)
or indirect.
Phylum - Annelida
Phylum - Arthropoda
Annelida are aquatic [marine and fresh water]
or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes Insects, arachnids and crustaceans are
parasitic. members of the largest category of creatures
Their body surface is distinctly marked out on the planet: arthropods.
into segments or metameres [metamerically Arthropods have hard, external shells called
segmented] and, hence, the phylum name “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies and jointed
Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring). legs.
They exhibit organ-system level of body Some familiar examples are prawns,
organization. butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions
and crabs and some
Arachnids
Crustaceans
1. have a notochord
2. have a dorsal nerve cord
3. are triploblastic
4. have paired gill pouches
Page
|
156
Page
Division In Vertebrata
|
Basic Concepts 158
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give birth to young ones while some animals lay eggs which later
develop into young ones.
The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
In some animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults. Recall the life cycle of the
silkworm (egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult) (egg → tadpole (larva) → adult). The
transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
They maintain a constant internal body Their body temperature changes according to
temperature irrespective of external the external environment. [If a cold blooded
environment. [Can regulate their body animal is taken to the equator its body
temperature by generating their own heat when temperature increases and if taken to the poles
they are in a cooler environment, and by its body temperature decreases]
cooling themselves when they are in a hotter
environment]
To stay cool, warm-blooded animals usually Cold-blooded animals often like to bask in the
sweat. Animals like elephants use their ears to sun to warm up and increase their metabolism.
cool their body [large, thin ears which loose Some cold-blooded animals, such as bees or
heat quickly]. dragonflies, shiver to stay warm when in a cold
Some warm-blooded animals, especially birds, environment.
migrate from colder to warmer regions in the
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
winter.
Mammals have hair, fur and birds have
feathers to help keep them warm.
Warm-blooded animals can also shiver to
generate more heat when they get too cold.
Constant body temperature provide a nice Constantly changing body temperatures make Page
warm environment for viruses, bacteria and life more difficult for the parasites.
|
parasites to live in.
159
Hibernation
Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in few endotherms [warm blooded
animals – bear, rodents] and ectotherms [many reptiles like snakes, turtles and amphibians like
frogs]. Snakes, lizards, toads, frogs, salamanders and most turtles will mostly hibernate during
harsh winters.
Hibernating animals usually retreat to a den, a burrow, or a hollow log for protection and shelter.
During "true hibernation," the animal's body temperature drops, and its rate of breathing slows
down. These hibernating animals are very difficult to awaken.
Some warm-blooded animals such as bears, rodents etc. hibernate during extreme weather seasons
and unfavorable conditions.
During hibernation these animals live off of stored body fat and can drop their body temperatures
significantly.
Most animals will eat large amounts of food before hibernating.
Class - Cyclostomata
They are mostly terrestrial animals and their Mammals are warm-blooded animals
body is covered by dry and cornified skin, with four-chambered hearts.
epidermal scales or scutes. Snakes and Most mammals familiar to us produce live
lizards shed their scales as skin cast. young ones. However, a few of them, like
They do not have external ear openings. the Platypus and the Echidna lay eggs, and
Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when some, like kangaroos give birth to very poorly
present, are two pairs. developed young ones. Page
Heart is usually three-chambered, but four- They are found in a variety of habitats - polar
chambered in crocodiles. ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, |
Reptiles are poikilotherms [cold-blooded grasslands and dark caves. Some of them 161
animals]. have adapted to fly or live in water.
They lay eggs with tough coverings and do not The most unique mammalian characteristic is
need to lay their eggs in water, unlike the presence of milk producing
amphibians. glands (mammary glands) by which the
Sexes are separate. young ones are nourished.
Fertilisation is internal. They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for
They are oviparous and development is direct. walking, running, climbing, burrowing,
Examples: Turtle), Tortoise, Chameleon (Tree swimming or flying.
lizard), Garden lizard, Crocodile, Alligator, The skin of mammals is unique in possessing
Wall lizard, Poisonous snakes - Naja (Cobra), hair. External ears or pinnae are present.
Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper). Different types of teeth are present in the jaw.
Heart is four-chambered. They
Class - Aves are homoiothermous [warm-blooded].
Respiration is by lungs.
Sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal.
They have a four-chambered heart. They
They are viviparous with few exceptions and
breathe through lungs. All birds fall in this
development is direct.
category.
Examples: Oviparous – Platypus; Viviparous –
The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are
Kangaroo, Flying fox), Delphinus (Common
the presence of feathers and most of them can
dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), etc.
fly except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich). The
forelimbs are modified into wings.
The hind limbs generally have scales and are Animal Classification Summary
modified for walking, swimming or clasping
the tree branches. Porifera includes multicellular animals which
Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland exhibit cellular level of organisation and have
at the base of the tail. characteristic flagellated choanocytes.
Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the The coelenterates have tentacles and bear
long bones are hollow with air cavities cnidoblasts. They are mostly aquatic, sessile
(pneumatic). or free-floating. The ctenophores are marine
The digestive tract of birds has additional animals with comb plates.
chambers, the crop and gizzard. The platyhelminths have flat body and exhibit
They are warm-blooded bilateral symmetry. The parasitic forms show
(homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able distinct suckers and hooks.
to maintain a constant body temperature. Aschelminthes are pseudocoelomates and
Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to include parasitic as well as non-parasitic
lungs supplement respiration. round worms.
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. Annelids are metamerically segmented
They are oviparous and development is direct. animals with a true coelom.
Examples : Crow, Pigeon, Ostrich), Neophron The arthropods are the most abundant group
(Vulture) etc.. of animals characterised by the presence of
jointed appendages.
Class - Mammalia The molluscs have a soft body surrounded by
an external calcareous shell. The body is
covered with external skeleton made of chitin.
The echinoderms possess a spiny skin. Their Reptiles are characterised by the presence of
most distinctive feature is the presence of dry and cornified skin. Limbs are absent in
water vascular system. snakes. Fishes, amphibians and reptiles are
The hemichordates are a small group of worm- poikilothermous (coldblooded).
like marine animals. They have a cylindrical Aves are warm-blooded animals with feathers
body with proboscis, collar and trunk. on their bodies and forelimbs modified into
Phylum Chordata includes animals which wings for flying. Hind limbs are adapted for Page
possess a notochord either throughout or walking, swimming, perching or clasping.
during early embryonic life. Other common The unique features of mammals are the |
features observed in the chordates are the presence of mammary glands and hairs on the 162
dorsal, hollow nerve cord and paired skin. They commonly exhibit viviparity.
pharyngeal gill slits.
Some of the vertebrates do not possess jaws Match the following
(Agnatha) whereas most of them possess jaws 1. Operculum a) Ctenophora
(Gnathostomata). Agnatha is represented by
the class, Cyclostomata. They are the most 2. Parapodia b) Mollusca
primitive chordates and are ectoparasites on
fishes. Gnathostomata has two super classes, 3. Scales c) Porifera
Pisces and Tetrapoda.
Classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes 4. Comb plates d) Reptilia
bear fins for locomotion and are grouped
under Pisces. The Chondrichthyes are fishes
5. Radula e) Annelida
with cartilaginous endoskeleton and are
marine.
Classes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and 6. Hairs f) Cyclostomata and
Mammalia have two pairs of limbs and are Chondrichthyes
thus grouped under Tetrapoda. The 7. Choanocytes
amphibians have adapted to live both on land g) Mammalia
and water. 8. Gill slits
h) Osteichthyes
Salient Features of Different Phyla in the Animal Kingdom
Phylum Level of Symmetry Coelom Segmention Digestive Circu- Respi- Distinctive
Organi- latory ratory
sation System Features
System System
Porifera Cellular Various Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Body with pores and
canals in walls.
Coelenterata Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Cnidoblasts
(Cnidaria) present.
Ctenophora Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Comb plates for
locomotion.
Platyhelm- Organ Bilateral Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Flat body, suckers.
&
inthes Organ -
system
Aschelmin- Organ - Bilateral Pseudo- Absent Complete Absent Absent Often wormshaped,
system coelomate elongated.
thes
Annelida Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Absent Body segmentation like
system rings.
Arthropoda Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present Exoskeleton of cuticle,
system jointed appendages.
Mollusca Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present External skeleton of
system shell usually present.
Echino- Organ- Radial Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present Water vascular system,
radial symmetry.
dermata system
Hemi- Organ- Bilateral Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present Worm-like with
system proboscis, collar and
chordata trunk.
Chordata Organ- Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present Notochord, dorsal
system hollow nerve cord, gill
slits with limbs or fins.
Sexual Reproduction - Human Reproductive sperms come in contact with an egg, one of
System, Male and Female Reproductive System, the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such Page
Gametogenesis, Menstrual Cycle, Fertilization. fusion of the egg and the sperm is |
called fertilization.
Reproduction In Animals 163
Internal and External Fertilization
There are two modes by which animals
reproduce. These are:
During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm
and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This
1. Sexual reproduction, and
results in the formation of a fertilized egg or
2. Asexual reproduction.
zygote.
Fertilization which takes place inside the
There are many organisms which do not female body is called internal fertilization.
reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile Internal fertilization occurs in many animals
human couples, etc.). including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
During spring or rainy season, frogs and toads
Sexual Reproduction move to ponds and slow flowing streams.
When the male and female come together in
The reproductive parts in animals water, the female lays hundreds of eggs.
produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
It is the zygote which develops into a new shell and it is comparatively very delicate. A
individual. This type of reproduction layer of jelly holds the eggs together and
beginning from the fusion of male and female provides protection to the eggs.
gametes is called sexual reproduction. As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms
The male reproductive organs include a pair over them. Each sperm swims randomly in
of testes (singular, testis), two sperm water with the help of its long tail. The sperms
ducts and a penis. The testes produce the come in contact with the eggs. This results in
male gametes called sperms. fertilization.
The female reproductive organs are a pair of This type of fertilization in which the fusion of
ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and a male and a female gamete takes place
the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes outside the body of the female is
called ova (eggs). called external fertilization. It is very
common in aquatic animals such as fish,
starfish, etc.
Asexual Reproduction
Another method of asexual reproduction is 2. transfer of sperms into the female genital tract
observed in the microscopic organism, (insemination),
3. fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
4. formation and development of blastocyst and
its attachment to the uterine wall
(implantation), Page
5. embryonic development (gestation) and
6. delivery of the baby (parturition). |
164
Male Reproductive System
hormones called androgens [a male sex erection of the penis to facilitate insemination.
hormone, such as testosterone. Androgens The enlarged end of penis called the glans
stimulates or controls the development and penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called
maintenance of male characteristics]. foreskin.
The male accessory glands include paired
seminal vesicles, a prostate [releasing a fluid
component of semen] and paired Page
bulbourethral glands.
Secretions of these glands constitute |
the seminal plasma which is rich in 165
fructose, calcium and certain enzymes.
The secretions of bulbourethral glands also
helps in the lubrication of the penis.
What would be the number of chromosome in The hymen is often torn during the
the spermatids? 23 chromosomes. first coitus (intercourse). However, it can also
be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of
Thelabia minora are paired folds of tissue a vaginal tampon, active participation in some
under the labia majora. The opening of the sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
vagina is often covered partially by a In some women the hymen persists even after
membrane called hymen. coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of
The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure hymen is not a reliable indicator of
which lies at the upper junction of the two virginity or sexual experience.
labia minora above the urethral opening. A functional mammary gland is characteristic
of all female mammals. The mammary glands
are paired structures (breasts) that hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
contain glandular tissue and variable amount hormone (FSH).
of fat. LH acts at the Leydig cells and
The glandular tissue of each breast is divided stimulates synthesis and secretion of
into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the
of cells called alveoli. The cells of process of spermatogenesis.
alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates Page
cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open secretion of some factors which help in the
into mammary tubules. process of spermiogenesis. |
The tubules of each lobe join to form a Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of 167
mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. A
to form a wider mammary ampulla which is plasma membrane envelops the whole body of
connected to lactiferous duct through which sperm.
milk is sucked out. The sperm head contains an elongated haploid
nucleus, the anterior portion of which is
Gametogenesis covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The
acrosome is filled with enzymes that help
fertilization of the ovum.
The primary sex organs – the testis in the
The middle piece possesses
males and the ovaries in the
numerous mitochondria, which produce
females produce gametes,
energy for the movement of tail that facilitate
i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
sperm motility essential for fertilization.
process called gametogenesis.
The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300
In testis, the immature male germ cells
million sperms during a coitus of which, for
(spermatogonia) produce sperms by
normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms
spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
must have normal shape and size and at least
The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium)
40 per cent of them must show vigorous
present on the inside wall of seminiferous
motility.
tubules multiply by mitotic division and
Sperms released from the seminiferous
increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium
tubules, are transported by the accessory
is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.
ducts.
Some of the spermatogonia called primary
Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens,
spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
seminal vesicle and prostate are essential
A primary spermatocyte completes the first
for maturation and motility of sperms.
meiotic division (reduction division) leading to
The seminal plasma along with the sperms
formation of two equal, haploid cells called
constitute the semen. The functions of male
secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23
sex accessory ducts and glands are
chromosomes each.
maintained by the testicular hormones
The secondary spermatocytes undergo
(androgens).
the second meiotic division to produce four
The process of formation of a mature female
equal, haploid spermatids.
gamete is called oogenesis which is markedly
different from spermatogenesis.
The spermatids are transformed into Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic
spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called development stage when a couple of million
spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, sperm gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed
heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, within each fetal ovary; no more oogonia are
and are finally released from the seminiferous formed and added after birth.
tubules by the process called spermiation. These cells start division and enter into
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
due to significant increase in the secretion temporarily arrested at that stage,
of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). called primary oocytes.
This, if you recall, is a hypothalamic Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by
hormone. a layer of granulosa cells and is called
The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the primary follicle.
the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates
secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
A large number of these follicles degenerate menstruation till the next one is called
during the phase from birth to puberty. the menstrual cycle.
Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000
primary follicles are left in each ovary. One ovum is released (ovulation) during
The primary follicles get surrounded by more the middle of each menstrual cycle. The cycle
layers of granulosa cells and a new theca and starts with the menstrual phase, when
are called secondary follicles. The secondary menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 Page
follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle days.
which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity The menstrual flow results due to breakdown |
called antrum. of endometrial lining of the uterus and its 168
At this stage the primary oocyte within blood vessels which forms liquid that comes
the tertiary follicle grows in size and out through vagina. Menstruation only occurs
completes its first meiotic division. It is an if the released ovum is not fertilized.
unequal division resulting in the formation of Lack of menstruation may be indicative of
a large haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny pregnancy. However, it may also be caused
first polar body. due to some other underlying causes like
The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the stress, poor health etc.
nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte. The menstrual phase is followed by the
The tertiary follicle further changes into the follicular phase. During this phase, the
mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a
secondary oocyte forms a new membrane fully mature Graafian follicle and
called zona pellucida surrounding it. simultaneously the endometrium of uterus
The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release regenerates through proliferation.
the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary These changes in the ovary and the uterus are
by the process called ovulation. induced by changes in the levels of pituitary
and ovarian hormones.
Menstrual Cycle The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH)
increases gradually during the follicular
The reproductive cycle in the female primates phase, and stimulates follicular development
(e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings) is as well as secretion of estrogens by the
called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation growing follicles.
begins at puberty and is called menarche. Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the
middle of cycle (about 14 th day). Rapid
secretion of LH leading to its maximum level
during the mid-cycle called LH surge
induces rupture of Graafian follicle and
thereby the release of ovum (ovulation).
The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed
by the luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian follicle
transform as the corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes large amounts
of progesterone which is essential for
maintenance of the endometrium. Such an
endometrium is necessary for implantation
of the fertilised ovum and other events of
pregnancy.
During pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation. In the absence of fertilisation,
the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes
disintegration of the endometrium leading to
In human females, menstruation is repeated menstruation, marking a new cycle.
at an average interval of about 28/29 days,
and the cycle of events starting from one
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Ovum surrounded by few sperm blastomeres After attachment, the uterine cells divide
is called a morula. The morula continues to rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result,
divide and transforms into blastocyst as it the blastocyst becomes embedded in the
moves further into the uterus. endometrium of the uterus. This is
The blastomeres in the blastocyst are called implantation and it leads to
arranged into an outer layer pregnancy.
called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell In Vitro Fertilization
mass. The trophoblast layer then gets
attached to the endometrium and the inner
Have you heard of test tube babies? In some
cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
women oviducts are blocked. These women
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
are unable to bear babies because sperms Immediately after implantation, the inner cell
cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In such mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
cases, doctors collect freshly released egg and layer calledectoderm and an inner layer called
sperms and keep them together for a few endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between
hours for IVF or In Vitro the ectoderm and the endoderm
Fertilization (fertilization outside the [triploblastic]. These three layers give rise to
body). all tissues (organs) in adults. Page
In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is It needs to be mentioned here that the inner
allowed to develop for about a week and then cell mass contains certain cells called stem |
it is placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete cells which have the potency to give rise to all 170
development takes place in the uterus and the the tissues and organs.
baby is born like any other baby. The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. In
Babies born through this technique are called human beings, after one month of pregnancy,
test-tube babies. This term is actually the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign of
misleading because babies cannot grow in test growing foetus may be noticed by listening to
tubes. the heart sound carefully through the
stethoscope.
Pregnancy And Embryonic Development By the end of the second month of pregnancy,
the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the
end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the
After implantation, finger-like projections
major organ systems are formed, for example,
appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi
the limbs and external genital organs are well
which are surrounded by the uterine tissue
developed.
and maternal blood.
The first movements of the foetus and
The chorionic villi and uterine
appearance of hair on the head are usually
tissue become interdigitated with each other
observed during the fifth month. By the end of
and jointly form a structural and functional
about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the
unit between developing embryo (foetus) and
body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids
maternal body called placenta.
separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen
end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is
and nutrients to the embryo and also removal
fully developed and is ready for delivery.
of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste
materials produced by the embryo.
The placenta is connected to the embryo
through an umbilical cord which helps in the
transport of substances to and from the
embryo.
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and
produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
progestogens, etc.
In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone
called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary. Let
us remember that hCG, hPL and relaxin
are produced in women only during
pregnancy.
In addition, during pregnancy the levels of
other hormones like estrogens, progestogens,
cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are
increased several folds in the maternal blood.
Increased production of these hormones is
essential for supporting the fetal growth,
metabolic changes in the mother and Parturition And Lactation
maintenance of pregnancy.
The average duration of human pregnancy is cells provide nutrition to the dividing germ
about 9 months which is called the gestation cells.
period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at The Leydig cells outside the seminiferous
the end of pregnancy causes tubules, synthesise and secrete testicular
expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process hormones called androgens.
of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is The male external genitalia is called penis.
called parturition. The female reproductive system consists of a Page
Parturition is induced by a complex pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, a
neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for vagina, external genitalia, and a pair of |
parturition originate from the fully developed mammary glands. 171
foetus and the placenta which induce mild The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum)
uterine contractions called foetal ejection and some steroid hormones (ovarian
reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from hormones).
the maternal pituitary. Ovarian follicles in different stages of
Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and development are embedded in the stroma.
causes stronger uterine contractions, which in The oviducts, uterus and vagina are female
turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. accessory ducts.
The stimulatory reflex between the uterine The uterus has three layers namely
contraction and oxytocin secretion continues perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.
resulting in stronger and stronger The female external genitalia includes mons
contractions. This leads to expulsion of the pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and
baby out of the uterus through the birth canal clitoris.
– parturition. The mammary glands are one of the female
Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta secondary sexual characteristics.
is also expelled out of the uterus. The Spermatogenesis results in the formation of
mammary glands of the female undergo sperms that are transported by the male sex
differentiation during pregnancy and starts accessory ducts.
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy A normal human sperm is composed of a
by the process called lactation. This helps the head, neck, a middle piece and tail.
mother in feeding the newborn. The process of formation of mature female
The milk produced during the initial few days gametes is called oogenesis.
of lactation is called colostrum which The reproductive cycle of female primates is
contains several antibodies absolutely called menstrual cycle.
essential to develop resistance for the new- Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining
born babies. sexual maturation (puberty).
Breast-feeding during the initial period of During ovulation only one ovum is released
infant growth is recommended by doctors for per menstrual cycle.
bringing up a healthy baby. The cyclical changes in the ovary and the
uterus during menstrual cycle are induced by
Summary changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian
hormones.
After coitus, sperms are transported to the
Humans are sexually reproducing and
junction of the isthmus and ampulla, where
viviparous.
the sperm fertilizes the ovum leading to
The male reproductive system is composed of
formation of a diploid zygote.
a pair of testes, the male sex accessory ducts
The presence of X or Y chromosome in the
and the accessory glands and external
sperm determines the sex of the embryo.
genitalia.
Each testis has about 250 compartments
The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic
called testicular lobules, and each lobule
contains one to three highly division to form a blastocyst, which is
coiled seminiferous tubules. implanted in the uterus resulting in
Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by pregnancy.
spermatogonia and Sertoli cells. After nine months of pregnancy, the fully
The spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions developed foetus is ready for delivery.
leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli
https://t.me/upsc_pdf https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/upsc_pdf
Join Telegram for More Update : - https://t.me/upsc_pdf
part of a chromosome(s) which has a specific Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of
sequence known as ‘origin of replication’. enzymes called nucleases. These are of two
Thus, an alien DNA is linked with the origin of kinds; exonucleases and endonucleases.
replication, so that, this alien piece of DNA Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the
can replicate and multiply itself in the host ends of the DNA whereas, endonucleases
organism. This can also be called as cloning make cuts at specific positions within the
or making multiple identical copies of any DNA. Page
template DNA. The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the
plasmid DNA. These plasmid DNA act as |
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached 173
to it.
You probably know that mosquito acts as an
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA
insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite
molecules formed by laboratory methods of
Into human body.
genetic recombination (such as molecular
In the same way, a plasmid can be used as
cloning) to bring together genetic material
vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA into the
from multiple sources, creating sequences
host organism.
that would not otherwise be found in the
The linking of antibiotic resistance gene with
genome.
the plasmid vector became possible with the
Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA
enzyme DNA ligase, which acts on cut DNA
molecules from all organisms share
molecules and joins their ends. This makes a
the same chemical structure. They differ only
new combination of circular autonomously
in the nucleotide sequence within that
replicating DNA created in vitro and is known
identical overall structure.
as recombinant DNA.
In most cases, organisms containing
When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia
recombinant DNA have apparently normal
coli, a bacterium closely related to Salmonella,
phenotypes. That is, their appearance,
it could replicate using the new host’s DNA
behavior and metabolism are usually
polymerase enzyme and make multiple copies.
unchanged.
The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic
resistance gene in E. coli was
called cloning of antibiotic
resistance gene in E. coli.
Applications of Recombinant
DNA Technology
removed, Dolly did not show any character of Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis
the Scottish blackface ewe. produce proteins that kill certain insects such
as tobacco budworm, armyworm, beetles and
dipterans flies, mosquitoes.
Why does this toxin not kill the Bacillus?
Actually, the Bt toxin protein exist as inactive
protoxins but once an insect ingest the Page
inactive toxin, it is converted into an active
form of toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut |
which solubilise the crystals. 175
Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the
bacteria and been expressed in plants to
Dolly was a healthy clone of the Finn Dorsett provide resistance to insects without the need
sheep and produced several offspring of her for insecticides; in effect created a bio-
own through normal sexual means. pesticide.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato,
to produce cloned mammals. However, many potato and soyabean etc.
die before birth or die soon after birth. The
cloned animals are many-a-time found to be Biotechnological applications in
born with severe abnormalities. medicine
Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted But the problem with both of these
from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs. approaches that they are not completely
Insulin from an animal source, though caused curative.
some patients to develop allergy or other types As a first step towards gene therapy,
of reactions to the foreign protein. lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are
Insulin consists of two short polypeptide grown in a culture outside the body. A
chains: chain A and chain B, that are linked functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral Page
together by disulphide vector) is then introduced into these
In mammals, including humans, insulin is lymphocytes, which are subsequently |
synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a pro- returned to the patient. 176
enzyme, the pro-hormone also needs to be However, as these cells are not immortal, the
processed before it becomes a fully mature patient requires periodic infusion of such
and functional hormone) which contains an genetically engineered lymphocytes.
extra stretch called the C peptide. This C However, if the gene isolate from marrow cells
peptide is not present in the mature insulin producing ADA is introduced into cells at early
and is removed during maturation into embryonic stages, it could be a permanent
insulin.The main challenge for production of cure.
insulin using rDNA techniques was getting
insulin assembled into a mature form. Molecular Diagnosis
In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company
prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to
You know that for effective treatment of a
A and B, chains of human insulin and
disease, early diagnosis and understanding its
introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to
pathophysiology is very important.
produce insulin chains. Chains A and B were
Using conventional methods of diagnosis
produced separately, extracted and combined
(serum and urine analysis, etc.) early
by creating disulfide bonds to form human
detection is not possible.
insulin.
Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme Linked
Gene Therapy Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of
the techniques that serve the purpose of early
If a person is born with a hereditary disease, diagnosis.
can a corrective therapy be taken for such a Presence of a pathogen (bacteria, viruses, etc.)
disease? Gene therapy is an attempt to do is normally suspected only when the pathogen
this. has produced a disease symptom. By this time
Gene therapy is a collection of methods that the concentration of pathogen is already very
allows correction of a gene defect that has high in the body.
been diagnosed in a child/embryo. However, very low concentration of a bacteria
Here genes are inserted into a person’s cells or virus (at a time when the symptoms of the
and tissues to treat a disease. Correction of a disease are not yet visible) can be detected by
genetic defect involves delivery of a normal amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR.
gene into the individual or embryo to take over PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in
the function of and compensate for the non- suspected AIDS patients. It is being used to
functional gene. detect mutations in genes in
The first clinical gene therapy was given in suspected cancer patients too. It is a powerful
1990 to a 4-year old girl with adenosine techqnique to identify many other genetic
deaminase (ADA) This enzyme is crucial for disorders.
the immune system to function. ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-
The disorder is caused due to the deletion of antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen
the gene for adenosine deaminase. can be detected by the presence of antigens
In some children ADA deficiency can be cured (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting
by bone marrow transplantation; in others it the antibodies synthesised against the
can be treated by enzyme replacement pathogen.
therapy, in which functional ADA is given to
the patient by injection. Transgenic animals
Animals that have had their DNA manipulated use of monkeys to test the safety of batches of
to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene the vaccine.
are known as transgenic animals. Chemical safety testing: This is known as
Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows toxicity/safety testing. The procedure is the
and fish have been produced, although over same as that used for testing toxicity of drugs.
95 per cent of all existing transgenic animals Transgenic animals are made that carry genes
are mice. which make them more sensitive to toxic Page
Why are these animals being produced? How substances than non-transgenic animals.
can man benefit from such modifications? Let They are then exposed to the toxic substances |
us try and explore some of the common and the effects studied. Toxicity testing in 177
reasons. such animals will allow us to obtain results in
Normal physiology and less time.
development: Transgenic animals can be
specifically designed to allow the study of how Biotechnology: Ethical Issues
genes are regulated, and how they affect the
normal functions of the body and its
The manipulation of living organisms by the
development, e.g., study of complex factors
human race cannot go on any further, without
involved in growth such as insulin-like growth
regulation. Some ethical standards are
factor. By introducing genes from other
required to evaluate the morality of all human
species that alter the formation of this factor
activities that might help or harm living
and studying the biological effects that result,
organisms.
information is obtained about the biological
Going beyond the morality of such issues, the
role of the factor in the body.
biological significance of such things is also
Study of disease: Many transgenic animals
important. Genetic modification of organisms
are designed to increase our understanding of
can have unpredicatable results when such
how genes contribute to the development of
organisms are introduced into the ecosystem.
disease. These are specially made to serve as
Therefore, the Indian Government has set up
models for human diseases so that
organisations such as GEAC (Genetic
investigation of new treatments for diseases is
Engineering Approval Committee), which
made possible. Today transgenic models exist
will make decisions regarding the validity of
for many human diseases such as cancer,
GM research and the safety of introducing
cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and
GM-organisms for public services.
Alzheimer’s.
The modification/usage of living organisms for
Biological products: Medicines required to
public services (as food and medicine sources,
treat certain human diseases can contain
for example) has also created problems with
biological products, but such products are
patents granted for the same.
often expensive to make. Transgenic animals
There is growing public anger that certain
that produce useful biological products can be
companies are being granted patents for
created by the introduction of the portion of
products and technologies that make use of
DNA (or genes) which codes for a particular
the genetic materials, plants and other
product such as human protein. Similar
biological resources that have long been
attempts are being made for treatment of
identified, developed and used by farmers and
phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis. In
indigenous people of a specific region/country.
1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie,
Rice is an important food grain, the presence
produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4
of which goes back thousands of years in
grams per litre). The milk contained the
Asia’s agricultural history. There are an
human alpha-lactalbumin and was
estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India
nutritionally a more balanced product for
alone. The diversity of rice in India is one of
human babies than natural cow-milk.
the richest in the world.
Vaccine safety: Transgenic mice are being
Basmati rice is distinct for its unique aroma
developed for use in testing the safety of
and flavour and 27 documented varieties of
vaccines before they are used on humans.
Basmati are grown in India. There is reference
Transgenic mice are being used to test the
to Basmati in ancient texts, folklore and
safety of the polio vaccine. If successful and
poetry, as it has been grown for centuries.
found to be reliable, they could replace the
In 1997, an American company got patent Recombinant DNA technology has made it
rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent possible to engineer microbes, plants and
and Trademark Office. This allowed the animals such that they have novel
company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati, in capabilities.
the US and abroad. This ‘new’ variety of Genetically Modified Organisms have been
Basmati had actually been derived from created by using methods other than natural
Indian farmer’s varieties. methods to transfer one or more genes from Page
Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf one organism to another, generally using
varieties and claimed as an invention or a techniques such as recombinant DNA |
novelty. The patent extends to functional technology. 178
equivalents, implying that other people selling GM plants have been useful in increasing crop
Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent. yields, reduce post-harvest losses and make
Several attempts have also been made to crops more tolerant of stresses.
patent uses, products and processes based on There are several GM crop plants with
Indian traditional herbal medicines, e.g., improved nutritional value of foods and
turmeric neem. If we are not vigilant and we reduced the reliance on chemical pesticides
do not immediately counter these patent (pest-resistant crops).
applications, other countries/individuals may Recombinant DNA technological processes
encash on our rich legacy and we may not be have made immense impact in the area of
able to do anything about it. healthcare by enabling mass production of
Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use safe and more effective therapeutics.
of bio-resources by multinational companies Since the recombinant therapeutics are
and other organisations without proper identical to human proteins, they do not
authorisation from the countries and people induce unwanted immunological responses
concerned without compensatory payment. and are free from risk of infection as was
Most of the industrialised nations are rich observed in case of similar products isolated
financially but poor in biodiversity and from non-human sources. Human insulin is
traditional knowledge. In contrast the made in bacteria yet its structure is absolutely
developing and the underdeveloped world is identical to that of the natural molecule.
rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge Transgenic animals are also used to
related to bio-resources. understand how genes contribute to the
Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources development of a disease by serving as models
can be exploited to develop modern for human diseases, such as cancer, cystic
applications and can also be used to save fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer’s.
time, effort and expenditure during their Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an
commercialisation. individual’s cells and tissues to treat diseases
There has been growing realisation of the especially hereditary diseases. It does so by
injustice, inadequate compensation and replacing a defective mutant allele with a
benefit sharing between developed and functional one or gene targeting which
developing countries. Therefore, some nations involves gene amplification.
are developing laws to prevent such Viruses that attack their hosts and introduce
unauthorised exploitation of their bio- their genetic material into the host cell as part
resources and traditional knowledge. of their replication cycle are used as vectors to
The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the transfer healthy genes or more recently
second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill, portions of genes.
that takes such issues into consideration,
including patent terms emergency provisions
and research and development initiative.
Summary