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A Novel Liver Image Classification Method Using Perceptual Hash-Based

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DOI: 10.1007/s13369-018-3454-1

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Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-018-3454-1

RESEARCH ARTICLE - COMPUTER ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

A Novel Liver Image Classification Method Using Perceptual

Hash-Based Convolutional Neural Network
Fatih Özyurt1 · Türker Tuncer2 · Engin Avci1 · Mustafa Koç3 · İhsan Serhatlioğlu4

Received: 8 February 2018 / Accepted: 11 July 2018

© King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals 2018

Abstract
Classification of liver masses plays an important role in early diagnosis of patients. This paper proposes a method to reduce the
liver computed tomography (CT) images classification time and maintain the classification performance above an acceptable
threshold by using convolutional neural network (CNN). A hybrid model called fused perceptual hash-based CNN (F-PH-
CNN) is proposed by using a perceptual hash function together with the CNN. The proposed method has been designed for
differential diagnosis between benign and malignant masses using CT images. The most important feature of the perceptual
hash functions is to obtain the salient features of images. In the proposed F-PH-CNN method, DWT–SVD-based perceptual
hash functions are used. The study uses CT images of 41 benign and 34 malign samples obtained from Elazig Education and
Research Hospital. These samples were augmented up to 112 samples. The experimental results show that the CNN features
achieved a better classification performance in which the ANN simulation results validate that the all output data with 98.2%
success. The proposed method might also address the clinical computer-aided diagnosis of liver masses.

Keywords Convolutional neural network · Artificial neural network · Perceptual hash · Computer-aided diagnosis ·
Classification of liver masses

1 Introduction ical for digestion, synthesizing proteins and decomposing

red blood cells. Most types of liver disease do not cause
The liver is one of the most important organs that performs clear symptoms in the early stages, unlike many diseases.
several vital functions such as producing necessary biochem- Therefore, early diagnosis plays a very prominent role in the
detection of the diseases. Statistics show that liver cancer is
one of the most common diseases in our daily life, and indi-
B Fatih Özyurt
fatihozyurt@firat.edu.tr cate that it is the fifth most common cancer type in the world
[1]. In addition, liver cancer is the second most common
Türker Tuncer
turkertuncer@firat.edu.tr cancer type in males and seventh in females. Moreover, the
increasing rate of the liver cancer and the average 6 months’
Engin Avci
enginavci@firat.edu.tr life time after being diagnosed emphasize the importance of
the early detection of liver cancer.
Mustafa Koç
mkoc@firat.edu.tr Several imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) and
İhsan Serhatlioğlu
iserhatlioglu@firat.edu.tr X-ray can be used to diagnose liver lesions. The most pre-
ferred method among all the methods is CT scanning [2]
1 Technology Faculty, Software Engineering, Firat University, as it provides cheaper and more accurate imaging. How-
Elazig, Turkey ever, today’s computer-aided imaging systems help radiology
2 Technology Faculty, Digital Forensics Engineering, Firat specialists to detect liver lesions and make decisions by con-
University, Elazig, Turkey sidering CT image results. In order to increase the reliability,
3 Medicine Faculty, Radiology Department, Firat University, image processing, artificial intelligence, and classification
Elazig, Turkey algorithms are often used in the diagnosis of liver diseases
4 Medicine Faculty, Biophysics Department, Firat University, [3–5]. The design and development of computer-aided design
Elazig, Turkey

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(CAD) systems to classify liver lesions have received a great (F-PH-CNN) architecture. Training and testing dataset con-
attention because of the importance of these systems for help- sisting of 75 samples were augmented up to 112 samples by
ing medical doctors [6]. flipping, rotating and shearing. The 0.7 portion of samples
Image classification and pattern recognition have become is utilized for training of the classifier whereas 0.3 portions
an influential and effective research topic in the computer of samples for testing. The characteristic of this study is as
vision researches. These studies on images are generally follows.
divided into two groups: manual extraction of the features
[7–18], and supervised/unsupervised learning from these
1. In this paper, we proposed a block-based perceptual hash
features [19,20]. Each method achieves a great success in
method to extract salient features of the images. This
different image classification tasks such as object recogni-
method includes preprocessing and feature extraction
tion, texture classification, and face recognition. In situations
phases. Bilinear interpolation and red green blue (RGB)
where these methods are inadequate, the manual extraction
to gray transformation are utilized as preprocessing. In
of the features is a condition that requires expertise [7–18],
the feature extraction phase, block-based feature extrac-
Therefore, the feature extraction is considered to be the most
tion is used. In order to extract salient feature, discrete
important step in the image classification and pattern recog-
wavelet transform (DWT) and singular value decompo-
nition for classifying images.
sition (SVD) are used. A two-level 2D DWT is applied
Deep learning algorithms has recently become an active
on each block and LL2 (Low Low 2). The strongest band
research area to overcome the manual feature extraction for
against to compression attacks is LL2 [36]. SVD is used
images [19–24]. Deep learning neural networks, which is
for extracting robust features against the geometric attack
learned in a hierarchy by creating top-level features from
of LL2. By using the proposed perceptual hash func-
low-level features, are machine classifications pioneered by
tion, the salient features of CT liver images are obtained.
Fukushima [25]. Deep learning architectures are divided into
The classification process is performed by using these
several categories such as CNN, Sparse Autoencoder (SAE)
features. DWT is used to select features that are resis-
[26], restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) [27,28], and deep
tant to JPEG compression, and SVD is used to obtain
belief network (DBN) [29].
features that are robust to geometric attacks such as rota-
The CNN was developed by LeCun et al. [30]. The CNN
tion.
consists of a set of algorithms that can be learned by trans-
2. In this study, a hybrid structure is proposed. For the first
actional layers (both linear and nonlinear). Therefore, it has
time, the perceptual hash and CNN are used together for
the ability to learn valuable information from low-level lay-
the image recognition. This structure extracts features by
ers, and the process of generating distinctive information
using perceptual hash function and convolution layers.
can be automated at this point [31]. The CNN technology
Then, ANN, SVM, and KNN classifiers were used in the
shows a superior performance in image classification and pat-
proposed method.
tern recognition compared to other classical methods. Thus,
3. By using the presented hybrid structure, a method of
they are widely applied for image and video recognition. It
image recognition with high classification performance
performs significantly in image recognition, segmentation,
and low cost is proposed.
and detection areas. However, the most important problem
encountered in deep learning is the high computational cost.
This is because the image processing operates at the pixel The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 explains per-
level and these operations require high speed and capacity ceptual hash of the proposed method. Description of the basic
computers. CNN technique is given in Sect. 3. The proposed F-PH-CNN
On the other hand, there are some other learning hash- method is explained in Sect. 4. The experimental results and
based methods in the literature [32–35]. However, the learn- discussion are presented in Sect. 5. Finally, Sect. 6 explains
ing hash-based methods generally perform feature reduction the conclusions.
after the feature extraction step. Our study is related to obtain-
ing salient features from the direct raw images. In addition,
we avoid using non-perceptual hash functions since they 2 Perceptual Hash
distort the image structure. Hence, the proposed method
combines perceptual hash and deep learning for the image Perceptual image hashing is a special research area that is
processing operations. The purpose of this study is to reduce used in many image processing methods such as feature
the computational cost without degrading the accuracy rate extraction and image authentication. Perceptual hashes are
by using perceptual hash functions in the detection of two performed in many areas such as image description, image
types of liver disease. The proposed liver disease clas- name, image capture, image indexing, and image copy detec-
sification method is perceptual hash-based deep learning tion [37]. It is generally expected that perceptual image

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hashes will be resistant to attacks such as JPEG conver- [L L L H H L H H ] = dwt2 (gri, filter)
sion, or geometric transformation. The main purpose of the
perceptual image hashing is to produce a hashed image [L L2L H 2H L2H H 2] = dwt2 (L L, filter) (2)
which is obtained as a result of the perceptual hash func-
tion. This hashed image must be visually the same as the Step 4 Divide the LL2 band into 2 × 2 non-overlapping
original image but it must have different digital properties blocks.
[37–39]. Step 5 Record Smax values by applying SVD to each
Various attack sets are used to measure the durability of block.
the images. Commonly JPEG compression, rotation, bend-    
ing, and various filtering attacks are encountered. Two basic   u 11 u 12 s1 0 v11 v12
SVD L L2i:i+1, j: j+1 =
methods are used to develop methods resistant against these u 21 u 22 0s2 v21 v22
attacks. These methods are DWT and SVD methods. In this (3)
paper, DWT and SVD methods are used to reduce the features Smax = s1 (4)
of the CT images. In the proposed perceptual hash function, P Hk,l = Smax (5)
the image of dimension M × N × 3 is first dimensioned as i = {1, 2, . . . , W } , j
256 × 256 × 3. In this method, the LL2 band was obtained by    
W H
using discrete wavelet transform at 2 levels. The LL2 band = {1, 2, . . . , H } , k = 1, 2, . . . , l = 1, 2, . . . ,
2 2
is then divided into 2 × 2 non-overlapping blocks. Singular (6)
values were obtained by applying SVD to the divided blocks.
The perceptual hash function was obtained by normalizing Step 6 Find the minimum and maximum values of the
the singular values. In this paper, the perceptual hash function PH matrix, Pmin, and Pmax.
obtained by applying DWT on 2 levels is made resistant to Step 7 Encode PH matrix with 8 bits using the following
JPEG compression, and also by applying SVD is made resis- formula.
tant to angular attacks. The block diagram of the proposed


hash functions is given at Fig. 1. The steps of the proposed P H − Pmin 8
hash functions are given in Eqs. 1–7. P H = round 2 −1 (7)
Pmax − Pmin
The proposed method steps are as follows:
The step-by-step feature reduction in the proposed algo-
Step 1 Apply bilinear interpolation on images and resize rithm is given in Table 1.
images to 256 × 256.
Step 2 Convert the resized image to the gray level. 16×16, 32×32, 64×64 and 128×128 Perceptual hash is
obtained by using this perceptual hash function which has the
salient features of the image and produces output of a fixed
R = im (:, :, 1) , G = im (:, :, 2) , B = im (:, :, 3) (1) length. 2.048, 8.192, 32.768, 131.072-bit hash values can be
obtained by using this hash function respectively. In order
Step 3 Obtain the LL2 band by applying DWT to the gray to obtain 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 64 × 64 and 128 × 128 sized
at 2 levels. hash values, images are resized as 128 × 128, 256 × 256,

Fig. 1 Block diagram of the proposed Perceptual hashing

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Table 1 Proposed hashing scheme
Stage Image
Resize 256 × 256 × 3
RGB2GRAY 256 × 256
2 Level DWT 64 × 64
SVD 32 × 32
512 × 512 and 1024 × 1024 in the first step of the presented
perceptual hash.
3 Deep Learning by Using CNN
Our proposed F-PH-CNN method consists of a hierarchical
representation network. The fundamental layers in this net-
work are introduced respectively. Then, training for our CNN
and decision mechanism are detailed as follows.
3.1 Convolution Neural Network
CNN consists of several convolutions and subsampling layers
that follow a fully connected layer. The input of a convolution
layer is the image of dimension m × m × r , where m is the
height and width of the image and r is the number of channels.
In an RGB image, r = 3. The convolution layer will be k
filters (or kernels) in size n × n × q; n must be smaller than
the image size and q can be less than or equal to the number
of channels and may vary for each kernel. The size of the
filters is important for generating k feature maps.
The CNN is similar to the structure of artificial neural
networks. CNNs consist of neurons with learnable weights
and biases. Each neuron takes some inputs, generates a dot
product result, and optionally follows it nonlinearly. The only
difference from classical neural networks is that CNNs give
the score percentage as a classification result from the raw
image pixels given as input.
Classical Neural Networks take an input and transform it
into the hidden layers. Each neuron in the hidden layer is
fully connected to all the neurons in the previous layer. The
neurons in the hidden layers are completely independent and
do not share any connection between themselves. The final
fully connected layer is called as the “output layer,” and the
classification accuracy rate is calculated by calculating the
output of this layer [40].
3.1.1 Layers used in the formation of CNN architecture
Convolution layers consist of Input-Convolution-Relu-
Pooling-Fully connected layers. CNN architecture is formed
by these layers’ coming together. CNN gives the original
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Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering
image by dividing the layer into pixel values to the classifi-
cation. On the other hand, Relu and Pooling operations are
applied.
The formula for the Relu activation function is given by
in Eq. 8:
yi jk = max{0, xi jk } (8)
The most common way of making pooling is max pooling,
which is shown in Eq. 9:
yi jk = max{yi jk: i ≤ i  < i + p, j ≤ j  < j + q} (9)
Feature map For feature map after each layer, the follow-
ing formula is applied. According to the CNN architecture
that we used, the 227x227x3 size images in the input layer
are convoluted after one layer and 55x55x96 feature map is
obtained [41].
 
size_xi − Fi + 2Pad
Si zefm = x = +1 (10)
Stride
According to the CNN architecture that we used, the
parameters used in Layer 1 are as follows:
Layer 1 Convolution with 96 filters, size 11 × 11, stride
4, padding 0
When we apply the formula in Eq. 10, we got the result
of Eq. 11;
(227 − 11)/4 + 1 = 55 (11)
As a result, a feature set of 55 × 55 × 96 size is obtained.
4 The Proposed F-PH-CNN Method
In this paper, the dimensions in the CT images have been
reduced by applying DWT, SVD-based perceptual hashing.
In order to extract the salient features from the raw images,
2-layer wavelet was used and then SVD was applied by divid-
ing into 2x2 non-overlapping blocks. Later, singular values
were normalized to obtain the perceptual hash function. The
obtained perceptual hash functions were applied to the total
of 112 CT liver images, which were divided into 56 images
in each 2 classes (benign, malign). 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 64 × 64
and 128×128 sized images which are given as an input to the
CNN architecture, are the result of the perceptual hash func-
tion. Then, they are classified with ANN, SVM, and KNN,
respectively.
Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering
Fig. 2 The proposed CNN architecture
In our proposed F-PH-CNN method, Alexnet architec-
ture, one of the leading architectures of deep learning,
was used. The architecture, developed by Alex Krizhevsky,
Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey Hinton, won the 2012 Picture
Class Competition (ILSVRC) [42]. Our CNN architecture
composed of five convolutional layers (C1 to C5 schema)
followed by two fully connected layers (FC6 and FC7). The
output features obtained from FC7 layer are given as input to
ANN, SVM, and KNN, respectively. The proposed method
is as shown in Fig. 2.
4.1 Dataset
In this paper, liver disease classification is carried out for 2
types of lesion. These lesions are benign and malign. In our
study, malignant liver masses consist of only hepatocellular
carcinoma (HCC). Examples of CT images for each lesion are
given in Fig. 3. The dataset for liver diseases is obtained from
Elazig Education and Research Hospital Radiology Labora-
tory.
Each pure CT image was in a size between 380 × 520 × 3
and 663 × 650 × 3, and it was downsampled to a fixed size
of 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 64 × 64 and 128 × 128 by using a
DWT–SVD perceptual hash. Then, it was transformed from
a matrix to a vector of pixels, which was directly used as the
input of our proposed CNN architecture.
The hash-based CT images are shown in Fig. 4. Hash-
based image sizes are reduced to of 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 64 × 64
and 128 × 128 respectively.
5 Experiments and Results
5.1 Experimental Setup
The proposed F-PH-CNN algorithm was implemented on a
laptop computer with Intel Core i7-4510U processor, 8 GB
RAM and Windows 10 operating system. The codes of the
application were written by using MATLAB R2016a with
using MatConvnet library. These samples were augmented
up to 112 samples. A total of 112 CT images from two classes
are used. 2.048, 8.192, 32.768, 131.072-bit hash values of
each image are obtained from resized 16 × 16, 32 × 32,
64 × 64 and 128 × 128 images respectively, by using our
proposed DWT–SVD-based perceptual hash function. These
values represent the salient features of images. After random
selection, 70% of the images are used for training and 30%
for testing.
5.2 Classifiers for Comparison
The classifier ultimately used in our model, i.e., ANN was
also compared with other two classic classifiers, the k-nearest
neighbor (KNN) [43] and support vector machine (SVM)
[44], and those in SVM and KNN were empirically set to
yield the best performance. 7 convolutional layers are used
for feature extractors and 4096 features were given as an
input to ANN, SVM, and KNN.
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Fig. 3 CT images of liver diseases

5.3 Performance Estimation The results of CNN classification without using percep-
tual hashed images are given in Table 2. Softmax classifier
The validation measurement of our proposed study is in terms is the basic CNN classifier that generalizes the binary form
of true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP), of the logistic regression. The purpose of the Softmax clas-
false negative (FN) with relation to sensitivity, specificity, sification layer is simply to transform all the net activations
and accurateness [45]. in final output layer to a set of values that can be interpreted
as probabilities.
The results of the proposed method are given in Table 3.
The results obtained by baseline CNN classification of the
(TP)
Sensitivity = (12) raw images is given in Table 2. Table 3 illustrates the pro-
(TP + FN)
posed F-PH-CNN method has achieved a higher accuracy.
(TN)
Specificity = (13) On the other hand, it is showed that the execution time of
(TN + FP) the proposed method is much faster than the baseline CNN
(TP + TN) classification method. The basic CNN classification method
Accuracy = (14)
(TP + FN) + (FP + FN) has a higher execution time as the CT liver image sizes are
Youden s index = Sensitivity + Specificity − 1 (15) between 380 × 520 × 3 and 663 × 650 × 3.

• TP represents the number of disease lesions classified as 5.4 Classification Performances

diseased.
• TN represents the number of non-diseased lesions clas- The classification results in Fig. 5 shows that best model is
sified as non-diseased. achieving an accuracy of 98.2%, a sensitivity of 98.2%, and
• FP represents the number of non-diseased incorrectly a specificity of 98.2%.
classified as diseased. As shown in Fig. 5. the highest accuracy was obtained
• FN represents the number of diseased lesions incorrectly from 32×32×8 = 8192 bits by using the ANN classifier. We
classified as non-diseased. used a feedforward ANN and trained it with backpropagation

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16 x 16 32 x 32 64 x 64 128 x 128

Benign

Malign

Fig. 4 Images obtained after the hash function

Table 2 Baseline CNN classification without using perceptual hashed images

Images sizes Classifier Accuracy Sensitivity Specificity Youden’s index Training time (s)

Raw CT Images Softmax 94.6 92.8 96.4 89.20 18.56

Table 3 Experimental results of 12 models for liver masses classification.

Perceptual image sizes F-PH-CNN method Accuracy Sensitivity Specificity Youden’s index Training time (s)

Size=16 × 16 16 × 16 × 8 = 2048 bits ANN 89.3 94 85.5 79.50 8.82

SVM 83.9 89.2 78.5 67.70 7.85
KNN 83.9 80.3 87.5 67.80 8.93
Size = 32 × 3232 × 32 × 8 = 8192 bits ANN 98.20 98.20 98.20 96.40 9.08
SVM 93.8 94.6 92.8 87.40 8.25
KNN 93.8 92.8 94.6 87.40 9.44
Size = 64 × 6464 × 64 × 8 = 32, 768 bits ANN 94.6 93.1 96.3 89.40 9.2
SVM 89.3 91.07 87.5 78.57 8.92
KNN 91.1 91.07 91.07 82.14 10.03
Size = 128 × 128128 × 128 × 8 = 131, 072 bits ANN 97.3 98.2 96.5 94.70 10.89
SVM 92.9 92.9 92.9 85.80 9.32
KNN 92.9 94.6 91.07 85.67 9.48
The best performance indices are denoted in a bold font
ANN artificial neural network, SVM support vector machine, KNN k-nearest neighbor

[46,47]. Also, we used the Levenberg–Marquardt optimiza-
tion method [46] due to its computational efficiency.
In order to reach the most successful result, ANN was
trained several times. Consequently, the number of neurons
was selected as 20 10 5 2 respectively for the hidden layer.
Maximum epochs were chosen at 100 and the error goal
was written as 0.01. The learning rate for ANN was 0.001.
Initial weights and biases were derived automatically by the
MATLAB ANN tool [47].
The architecture of the ANN in our paper is given in Fig. 6.
The confusion matrix and receiver operating characteristic
(ROC) curve analysis for highest accuracy are given in the
Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.
In this paper, we used basic augmentation techniques like
flipping, rotating and shearing. Due to images are rectan-
gular, we rotate them 180◦ . Because rotating 180◦ does not
reduce the image size. In the image flipping, we used vertical
flipping. Vertical flipping is equivalent to rotating the image

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CLASSIFICATION COMPARISON
Accuracy Sensivity Specificity Youden's Index
98.20 97.3
93.8 93.8 94.6 91.1 92.9 92.9
100 89.3 89.3
95 83.9 83.9
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
ANN SVM KNN ANN SVM KNN ANN SVM KNN ANN SVM KNN
16X16 16X16X8 = 32X32 32X32X8 = 64X64 64X64X8 = 128X128
2048 BITS 8192 BITS 32768 BITS 128X128X8 =
131072 BITS

Fig. 5 Experiment results of several classifiers

Fig. 6 A multilayer network with 4096 input neurons and four hidden layers with [20 10 5 2] neurons, respectively, and two output layers.

Fig. 8 ROC curve analysis of the proposed method

Fig. 7 Confusion matrix of the proposed method

180◦ . In addition, we used shearing with vertical direction there are more augmented images of the malignant class. So,
by an amount proportional of images. It is observed that applying augmentation to CT liver images reduces misclas-
the accuracy rate of the malignant class is higher because sification errors, improving the accuracy of the model.

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EXECUTION TIMES
12
9.44
11
8.82 8.93 9.08
10
7.85 8.25
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ANN SVM KNN ANN SVM KNN
16X16 16X16X8 = 32X32 32X32X8 =
2048 BITS 8192 BITS
Fig. 9 Execution time of each classifier
5.5 Discussion
In this paper, we have presented a novel hash-based deep
learning architecture for liver image classification. Our
proposed F-PH-CNN method keeps the classification perfor-
mance at above an acceptable level while reducing the image
classification time by using the CNN. The proposed F-PH-
CNN method consists of three steps, which are perceptual
hashing, extracting convolutional features, and classification.
DWT–SVD-based perceptual hash is used in the proposed
F-PH-CNN method. This stage can also be called as a prepro-
cessing stage. In the second stage, a feature set was obtained
by using the convolution method of the CNN. Obtained fea-
tures were classified by using the ANN, SVM, and KNN.
Classification accuracy rate, sensitivity, specificity, Youden’s
index, and execution time parameters were used to mea-
sure the performance of the proposed F-PH-CNN method.
Classification comparisons and executiontime tables are as
shown in Figs. 5 and 9. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and
Youden’s Index did not give the highest accuracy results in
the study which the execution time was low. Although the
execution time is not the lowest, we can see the highest accu-
racy from 32x32x8 = 8192 bits by using the ANN classifier.
It has also been observed that the higher image size does not
have a beneficial effect on the parameters such as accuracy,
sensitivity, specificity, and Youden’s Index. Hence, compar-
isons show that the applied perceptual hash function takes
salient features and improves the classification performance.
6 Conclusion
We presented a novel perceptual hash-based convolutional
neural network for automatically learning features from the
CT liver images and classifying lesions. The experimental
results demonstrate that thanks to the powerful features of
10.89
10.03 9.48
9.2 8.92 9.32
ANN SVM KNN ANN SVM KNN
64X64 64X64X8 = 128X128
32768 BITS 128X128X8 =
131072 BITS
our proposed perceptual hash function, the small 32 × 32
images achieved 98.2 % classification accuracy and 9.08-s
execution time. On the other hand, in the CNN classification
method, 94.6% classification accuracy and 18.56-s execution
time were obtained. Therefore, our proposed study could also
be a valuable baseline for studying the execution time and
accuracy of the other advanced deep learning networks.
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