PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER Q2
elements that are neither physical nor mental
LESSON 5: PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY
Embodiment
- A central concept in discussing the nature of
human soul
- This concept is primarily based on discussions on
the nature of human consciousness
- Psychologists have defined man’s embodiment
as embodied cognition – the man is able to
perceive and experience reality through his
physical body
Enactivism
- Cognition arises through the interaction
between an organism and its environment
Spirit
- The immortal, nonphysical essence of a man
- Created by God and embodied in the human
being (Christian belief)
- Upon the body’s demise, the spirit continues to
persist into the afterlife
- Essential element for the salvation of mankind,
as the departed spirits will be raised from the
dead during the end times and shall receive the
judgment of God
Soul
- Driving force of the body and an essential
component for human existence (Religious
views)
 Various views on the composition of man show
the person as being composed of body, soul,
and spirit
Ancient Greek Philosophers who proposed varied ideas
on the nature of spirit:
1. Plato
- Believed that the human spirit or soul is
composed of three parts: logos (the mind or
reason), thymos (emotion), and eros (desire)
- For him, mind is immortal and persists after the
death of the body
2. Aristotle
- He regarded the soul as integrated into the
human body
- The soul is part of man’s essence which enables
him to achieve his ultimate purpose
Mind-Body Problem - Considers the question of how the
mental or nonphysical are able to interact with the
physical body, and to what extent one influences the
other
Physicalism - Believes that physical processes determine
the state of mind
Idealism – Holds that mental processes and thoughts are
the only reality
Monism – Argues that the human being is composed of
Dualism – Believes in the distinctiveness of the physical
and mental nature of man
 According to the Islamic philosopher Avicenna,
for example, argued that self-awareness and
consciousness exists even if the body is deprived
of its senses
 This is echoed by Rene Descartes, who proposed
that the mind and body exist as two separate
entities which interact with one another
 St. Thomas Aquinas believed that the soul is the
“first actuality” of the body; for there to be a
body, there should first be a soul and the soul
has substance but has no physical or concrete
form, and is able to exist even without body
 St. Agustine, meanwhile, considered the soul the
driving force which governs the body and
defines the human person
Trichotomic View – Holds that man is composed of three
essential parts: body, soul, and spirit; the soul is defined
as the component which gives man life and will, while
spirit enables man to establish connection with God
Dichotomic View – Gives no distinction between the
spirit and soul and views and man as being composed of
body and spirit
Psychosomatic Unity – Asserts that man is of a single or
unitary constitution, and that the body and spirit are
inseparable and integrated
 The Catholic doctrine holds that the human
person is the union of the body and soul, and
that man’s soul enables him to know and love
God, and grants him dignity of a person
Theology – The study of God and other religious
concepts
Theism – Is the belief in the existence of a God or several
deities
Monotheism – There is only one God (Catholic) who has
the following characteristics:
 Omniscience – God is all-knowing
 Omnipotence – God is all-powerful
 Omnipresence – God is ever-present
 Benevolence – God is perfectly good, just, and
all-loving
 Divine Simplicity – All attributes are integrated
and embodied by Him – God is not just “good”;
he is goodness itself
 Eternal – God is timeless and has no beginning
and end
 Philosophy has long debated concept of God
and divinity. Theologians have embarked on a
study of God through the analysis of sacred texts
(Revealed Theology), while some have employed
reason to substantiate the existence of God
(Natural Theology)
  Studies in Natural Theology have given rise to
several arguments on the existence of God:
 Ontological Argument – Contends that
since man, a rational being, is able to
conceive the notion of a Supreme Being,
then it holds to reason that such
Supreme Being exists
 Teleological Argument – Focuses on the
purpose a God would play in the
universe; it argues that Supreme Being
is necessary for the continued existence
of an orderly but complex universe
 Cosmological Argument – Takes into
account the nature of existence and the
universe and recognizes the existence of
God as an explanation of how things
came to being in our reality
 St. Thomas Aquinas proposed several arguments
which point to God as “prime mover, the “first
cause of existence”, and the “source of being” of
reality and the universe.
 The German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz, on the other hand, based the
belief on the existence of God on the “principle
of sufficient reason”
 For Leibniz, all facts and events must have an
explanation
Kalam Cosmological Argument – Islamic theology
Everything that has a beginning has a cause.
The universe has a beginning.
Therefore, the universe has a cause.
Moral Argument – Man’s ethical nature is brought about
the existence of god
Agnoticism – View which considers metaphysical
concepts
Ahteism – Rejection or nonbelief in the existence of
God/deity
Theism – The belief in the existence of a god or several
deities
Redemptive Salvation – Through him the saving faith is
effected
Divine Providence – God takes an active role in human
condition
Emmanence – Regards God as manifesting himself in the
world as a unique entity
Transcendence – Depicts god as existing outside the
material word
Panentheistic – God is beyond and within the universe
Pantheistic – God is an all-encompassing presence in the
universe and has no distinct presence as an entity
Pandeistic – God was a distinct entity but lost this state
when he transformed himself into the universe
 Immanuel Kant – Proposed that human
transcendence is based on rationality
 Jean-Paul Sartre – Considers the person ability to
comprehend and relate to objects and beings
outside of his own self as an indication of
transcendence
LESSON 6: MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Philosophy - branch of philosophy that is
concerned with the natural environment and humanity’s
place within it
Anthropocentrism - humans are the central and most
significats species on the planet
Deep Ecology or Eco Central - sees the natural world as
being maintained by the interrelationship among living
organisms which are dependent on each other for
survival
Gaia Hypothesis - non organic elements in the planet play
significant role in maintaining balance in the environment
Theological View - mankind is intended to live in harmony
with all creation; god created man and granted him
dominion over all creatures and tasked him to “subdue”
the earth
Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (IPCC) - finds
evidences that human activities have contributed to
climate change
Environmental Ethics - advocated human responsibilities
and action with regard to environmental issues
Social Ecology - sees relationship between social and
environmental problems
Climate Ethics - an area of study that forces on the ethical
dimensions of climate change
Climate Justice - a view that considers climate and
environmental issues as significant political and ethical
issues
Environmental Justice - refers to fair distribution of
environmental benefits
Environmental Aesthetics - view that considers natural
beauty in the context of maintaining order and balance in
the environment
Environmentalism - ideology that promotes the
protection and preservation of the environment
LESSON: 7 FREEDOM
Robert Heinlein - free no matter what rules surrounds me
David Wallace - being able truly to care about other
people
Pope John Paul II - freedom is not advanced in the
permissive society

Declaration of Independence of USA - governments are
instituted to secure these rights
B. F. Skinner - man’s behavior is shaped and determined
Jean Paul Sartre - man is absolutely free
Maurice Merleau-Ponty - we have a situated freedom
Freedom or Liberty - is a social and political concept which
has great significance in how people participate in society
Social Contract - an agreement where individuals sacrifice
some of their wants and submit to a higher authority
Positive Liberty - person taking control of his own life and
fulfilling one’s potential
Negative Liberty - freedom from external restraint,
barriers and other interferences from other people
Liberalism - upholds the preservation of individual rights
and stresses the role of the government in protecting
these civil liberties
Libertarianism - the individual is the best judge in
upholding and exercising rights
Socialism - considers freedom as the freedom to acquire
economic resources and the ability to work and act
according to one’s desire
Natural Rights - rights which are innate in the person such
as the right to life
Legal Rights - rights that are based on society’s customs
and laws
Human Agency - capacity of a person to act and exert
control over his or her behavior
Free Will - capacity to choose from alternative courses of
action or decision
Free Action - the freedom to perform an action without
any obstacles or hindrances
Faculties Model - refers to our free will as the use of our
mental faculties; it assumes that we have free will due to
our intellect
Hierarchical Model - argues that free will is based on
human wants and desire
Reasons Responsive View - believes that man has free will
because he is able to entertain reasons not to enact a
decision and act upon then when need arises
Determinism - view that believes that every event in the
world is brought about by underlying causes or factors
Control and Regulation - necessary elements in the
responsible exercise of freedom
LESSON 8: THE PERSON AND OTHERS
Existentialism and Phenomenology - major philosophical
branches that devote much discussion on the concept of
interpersonal relations
Self - awareness of individuality
Other - generally objects outside of personal experience
Intersubjectivity - shared awareness and understanding
among persons
Seeming - individual presents himself in a certain way
when dealing with others
Dialogue - genuine relationship established among
individuals
Alienation - individual ceases to view the other as a
distinct and authentic person rather as a mere object
 Karl Marx - believes that alienation gives rise to
exploitation of people
Empathy - the awareness that the other is a person with
thoughts and feelings
 Admund Husserl - believes that intersubjectivity is
the capability to put oneself in the place the other
is
 Gabriel Marcel - defines genuine relationship
based on availability or the willingness of a
person to be present and be the disposal of
another
Ethics of Care - emphasizes the moral dimension of
relationships and interactions
LESSON 9: MAN AND SOCIETY
Society - large, independent and organized group of
people living in the same territory and sharing same
culture and heritage
Hunting and Gathering Societies - the simplest & earliest
societies; dependent on resources available from their
surroundings
Agricultural Societies - engaged in agricultural activities
Industrial Societies - centered on mechanized and the
exchange of goods and services
Modern Societies - technology advanced societies
Virtual Societies - composed of individuals coming from
various social backgrounds; examples: social media,
online message board, online games
Social Philosophy - focuses on studying society and its
influence on the human person
Natural State - an imagined situation where humans are
removed from modernity and civilization
  Thomas Hobbes - according to him, man is in his
natural state is governed by his desires and often
leads to contacts with his fellowmen
Consent of the Governed - a concept in social philosophy
which considers that society is formed through the
consent of the individuals that organized it
 John Locke - considered man in his natural state
as more cooperative and reasonable (social
contract)
 Jean Jacques Rousseau - believed that the
government is able to impose its will on the
people (general will)
General Will - concept which holds that the government
is the best judge of what is beneficial for society
 John Rawls - he explained that human beings
approach social cooperation in a rational
manner; proposed original position which is the
state where humans have a “veil of ignorance”
 David Gauthier - described man’s self-interest as
a significant factor in building and maintaining
societies
Self-interest - one’s personal interest or welfare
smooth interpersonal relationships- refers to harmonious
relationships fostered by various traditions and customs
in Filipino society
LESSON: 9 ON HAPPINESS
Happiness - state of mind; evaluation of one’s experiences
in life
Eudaimonia - good spirit; refers to person’s state of well-
being or happiness
 Plato - equates happiness with living a moral life
 Aristotle - happiness is primary reason for human
action
 Epicureans - happiness means life of peace that is
free from fear and discomfort
 St. Augustine & St. Thomas Aquinas - happiness is
union with God
Utilitarianism - proposes a view on happiness based on
the greatest happiness principle
Greatest Happiness Principle - person’s action are moral
or desirable when they produce greatest happiness for
other people
Whole Life Satisfaction - person is able to evaluate his life
experiences and determine his level of satisfaction
 Wladyslaw tatarkiewicz - defined happiness as
satisfaction with one’s life as a whole
 Richard Brandt - traces a person’s happiness
based on a total life pattern
 Wayne Sumner - one must be able to look at past
experiences; happiness is brought about by a
sense of well being
3 Distinct Elements of Happiness:
1. Contentment - satisfaction with life
2. Welfare - satisfaction of wants and desires
3. Dignity - ability to control and define own destiny
 In United Nations, happiness is a fundamental
human goal and universal aspiration; issuing a
world happiness report
Ethics - play a significant role in happiness and the means
to achieve it
 Aristotle - proposes that to achieve happiness, a
person must plan his activities
 Epicureans - believe that happiness is possible if
one enjoys simple pleasures of life
 St. Augustine - believes that happiness can be
found in the afterlife when the spirit reunites
with god
 Jeremy Bentham - believes that happiness is
achieved through wise decision making
 Immanuel Kant - for him, achieving happiness is
impossible because of ever changing nature of
man’s desire
LESSON 11: ON SUFFERING
Suffering - experience of unpleasantness, discomfort and
pain
2 Types:
 Physical Suffering - physical sensations;
often caused by injury, disease, lack of
basic needs
 Mental Suffering - associated with
emotional and mental states; may be
caused by unexpected situations
Weltschmerz - is the term used to refer to man’s
realization that there is no “perfect world”
Existential Dread - crisis brought when a person question
his purpose and reason for being
Ennui - feeling of weariness and discontent by lack of
ineterest or intense boredom
2 Major philosophical view regarding Suffering:
1. considers suffering as an undesirable human
condition
2. humans naturally seek pleasure and avoid
pain
 Arthur Aschopenhauer - proposed a view of world
controlled by chaotic forces (pessimistic view)
Pessimistic View - believes human existence is
characterized by suffering caused by man’s inability to
meet his unlimited wants and desires
 Buddhist Philosophy - suffering is a defining
feature of human existence
 Hinduism - suffering is tied to spiritual progress
and it ends when enlightenment is attained
  Friedrich Nietzsche - suffering is inevitable, man is
meant to suffer; when suffering a person should Grief - natural reaction to death and dying
face it and take responsibility
 George Sefler - suffering is one of many Bereavement - state of loss brought by death
interrelated elements that define the meaning of
experiences throughout life Mourning - process by which persons deal with death

Theodicy - philosophical branch which tries to reconcile
the existence of all good god with the reality of suffering
Irenaeus of Lyons - suffering is a consequence of free will
Coping - the means that a person employs in dealing with
difficult situations
Epicureans - suffering can be avoided by seeking only
pleasurable things in life
Stoics - believe what one must face difficulties in life with
fortitude and patience
Utilitarian - people should focus on actions that are
beneficial to the society
Elisabeth Kubler-ross’ 5 Stages of Grief:
1. Denial- expresses disbelief regarding his
situation
2. Anger - expresses frustration with his
situation
3. Bargaining - dying person often voices his
wish that his life b prolonged
4. Depression - experience intense sadness and
exhibits disinterest in life
5. Acceptance - person comes to terms with his
impending death and has embraced his
mortality
(These stages need not to be experienced in sequence)
George Bonnano 4 Trajectories of Grief:

Humanitarianism - the purpose of a person is to make 1. Resilience - person remains emotionally

other people happy stable despite the loss
2. Recovery - person experiences a period of
LESSON 12: OUR ULTIMATE FATE grief
3. Chronic Depression - person experiences
Death - the end of all biological functions that sustain a intense depression after death or traumatic
living organism; natural occurrence experience has passed
4. Delayed Grief - person may see to be well
Aging/Senescence - gradual decline of the human body adjusted but experiences feelings of grief,
and its faculties as the person advances in age anxiety and distress later in time

Reincarnation - the belief that a person’s spirit begins a

new life in another body

Eternal Oblivion - belief that the person’s consciousness is

completely erased upon death

Abuloy - voluntary contributions for the family of the

deceased

Afterlife - belief in the persistence of the soul after death

near death experiences-person who was close to death
has an “out-of-body experiences” and visions of afterlife

Mortality Salience - man’s awareness of the inevitability

of death

 Martin Heidegger - believes that a man is a being

oriented towards death (being-toward-death)
 Ludwig Wittegenstein - death is phenomenon
that is outside human experience
 Karl Jasper - death is the most significant “limit
situation”
 Erik Erikson - death is an important aspect in the
development of man

Ego Integrity - person achieving his life’s purpose

 Christian believes that man is created from dust

and in death he returns to dust