Limalok

Coordinates: 5.6°N 172.
3°E[1]
Limalok
Limalok (formerly known as Harrie or Harriet) is a
Limalok
Cretaceous[a]-Paleocene[b] guyot/tablemount in the
southeastern Marshall Islands, one of a number of seamounts
(a type of underwater volcanic mountain) in the Pacific
Ocean. It was probably formed by a volcanic hotspot in
present-day French Polynesia. Limalok lies southeast of Mili
Atoll and Knox Atoll, which rise above sea level, and is
joined to each of them through a volcanic ridge. It is located
at a depth of 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) and has a summit
platform with an area of 636 square kilometres (246 sq mi).
Limalok is formed by basaltic rocks and was probably a

shield volcano at first; the Macdonald, Rarotonga, Rurutu Bathymetry of Limalok and surroundings;
and Society hotspots may have been involved in its Limalok is lower centre left
formation. After volcanic activity ceased, the volcano was Summit depth 1,255 metres (4,117 ft)
eroded and thereby flattened, and a carbonate platform Summit area 636-square-kilometre
(246 sq mi)
formed on it during the Paleocene and Eocene. These
Location
carbonates were chiefly produced by red algae, forming an
Group Ratak Chain
atoll or atoll-like structure with reefs.
Coordinates 5.6°N 172.3°E[1]
The platform sank below sea level 48 ± 2 million years ago Country Marshall Islands
during the Eocene, perhaps because it moved through the Geology
equatorial area, which was too hot or nutrient-rich to support Type Guyot
the growth of a coral reef. Thermal subsidence lowered the Age of rock Cretaceous
drowned seamount to its present depth. After a hiatus lasting
into the Miocene,[c] sedimentation commenced on the seamount leading to the deposition of manganese
crusts and pelagic sediments; phosphate accumulated in some sediments over time.
Contents
Name and research history
Geography and geology
Local setting
Regional setting
Composition
Geologic history
Volcanism and first biotic phenomena
Platform carbonates and reefs
Drowning and post-drowning evolution
Notes
References
Sources
Name and research history

Limalok was formerly known as Harrie
Guyot[3] and is also known as Harriet
Guyot;[4] Limalok refers to a traditional
chieftess of Mile Atoll.[5] Limalok is one of
the seamounts targeted during the Ocean
Drilling Program,[6] which was a research
program that aimed at elucidating the
geological history of the sea by obtaining Limalok
drill cores from the oceans.[6][7] The
proportion of material recovered during the
drilling[8] was low, making it difficult to
reconstruct the geologic history of Location in the Marshall Islands
Limalok.[9]
Geography and geology
Local setting
Limalok lies at the southernmost[10] end of the Ratak Chain[11] in the southeastern Marshall Islands[12] in
the western Pacific Ocean.[6] Mili Atoll is located 53.7 kilometres (33.4 mi) from Limalok,[3] with Knox
Atoll in between the two.[13]
The relatively small[14] seamount rises from a depth of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[15] to a minimum depth
of 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) below sea level.[16] The top of Limalok is 47.5 kilometres (29.5 mi) long[3]
and broadens southeastward from less than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to more than 24 kilometres (15 mi),[13]
forming a 636-square-kilometre (246 sq mi) summit platform.[17] The carbonate platform of Limalok
crops out at the edges of the summit plateau.[10] Wide terraces[10] and numerous fault blocks surround
the summit plateau;[18] some of the latter may have formed after the carbonate platform ceased
growing.[19]
Mili Atoll and Limalok emerge from a common pedestal[9] and are connected by a ridge at 1.5 kilometres
(0.93 mi) depth.[15] The seafloor is 152[20]–158 million years old,[21] but it is possible that Limalok rises
from Cretaceous flood basalts[d] rather than the seafloor itself.[23] Volcanic sediments in the Eastern
Mariana Basin may come from this seamount.[24]
Regional setting
The Pacific Ocean seafloor, especially the parts that are of Mesozoic age, contains most of the world's
guyots (also known as tablemounts[25]). These are submarine mountains[26] which are characterized by
steep slopes, a flat top and usually the presence of corals and carbonate platforms.[1] These structures
originally formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic Ocean. Fringing reefs may have developed on the
volcanoes, which then were replaced by barrier reefs as the volcanoes subsided and turned into atolls.
Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led
to the formation of thick carbonate platforms.[27] Volcanic
activity can occur even after the formation of the atoll or atoll-
like[e] landforms, and during episodes where the platforms were
lifted above sea level, erosional features such as channels and
blue holes[f] developed.[30] The crust underneath these seamounts
tends to subside as it cools and thus the islands and seamounts
sink.[31]
The formation of many seamounts[32] including Limalok[33] has

been explained with the hotspot theory, in which a "hot spot"
rising from the mantle leads to the formation of chains of
volcanoes which get progressively older along the length of the
chain, with an active volcano at only one end of the system, as
the plate moves over the hotspot.[34] Seamounts and islands in
the Marshall Islands do not appear to have originated from simple
age-progressive hotspot volcanism as the age progressions in the
individual island and seamount chains are often inconsistent with Illustration of how hotspot volcanoes
this explanation.[35] One solution to this dilemma may be that work
more than one hotspot passed through the Marshall Islands, [36]
and it is also possible that hotspot volcanism was affected by

extensional deformation of the lithosphere.[37] For Limalok, geochemical evidence shows affinities to the
Rarotonga hotspot[38] which is unlike the geochemical trends in the other volcanoes of the Ratak
Chain.[39] Reconstructions of the area's geological history suggest that the first hotspot to pass by
Limalok was the Macdonald hotspot 95–85 million years ago, followed by the Rurutu hotspot and the
Society hotspot 75–65 million years ago.[40] The Rarotonga and especially the Rurutu hotspots are
considered to be the most likely candidates for the hotspot that formed Limalok.[41] However, some
paleogeographical inconsistencies indicate that lithospheric fractures secondary to hotspot activity were
also involved.[42]
From plate motion reconstructions, it has been established that the Marshall Islands were located in the
era now occupied by present-day French Polynesia during the time of active volcanism. Both regions
display numerous island chains, anomalously shallow ocean floors and the presence of volcanoes.[43]
About eight hotspots have formed a large number of islands and seamounts in that region, with disparate
geochemistries;[44] the geological province has been called "South Pacific Isotopic and Thermal
Anomaly" or DUPAL anomaly.[45]
Composition
Limalok has erupted basaltic rocks,[13] which have been classified as alkali basalts,[46] basanite[39] and
nephelinite.[47] Minerals contained in the rocks are apatite,[48] augite,[49] biotite, clinopyroxene, olivine,
nepheline and plagioclase,[48] and there are ultramafic xenoliths.[50] Shallow crystal fractionation
processes appear to have been involved in the genesis of the magmas erupted by Limalok.[51]
Alteration of the original material has formed calcite, chlorite, clay, iddingsite, montmorillonite, zeolite,
and a mineral that could be celadonite.[41][48] Volcanogenic sandstones[52] and traces of hydrothermal
alteration also exist on Limalok.[48]
Carbonate, clay,[13] manganese phosphate crust materials[g][54] and mudstones have been found in
boreholes[28] or have been dredged from the seamount.[54] The carbonates take various forms, such as
grainstone, packstone,[28] limestone,[55] rudstone and wackestone.[28] Porosity is usually low owing to
cementation of the deposits,[55] a process in which grains in rock are solidified and pores filled by the
deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate.[56] The carbonate rocks show widespread evidence of
diagenetic alteration,[57] meaning the carbonates have been chemically or physically modified after they
were buried.[56] For example, aragonite, pyrite[58] and organic material were formed by alteration of
living beings within the clays and limestones.[59]
Geologic history
Limalok is the youngest guyot in the Marshall
Islands.[4] Argon-argon dating has yielded ages of Key events in the Paleogene
69.2[62] and 68.2 ± 0.5 million years ago on
volcanic rocks dredged from Limalok.[63] Mili Atoll – Neogene
volcano is probably not much younger than O
-25 — l
Limalok.[64] During the Cretaceous Limalok was i Chattian
g
probably located in French Polynesia;[33] – o
c
paleomagnetism indicates that Limalok formed at e
-30 — n
15[65]–10 degrees southern latitude. Early e Rupelian
limestones dredged from Limalok were considered –
to be of Eocene age (56–33.9 million years ago[2]) ←First Antarctic
-35 —
before earlier Paleocene deposits were discovered Priabonian permanent ice-
C sheets[61]
as well.[9] –e P
na
o l
-40 — z e Bartonian
oo
i g
Volcanism and first biotic –c e E
n oc
phenomena e e Lutetian
-45 — n
Limalok first formed as a shield volcano.[33] The e
–
volcanic rocks were emplaced as lava flows[41] with
thicknesses reaching 1–7 metres (3 ft 3 in–23 ft -50 —
0 in).[66] In addition, breccia[h][16] and pebbles Ypresian
–
encased within sediments occur.[52]
-55 —
Soils formed on the volcano[13] through the ←PETM
–
P
weathering of volcanic rocks,[46] reaching a a Thanetian
l
thickness of 28.6 metres (94 ft);[47] claystones[46] e
-60 —M o Selandian
e c
and laterites were also generated through s e
– o n
weathering.[47] These deposits formed over a long z e Danian
o
time on an island that rose at least several metres -65 — i
c ←K-Pg mass
above sea level[52] – the estimated time it took to Cretaceous extinction
generate the soil profiles obtained in drill cores is An approximate timescale of key
about 1–3 million years.[20] Thermal subsidence of Paleogene events.
the crust[33] and erosion flattened the seamount Axis scale: millions of years ago.
before carbonate deposition commenced on
Limalok,[54] and it is possible that the growth of another volcano south of Limalok 1–2 million years
after Limalok developed may be responsible for a southward tilt of the seamount.[64]
The soils on Limalok were colonized by vegetation[33] that left plant cuticle and woody tissues;
angiosperms including palms, ferns and fungi with an overall low diversity developed on the volcano.[47]
Organisms burrowed into the soils, leaving cavities.[59] The climate was probably tropical to
subtropical,[47] with an annual precipitation of less than 1,000 millimetres per year (39 in/year).[68]
Platform carbonates and reefs

The erosion of the volcanic island was followed after some time by the beginning of carbonate platform
growth.[69] Sedimentation began in the Paleocene with one or two events in which the seamount was
submerged;[13] the start of sedimentation has been dated to about 57.5 ± 2.5 million years ago.[70] After a
Paleocene phase with open sea or back-reef conditions, lagoonal environments developed on the
seamount during the Eocene.[71] It is possible that the platform periodically emerged above sea level,
leading to its erosion.[54][72] It is not clear if the platform took the form of an atoll, or of a shallow
platform shielded on one side by islands or shoals, similar to the present-day Bahama Banks.[28][73] Sea
level rise at the Paleocene-Eocene transition may have triggered a transformation from a partially
shielded platform to a true ring-shaped atoll.[74]
The carbonate platform reaches an overall thickness of 290 metres (950 ft) in one drill core.[16] Drill
cores in the platform show variations between individual carbonate layers that imply that parts of the
platform were submerged and emerged over time while the platform was still active,[46] possibly because
of eustatic sea level variations.[75] Furthermore, the platform was affected by storms which redeposited
the carbonatic material.[74] The deposition of the platform lasted about 10 million years,[76] spanning the
Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM).[i] Drill core evidence[77] shows that the PETM had little
impact on carbonate deposition at Limalok despite a decrease in the δ13C isotope ratio recorded in the
carbonates, implying there was little change to ocean pH at that time.[78]
The dominant living beings on Limalok were red algae that occupied many ecological niches and formed
rhodoliths.[j] Other lifeforms were[13] bivalves,[80] bryozoans,[15] corals, echinoderms, echinoids,
foraminifera,[k] gastropods, molluscs and ostracods.[80] Species and general composition varied over
time, leading to different species being found in different parts of the platform.[13] Red algae were
important early colonizers,[69] and algal mats and oncoids[l] were contributed by algae and/or
cyanobacteria.[82]
Drowning and post-drowning evolution

A carbonate platform is said to 'drown' when sedimentation can no longer keep up with relative rises in
sea level, and carbonate deposition stops.[83][84] Limalok drowned during the early-middle Eocene, soon
after the start of the Lutetian,[54] 48 ± 2 million years ago.[70] It is the most recent carbonate platform in
the region to submerge:[9] the similar platform at neighbouring Mili Atoll is still depositing
carbonate.[85][86]
The drownings of carbonate platforms such as Limalok, MIT, Takuyo-Daisan and Wōdejebato appear to
have many causes. One is a sea level drop resulting in the emergence of much of the platform; this
reduces the space that carbonate-forming organisms have to grow upward when sea levels again rise. A
second factor is that these platforms were not true reefs but rather piles of carbonate sediment formed by
organisms; these constructs cannot easily out-grow sea level rises when growing on a constrained
area.[87] Two final key factors are the passage of the platforms through nutrient-rich equatorial waters
which cause the overgrowth of algae that hampered the growth of reef-forming organisms, and global
temperature extremes that may overheat the platforms especially when close to the equator; present-day
coral bleaching events are often triggered by overheating and Limalok and the other seamounts were all
approaching the equator when they drowned.[88][89] In the case of Limalok and some other guyots,
paleolatitude data support the notion that approaching the equator led to the demise of the platforms.[90]
After the platform ceased growing, subsidence quickly lowered the tablemount below the photic zone,[m]
where sunlight can still penetrate.[69] Hardgrounds[n][93] and iron-manganese crusts formed on the
drowned platform[6] which contain Oligocene (33.9–23.02 million years ago[2]) sediments and
planktonic fossils.[71] Some of the rocks underwent phosphatization[93] during three separate episodes in
the Eocene and Eocene–Oligocene which may have been triggered by ocean upwelling events at that
time.[94]
Until the Miocene, sedimentation on Limalok was probably hindered by strong currents.[95] Renewed
sedimentation began at that point[71] after the drowning of Limalok, with sediments consisting mainly of
foraminifera and other nanofossils. Some of the sediments were reworked after deposition. At least two
layers formed during the Miocene (23.3–5.333 million years ago[2]) and Pliocene–Pleistocene (5.333–
0.0117 million years ago[2]),[6] reaching a cumulative thickness of 100–140 metres (330–460 ft).[96][71]
Chemically, most of the sediments are calcite[97] and they often occur in rudstone or wackestone
form.[98] Bivalves, echinoderms, foraminifera[98] and ostracods[o] are fossilized in the sediments,[96]
which sometimes contain borings and other traces of biological activity.[98]
Notes
a. Between ca. 145 and 66 million years ago.[2]
b. Between 66 and 56 million years ago.[2]
c. 23.3–5.333 million years ago[2]
d. Flood basalts are very large accumulations of basaltic lava flows.[22]
e. Whether the Cretaceous guyots were all atolls in the present-day sense is often unclear.[28]
f. Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[29]
g. Asbolane, birnessite and buserite are found in the crusts.[53]
h. Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments.[67]
i. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum was a short period about 55.8 million years ago
where atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and temperatures dramatically increased.[77]
j. Nodule-like assemblies of algae which deposit carbonates.[79]
k. Among the foraminifera genera found on Limalok are Alveolina, Asterocyclina, Coleiconus,
Discocyclina, Glomalveolina, Guembelitroides and Nummulites.[13]
l. Pebble-like growths formed by cyanobacteria.[81]
m. The uppermost layers of water in the sea, through which sunlight can penetrate.[91]
n. In stratigraphy, hardgrounds are solidified layers of sediments.[92]
o. Ostracod taxa include Bradleya, various cytherurids, Eucythere, Krythe and
Tongacythere.[96]
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Limalok

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Limalok

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Coordinates: 5.6°N 172.

Limalok is formed by basaltic rocks and was probably a

Name and research history

Geography and geology

The formation of many seamounts[32] including Limalok[33] has

and it is also possible that hotspot volcanism was affected by

Platform carbonates and reefs

Drowning and post-drowning evolution

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