Acto,lS55,Vol. 8, pp. 137 to 170. Pergamon Press Ltd.

, Lotion
C3wchimiu1et Qmmocbin&x~

Metamorphismof natural water8 in the crustof weathering-2*

I. I. C~EBOTABEV
Au&die

CONTENTS

P&e PAOE
* . . 0 . . . . . . 137
~y~~~~d~tyofwa~~ ....... . 137
~Of~6~~“~~” ....... . 137
Hy~~e~i~~~d~ty ....... . 138
Depthandaalinityofwater ........ . 138
Salinity variation with dietauca from the outcrop end from the BBS . . 144
Depth and mlinity of weter in the Great Art&an Beein ... . 146
Subterrane8n waters in oil6elde ....... . lb2
Substance of the problem ........ . 162
Method of grouping ......... . 162
Chemical compoisition of w8ter ....... . 153
Hydraulic gradients and veloaityof flow . . , . . * 167
Pr8etieal view .......... . 160
Chemical compoktion of nstural brines ...... . 160
Oilfield brinee .......... * 160
“Conri&e” brinee .......... . 161
Chaagesin Baiinity concentration of brinee ..... . 161
Sdt domes end 8esocieti w8ters ...... . 162
SubMT8ne8n w8ters of VOlCaniC8&3o&tiOn ..... . 162
waters of geysers ......... . 162
Wetera of mud volcanoes ........ . 162
Salinity of weter eesocieted with meklliierous deposit8 ... . 103
Salinity of waters from sedimentary, metsmorphic, and igueou8 m&a . . 164
REFEIUZNCES .......... , . 168

&‘lJDY OF TEE PBOBLEM

Types ofthe art&an ~‘a~$te~”

The rate of movement of natural waters in the subsurface reservoir and the
variation in salinity are largely determined by the hydrogeological structure of the
basin and its recharge-discharge conditions.
The following subdivision of the subsurface basins containing confined water,
or the so-called ariesian “systems”, can be given in this respect:
1. Open basins.
2. Partly closed basins.
3. Closed basins.

+ Psrt 1 of this srticle haa been publiied in @&&a. ct Coamockkt. Acta S,22.

137
 Opeol basins are found in the localities where the water-b8aring formation
containing artesian and subart&an waters in upper portion of the arm is drained
by the rivers or lak8s in lower area (Antelopa Valley, California, the Ukrainian
basin, and others).
Parsly tied basins are found in the areas in whioh the piessure (art&an and
subarfeeiari) waters are drained by boree only in one portion of the basin: whereas
in the other portion, located in the vicinity, pressure wat8rs are discharged by
springs (the Great Australian Basin, for instanoe, where the “mount springs” are
numerous).
CZ~W?.basins, in which the outlet of the porous wat8r-b8aring bed at the lower
level is presumably found on the floor of the sea.
It is believed that in the alosed basins a oertain but unknown amount of
pressure-water may be spent on the general leakage through the imparm8able
strata, all of which permit the mpe of an appreciable portion of pressure-water
(South Dakota, Pre-Caucasian Basins, Turkestan).
The intensity of water-exchange between surfaoe and subterranean waters is
largely dependent upon the ratcl of flow in the intake asea and by the drainage
conditions in the ar8a of disoharge. The later one is usuaJly direoted seawards or,
after all, towards the oceanio depressions.
In some large structural units a looal drainage of deep-s8at8d water may be
caused by the occuriwnee of the tectonic breakings, but the rat8 of such drainage
would not be sign&ant.
In most artesian “systems” of the clos8d type, wa~r~xcha~e is more intensive
on the slope8 of the structure, while in the inner portions very oft8n sluggish
movement occurs
As a result of this proaess, a great variation in chemical oomposition of sub-
terranean waters takes place; bioarbonate waters prevail on the slopes of the
structure, while sulphate and chloride waters occur in the dcseper portions of the
basin.

Hydradic gradiente and salinity

It is one of the tb8ses of the pr8sent study that the variation in salinity of
natural waters in th8 crust of weathering is a fun&ion of the hydrodynamics of the
underground flow and that it is determined i%rstof all by the rat8 of the hy~au~~
gradients (Tables 14, 15, 16, 17).

The relation between the depth of the occurrence and salinity of subterranean
waters in the crust of weathering is twofold.
As a gexmral law the geoobemical types of natural waters depend on the water-
exohange possibility: bioarbonate waters occur near the earth’s surface and
chloride waters in the deeper portions of the structures (Tables 18, 19).
A deviation of this law often occurs when the local structural ooiiditions of the
water-bearing bed facilitate the active water-exchange in the subsurface reservoir
(Tables 20 and 21).
The depth of the active exchange is variable, but sometime it is ~o~d%~~b~~

138
 Table 14. Reldon betweenhydra&c gmdknta and idinity of subtewaneanwater8 in the artem& ba8in

- - -
Hydmtdic Totu!
Anions
aroup Brodd @7&88
Mode of
of borea reporting of
, um!er
N8 HCO,
% p.p.m. % C8 ’ b%g Cl so4
+K + CO,
IL L
-

First
340 0.013 100.0 1,307 100.0 p.p.m.
React. V8hl0 y0
--
267
24.0
101

~-
10.8
86
16.2
I
_-
453
27.4
-~
261
11.2
169
Il.4

240 oa3 23.0 2,046 166.0 p.p.m. 442 137 124 974 281 88
Reaat. value y0 26.6 9.4 14.1 37.8 8.0 4.2
-- -_ __~ -- --
360 0.01 100.0 1,663 100.0 p.p.m. 367 112 91 687 349 167
Reaot. V81U0y0 26.2 9.6 14.2 28.6 12.6 9.0
-_ -~ --

Second 270 0.0076 76.0 2,337 140.0 p.p.m. 473 174 162 1,166
F&act. value % 24.6 10.3 16.1 39.4
-_ --

233 oaO14 14.0 3,216 192.0 p.p.m. 570 1,627

l&XX&.V8hl0 y. 21.5 36.6
__

384 0.03 100.0 528 100.0 p.p.m. 140 170

tit. V81Uey0 31.3 24.6

Third 300 0*0046 16.0 890 170.0 p.p.m. 234 323

React. value % 32.1 26.1

142 0*0019 6.3 2,628 498.0 p.p.m. 668 1,076

React. V81U0y0 32.0 33.4

423 0.0037 100.0 7,433 100.0 p.p.m. 1.806 3,044

Rf?&Jt.V81l.Wy. 31.0 34.0
Fourth
373 oaO29 78.4 8,170 109.0 - - - -

4
280 oaO19 61.3 9,143 131.0 p.p.m. 3,420 3,213 3,146 160
%&.Tt. V81Uey0 32.6 28.1 20.4 1.6
-
 Table 15. Relation&p between hydmulic gradients and salinity of mbbtewanean w&r8 in Soutl& Dakota Artesiun Baain
(Dakota uasw%twe) (DARTON, 1909P
T

Hydmulic Total
C&ion8 Anions T
gmdient 8a&ity ckla8
Mode of
. . reporting - Qf
water
HGO,
0baerw.l % pp.?& % Mg CI so,
-7 + co,
~--- -__- -___ _.~_
-I--- ---t----
Butte County wo3 ! loo.0 500-8 lOO*O p.p.m- 163.7 9.7 2.4 16.2 140.9 237.9
;= Well X& React. value yo 46.3 3.3 1.4 3.2 i 20.2 26.8 III
0
miles below
Belle
Fourehe
-_ . . . ~~-
_--
Stanley 2.100 0*0008 j 26.6 3,487-l 022.0 p.p.m. 1,401.7 11.6 625 1,380 - 688.4
County Rewzt. velue yo 49.2 0.6 0.3 28.3 - 21.7 III
Wendte
Station
-
* Remarks: All oomputationa including the reconversion of the water analyses from hypothetical compounds into the ionic! form have been done
by the preaeut writer.
 Table 16. Relation betweenhydraulic@radien&and mtinity of mtbtewaneanu&era in theSan Dkgo area, California
(ELLIS and LEE, 1919)
-
I I
StUtiC Haydn&k Total
T
cations Aniom
Lxulity of l&d gradient salinity I
Mode of
feet _ reporting - - - __~
above I I N8 HCO,
S.L. /Obuewed) % 1 p.p.m. ) % Cl3 Mg 1 Cl so4
+K + 30,
-- - - - __-

Sect. 23 41 o*ootl 100.0 642 loo*0 p.p.m. 116 61 24 160 30 266

5 QubrEf; React. velue yo 26.3 10.1 13.3 24.6 4.0 21.5
Well 042
-- -- -- -_ ___-- --- -- __-
Sect. 23 18.1 0.0043 ( 71.0 1,304 203.0 p.p.m. 309 04 60 830 a4 137
Qua&r NW React. v&e y. 30.1 10.8 9.3 41.0 3.9 6.1
well 040
-7
I~--- -- -- -- _--I_-
Sect. 23 3.6 0*0027 46.0 3,277 610.0 p.p.m. 733 244 110 1,214 068 312
QuarterNW Reect. value % 29.7 11.4 8.9 32.2 3.0 4.8
Well 034
- i -
l Bemwkz All computationshave been done by the presentwriter.
 -
AI 94 E4lI Z*BZ E*EI E.ZI WZ
WE 009 089 011 991 / 08E O.OLZ‘I
---
III 0.06 P.9
/I
@*PI f*6I E.91 1.91 8ZH u-
6EV EB PZT L9 ZL 98 WOO~O OPB -SnWHbad
-- ___-
!J*EI 0.0 E.L L*LE 0.9
VE 5 OTmI 891 / 0.001 800.0 099
u r----
___.
i----
ci ‘“03 + 13 asu 83
X+
% *W&d %
t-4 .baphn ‘03H 8N
/b -_ ________I.__ _ ____ ----I __..
 %letamorphismof natural waters in the crust of weathering

Table 18. Change in rrdinity and types of subterranean waters with depth
in paleowic formations of the Kama River area (Europe) (USUPOV, 1948)

rlltitude Reacting 2x2&e in percent

/; 3f ata& -- class
-7

Zevel Rektive of
I p.p.m. Na + K Ca HCO, uxzter
salinity Mg
(feet)
I i -7
- -
Upper Permian + 197 332 1.0 3.2 37.1 9.7 1.4 45.4 I
( , /
Lower P8lWktl +74 482.4 1.4: 9.5 18.2 i!I 22.3 i 2.1 36.0 1 II
L
Lower Permian +01 3,367 IO.1 30.5 9.8 9.7 Ii 22.3

Lower Permian -09 5,279 15.9 31.0 10.1 8.9 123.6

Upper
Carboniferous -534 12,926 38.3 34.6 8.4
Middle

//l18,291
Carboniferons - 2,023 356.3 38.3 6.4 5.3 i 48.6 1.2 i 0.2 \-
Lower
Carboniferous - 3,369 3;36,020 / 1,012.l 38.2 8.6
-

TabZe 19. Vatiion in ~~~n~ty of s~b~~a~~ wutere with depth in crystuZl~~.e

and me&morphic rocks of the north-western part of Central Asia (M~RINOF., 1948)
I ,
Total salinity Reacting value in percent i class
Typeof 1 Depth / .._
I__..-___.__I__ __
rock of
(feet)
1 p.p.m. 1 percent /Na + K / Ca 1 afg i Cl 1 SO, /HCO, water
/ _I ---
Porphyrite j
j
56
121
j
I
506
692
100.0
136.0
20.6
29.0
9.0 20.4
21.0 -
4-O !
4.5 j
9.7
12.1
I II
II
’j 154 /! 1,642 324.0 25.2 24.8 / - 12.7 21.8
/
I III
;- __- -/-- _.- --

Schist 68 1 608 100.0 22.6 27.4 ( - 5.7 / 8.1 II

92 / 1,530 251.0 23.9 26.1 - 12.0 / 24.9 I\’
259 6,631 / 1,090-O 25.2 24-8 / - 35-3 . 12.5 \-
-

Table 20. Change in salinity of subterranean waters with depth

in Recent-Tertiary bed (WARD, 1946);
Salinity j
Dep~
! Strata
(feet) /-----j
p.p.m. percet*t /
- ~__ ..-- .-.-_.__
10 ‘,61,061 ’ 100.0 Recent None 210 12,956 21.0 j Tertiflry / Small
I
80 78,764 129.0 Pleistocene None 240 11,040 18-O ! Tertiary Small

150 45,174 74.0 Pleistocene None 241 917 1.5 Tertiary Flowing

190 / 28,271 46.0 Pleistocene / None 266 966 1.6

* Remarks: Own computation.

143
(5,00~7,000 feet). The Great A~tra~an A.&e&an Basin is one of the remarkable
instances of such conditions (see further).
In New Zealand the water from 2,050 feet to 2,150 feet is as adine as sea-water9
and at 3,000 feet and deeper some wells yield water with twice that salinity
conoentration (HENDERSON, 1943).

Table 21. Chanq~ in aalintiy und typa of cub- uns?&rstab &pth

in South CmuZti (STEPEENSON, 1@14)*

Sdinity vatih with ti%tace from the ow!crop

The change in salinity of subterranean water8 in the same water-bearing cone
but at different distances from the outcrop of the formation is characterized by the
data in Tables 22 and 23.
In the Arbuckle county area t~~~orna) the salinity concentration in
subterranean water increases fkom 10,000 p.p.m. to 160,000 p.p.m. in the distance
of 14 miles, or at the rate of 10,000 p.p.m. per mile. In the area laying westward

Tabk 22. Sdinity wrktim of a&terra-n watere with dietam fnnn the outrrg,
A. Midwag/ Oil F&Id, Ch&b?‘nk (~GElU3, 1%17)

Die~noefrom outorop Totd dir&y

cl&wee of uM*tdT’ Re?narka
(f&l (P.P.m*)

/ /
Q,ooO 12,681 * Own computetion
16,000 24,090
21,600 32,193
27,300 34,889
I

B. Dak&.z Bwin (MCCOY and KEYTE, 1934)

Depth Xotal8alinity
I
(f@4 I (P.PW
/

144
 Metamorphism of natud wetmein the cruetof weather@

from the Ozarks the ~ncent~tion ~~~6s at the rate of 1,200 p.p.m. per mile in
a di&ance of 125 miles, and in Minnesota and Wisconsin (southward from the
Canadian shield) 315 p.p.m. per mile is a distance of 225 milas (Don and GINTIGB,
1930).
The increase in salinity concentration in water with the westward distance from
the outcrop area and with inoreased depth and with the area of high depth of the
water-bearing rock below the surface is also well known in Southern Kansas
(ABXCRNATHY, 1948) and in West Texas Permian Basin (Bnaams and FASH, 1934).
A similar phenomenon has been reoorded in Europe (Iax ATOVXCH, 1944).

LocaEity
= = s?+?$ /Nl+K: ca / n#fg / cl 1 so, p.

I&vfbhinowell 4 130-617 1.032 42,266 13,6& 1,219 721 21,609 4,842 256
UdZ.8ohkrrwelllQ 388-969 1,077 106,239 37,209 2,162 866 69,989 4,831 182
Nytve well 21 749-777 1.183 206,767 64,716 10,313 3,300 126,861 946 543
I

&&f&y VhtZtiOB With &tU?bM froOn tk 8.X&

The increase in the amount of dissolved solids in the underground water in the
alluvium towards the sea is illuetrated hy the data in Table 24.
Normally the salinity concentration in underground water towards the sea is
due to its enrichment by soluble matter in the zone of chloride-sulphate accumu-
lation (Fig. 2).
Sea&water contamination, as it has been observed in the Miami area, Florida,
for instance, takes plaoe only within a narrow ooastal strip about one to two miles
of the coast line (BROWN, 1925; LOVE, 1946).
The occurrence of salt water due to sea-water intrusion has been recorded in
twenty underground water-basins along the Californian Coast and inland bays
where the water-bearing formations are apparently open to sea-water and the
seaward hydraulic gradient has been reversed se a result of the protracted pumping
draft (BARKS and RICHTER, 1963).
T&e 24. Chump in wrlinityof arndmground
tmtw in the c&t&urn of the
Azapa Vu&y i@tamiuthe dc~ (TAYLOE, 1940)

Diutianoeinaand DiLeancuinkwut
Totd himdneaa
c1 a

Totid kadncds
from the shore fromtAauhore
(P-P4 as c&o, k?w.~.) a.9 ckaco,
(k-f4 (W

17.7 100 260 6-O 160 320

16.7 120 270 1.4 170 360
8.4 130 320 1.1 190 360
6.6 160 310 O-06 220 380

145
 I.I. CBEB~TABEV

Depth and sdinity of water in the Great Artesian Ba.&n

The data in Tables 25-30 and in Figs. 1l-14 give an indication of the range of
depth and saute-vocation of shallow and pressure-waters in the Great Australian
Artesian Basin* (Fig. lo)

Fig. 10. Locality plan for the Great Art&an Basin.

A Table 25. Depul to tier dn the @ted Art&m Btin (chk& bicarbonute uxz.tere)

(ff4 j- ._. ---- -....,. ”-

/ &Number 1 : Number pe*cent 1 Number j
of ti f percent percent
of barea of bores i
-._-_ ._L.-_ ___ _.___
I !
o-I,tKw i 1,105 85.9
l,ooO-2,000 358 21.2
2,000-3,000 139 8.3 39 39.4
3,000-4,000 66 3.9 12 ; 12.1

4,oock&ooo 2 o-2 12
5,ooo-6,000 1 1 /1 0-f ; -o’7 :I ---
--- :/ ----- ____

TOTAL / 920 loo*0 1 100.0 / 99 100-o

* Published by pemuimion of the, Director of the Ckologicd Survey, South Australia.

146
 Metemorphism of natural watera in the crust of weathering

Table 25 (continued)
B

Percentage of bore
Number
Portion
the bak
of
of bore-e 1-o j 26.0 50.0 75.0 ’ 99.0
studied
Depth in feet
I
1
South Australia 920 2,481 577 177 49 I -
Queenslaud 1,678 4,004 /’ 1,297 689 221 92
New South Wales 99 4,277 2,465 1,881 j 1,406 614

TOTAL 2,697 - I I I - ~ -
1 - i -
I /

Remarka: Total 8mount of boreholes accounted in the Great Art&en Besin is now &out 5,000.
The deepest bore 89 yet known is in exceea of 7,000 feet, being somewhere nesr the north-eeet corner
of South .hfhr8h8.

BASED ON THE RESULTS

OF 326 WATER ANALYSES

PER CENT FREQUENCY

Fig. 11. Integral frequencv curve of total salinity in shallow underground water
in the Great Artesian Besin.

147
 I. I. CmrBoTmv

Talk 26. Total d&tY of ahdkxo wdsrgound a.zawain the

SouthAwtdiimpmth

R&&g of total
@p.m.)
uidimity T
-

O-5,720 217 06.6

5,72O-11,440 76 23-l
11&w-i7,160 26 7.0
17,160-22,890 3 1.0
22,88&28,000 1 0.3
28,600-34,320 2 0.6
34,32&40,040 1 0.3
40,040-46,760 1 0.3
46,760-61,480 0 0
61.48~67,200 1 0.3
_I_
326 100~0
TOTAL
I

Ratingoftddt?az~
(P.P.W ---__-.

o;izz$q .iw?wmt ~o;&~~ )o;tztJ4$q Per-

-.^_--~. _.-
I I
O-6.720 326 69.7 333 1 9&3 604 1 98+6
6,720-11,440 132 243 11 3.0 3 j 0.6
11,440-17,190 69 IO.9 0 1.7 O j 0
17,1f50-22,880 12 2.2 i ff 1 , 0.2
22.88~28,600 7 1.3 I 3 ! 0.6
28,000’34,320. 2 0.3 1 0
More than 34,320 7 1.3 1 1
__-
ToTAL 644 100~0 -1 / 367 611
q: , 100.0
I I

NUT&? PV of dYW
Pcnho?&of Relative
Ube.ba&n tim
of 1.0 / 26.0 1 60.0 / 76.0 / 99.0 salin*

South A- 644 45413 9,863 3,732 1,201

Bueareeknd 367 17,098 3,330 972 243
New South Walea 611 7,636 1,487 438 109

TOTAL j 1,412 j - 1 - / - / - j - 1

148
 Metamorphismof naturalwatersin the crustof we8thea-ing

Table 28. Totd .&i&&of the.Jumseic waters in South Auetrdiun portion

of the.cheat Artesian Basin
A

Rating of tot& wlindy (p.p.m.)

I
F’requency Total
More thon
0-1,7?6 1,710-3,432 3,432-6,148
6,148
-

Number af an8lyse8 44 46 19 9 118

._
Percent 37.3 39-o 10.1 7.6 100.0

Percmtagc of anulyatw

Number of water
1.0 35.0 60-O 76.0 99.0
anulyaea I I I I
Tot& dinity (p.p.m.)
-

118 7,068 3,217 2,273 1,367 137

Table.29. Hy&ochemid fadea of aubtununeanwater8of the GreatArt&an Basin

-
Total mlinity (p.p.m.) I
- No. of
Typee of UXZtiT8
andyace
Low oahe Tmndkwud High dine
faciew f& fk
- -

Shallow water LeeI than 1,087 4,089 More than 8,223 / 326
-I-
-.i
Pressure-water
(no subdivided)
(1) South Australin Leea than 1,201 3,732 More than 9,863 644

(2) Queensland Lees than 243 972 More then 3,330 357

(3) New South Walea Lea.9than 109 438 More than 1,487 611
-,-
Jurassic pressure-waters
(S.A. portion) LeafIthan 1,367’ 2,273 More than 3,217 118
L_

Total anrrlyaea 1,866

- -I
149
I. I. CHEBOTAREV
 ~fe~rno~hisrn of natural waters in the crust of weathering

Table 30. Composition of reprmentative subterranean waters of different geochemical types

in the Qre& Arte.&un Baain

Total / Reacting value in percent ClnSS

Portion of ba&n Water-bearing I
- -.-- -
salinity Y- of
and bore location bed
[P.PW Xa -t- K I Ca m a I so* /HCO,!&ate7
-I(
i: !
i
i - - --
South Auatnaliu
Nick O’Time L. cre~eous 31,992 32.6 I 13-1 , 4-3
-
46-9 3.1 - I-
Meteor L. Cretaceous 1,233 49.8 0.2 12.4 0.1 37.5 II
Patchawarra L. Cretaceous 2,807 49.2 0.4 0.4 35.6 0.4 14.0 I\
oodnadatta Jurassic 2,167 35.4 2.6 12.0 33.0 10-o 7.0 I\‘
Peachawirrina Jurassic 1,571 47.5 1.8 0.7 24-O 0.1 259 III
-
Sinclair Jurassic
__ .- 1,030
-/-
48.2
.- --
0.3 1.5 11.9
..a...
38.1 II

~~e~~~
Tambo Jurassic 143 37.4 5.2 7.4 16.2 - 33.8 II
Cunnamula Jurassic 308 50.0 - - 2.0 - 48.0 I
Eromanga Jurassic 1,997 49.4 0.6 - 4.3 1-o 44.7 I
Winton Jurassic 373 41.0 9.0 / - 13.0 - I 37.0 II
- -
Longreach

New South Wales

Jurassic
_/_ ._ 782 l
_I_ .- -
_-‘-...--
- 17-8
_.-
322 II

Coonamble - 729 48.8 0*8 t 0.4 5.5 - 44.5 I

Narba - 45.7 1.8 j 2.5 4.4 O-6 45.1 I
- 736
- -

CHLORIDE - SUPHATE 1 blCAB6ONAlE

,

w rwly
CLh44E5 OF WATER4
Fig. 13. Classification diagram for subterranean waters in the Great Artesian Basin. Some figures
refer to bore numbers on Fig. 12; ions in reading value in percent. Tertiary waters: 19, 20, 21;
Cretaeeous waters: 7, 10, 11. 12, 13, 24, 8%; Jurassic watera: 1.3,4,6,6, 8.9, 14, 17,22, 23. 25, 26,
34, 36, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48a, 60, 85, SO, 129.

151
 I. I. CEzBmmlEv

The great importance of subterranean waters in the migration, mtoumulation,

preservation, and destruction of the oil and gas ooourrences as well as one of the
foroes for the production of oil has been well recognised all over the world.
Water is found in nearly all oilfields, but unfortunately not only the geoahemioal
relationship of water to oil and gas remains largely unknown, but even the problem
related to the chemioal oharaoter of the waters themselves, their salinity con-
centration, the ionic content, the ocourrenoe and role of sulphate, and the
concenkation of carbonate in the petroliferous zoneat etc., have not yet been
systematically studied.
For this reason, the scientific ‘interpretation of the factual data and the
identification and correlation of the oiliield waters of the different chemical
composition as a criterion in sesroh for oil have been hindered.
As the aooumulation and the analysis of the data related to the ohemical
composition of the oilfkld waters has prooceeded in the course of the present study,
it has become apparent that many of the old coxmepts about the uhemioal nature of
the waters have been completely disproved and the new aspect of the problem has
been indioated.
We definitely know now that the subterranean waters associated with oil-pools
are not necessary to be chloride brines or the water of extremely low sulphate
oontent is typioal for the oilfields.
It is also now evident that the variety in chemioal oomposition of oilfield waters
is mainly determined by the various types of the traps of petroleum (stratigraphic,
structural) as well as by the dynamics of water itself.
Thue in the stratigraphic complexes which are found in the zone of the
intensive Bush the ohemical composition of water will be oompletely difFerent from
that found in the tone of the limited circulation and hampered drainage.
The highly oonoentrated chloride water is mainly assooiatad with those oil-
pools where the oonditions for the preservation of the original oil occurrenoes were
favourable (stagnant conditions).
But even in this area the subterranean waters of high salinity have been
eventually segregated during the prolonged period of the inter-reeervoir migration
metamorphisation and preservation.
Many hundreds of water analyses from the different oil-pools in the world have
been classified and oonsidered in this ohapter, and it is believed that this information
would be of some interest and practioal value for students in the field of petroleum.

Method of grouping
The assorted data related to the depth of ooourrenoe and saGrAy variation of
subterranean waters in the oil6eld areas in the world (Table 31) have been oolleoted
chiefly from published sources (3, 10, 14, 17, 18, 19,20, 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 34, 36,
39,42,45,47, 48,49, b2, 63, 64, 67, 62, 63, 66, 07) and are grouped aocording to
the geochemieal types of waters. The analysis of these data has been oarried out by
means of the aforementioned principles of the theory of frequenoy.

162
 Number of analyea

Na+K/
a ( Mg / Cl 1so, /HCO.
\
Bioarbonate wetem 618 630 629 629 629 630
sulph8te w8tma 266 256 266 2S6 266 256
Chloride watera 939 933 938 943 940 936

Depth of urclter-The depth of the ocourrencfe of subterranean waters of the

different geochemical types in the oilfield areas is shown in Table 32 and Fig. 14.

PER CENT FREQUENCY

Fig. 14. Intqgralfmquenoycurveaof depthof chloride(l), bicarhonata(2).

rsulphete
(3) Watersin the otild areaa

Chemical wmptitim of water

Biaztbonate tier&-The salinity distribution of bicarbonate waters is shown in
Table 33 and Fig. IiS.
The data presented in Table 34 show a modification of bicarbonate waters. of
low saline faeies assokated with oil in a relatively short period of time.

163
 I. 1. tkEBOTAFLEV

1 BASfD ON THE RESULTS i i

/ Of 630 WATER ANALYSES’ I

%
t5,000 900 ec

E
i.3 I 0,oaa 600 ec

~~

PER CENT FREQUENCY

Fig. 15. Intagrei frequency curves of’chemical composition of bicsrbonate waters in oilfield areas
(T.S. = total salinity).

Table 32. Depth of oocuwe76ce in ~btewun~~ waters in cn”l$eldareas of the world

A, Distrihtion of c&de W&P8
I
/
Occurrence Occuwencc
Rating of depth __ _---“-~.~--_“‘- Rating of depth “_.~“.-_-.. .._ _
I,
t&t) A-umber Percent (feet) Number i Percent
__ __.. _ .___.____~ .- . --...-------- - -^!L___
I
... . -_ --

O-2,000 ; 133 22.0 a,ooO--10,000

I
2,000-4,000 260 43.0 lO,Ooo-12,000
/ ;; j 1:;
4,OoW3,ooo 93 15.4
12,000-14,000 2 It.3
6,000-8,000 i 61 10-o j
J !---_-_
,- .I_- ~~ __...._.. -.

! TOTAL 1 605 ; 100.0

IS. Frwncy

Frequency in percent
Major groupe
of waters j - ;iI 25.0 PO j 75.0 [~-~~‘~“Yjj~ ZzI’
1-O ! 10.0
~.--- -_ ~___~_._ -- -.__ -___ _._.._______ _ .
Bicarbonate 6,226 ! 4,142 / 3,175 2,282 ’ 1,587 1 1,091 520 j 34
Sulphate 5,109 ! 3,393 ’ 2,600 1,869 1,300 j 894 426 1 28
Chloride 11,328 1 7,095 5,178 3,488 2,195 / 1,372 508 606
I 1
* Remarke: Although the number of wells for bicarbonate and sutphate wakn~~is inadequute com-
pared to chloride wstenr, the figures show that the formsr occur at more &allow depth than the latter
one. Many pools sre now being deveioped at depths bebw 10,ooO feet, and the deepest bore aa yet
known has been pmet tha ZO,~-fit mark in Wyoming oilfield (LEVORSEN, 1951; SALNIKOV, f961).

154
 Metamorphism of natural watersin the crust~of weathering

Percent i! CI ’ SO, ; HCO, / y;

/ .%fode of reporting Na + K / Ca / Mg
8izmm y
f-w-e4 I I I
--I I
1.0 pp.“. 12,678 / 170 ’ 126 I 7,742 : 1,607 ~15,604 I 37,830
~ Reacting value o/b 48.3 , 0.8 / 0.9 j 21.6 : 3.1 25.3’ 100.0
-!A-- ---
10.0 p.p.m. 5,977 I 97 i 77 j 3,500 j 890 ~ 7,859 : 18,400
, Reacting value y. 47.9 / 0.8 j 1.3 / 20.1 I 3.6 i 263 i 100.0
----
25.0 i p.p.m. 3,497 i 65 56 / 1,946 1 596 5,264 j 11,424
i Rescting value “/;1 1 475 i 1-O 1.5 1 17.8 ! 4.0 i 28*2 j 100-O
‘- /- ------I---..--
50.0 / p.p.m_ / 1,587 ; 38 / 38 / 812 : 346 / 2,820 i 5,636
i Reacting value % 46.6 : 1-3 / 2.1 / 150 ! 4.6 j 30*4 100.0
‘- ~-~, ‘__
75.0 I 595 i 20 / 24 j 294 j 181 / 1,316 / 2,430
i React:;%ue % 1 44.9 I 1.7 j 3.4 I 12.3 ~ 5.5 ; 32.2 / 100.0
-1-t --/
I
90.0 p.p.m. 174 i 9 15 1 70 ~ S6 1 564 j 918
Reacting value “/b / 41.2 ! 2.2 6.6 ~ 7.3 1 7.0 I 35.7 j 100.0

99.0 / p.p.m. I
/ Reacting vaiue e/o i

ctl t:
/ i-i-
Number of analyses / 618 j 630 ’ 629 ; 629 / 629 / 630 630
! / i b 1

The data in Table 34 show that the water in the productive well is evidently
in an active exchange with the surface water or with shallow underground water
of lower salinity.

Table 34. Modi&ation of bit wader8in Urozny oilfield (LINDTROP, 1927)

(Dep& 2,616 feet)
Reacting mtue in percent I
A?ZU&e8 &?mavk8

Average (6 analyses) / 1,070 i 10.5 I 24.0 / 155 / III j -

for four years

Average (3analyses) 1 873 / 12.: 1 37.6 1 II ~ IV:: ;w;ut, in for

Average (3 analyses) / 957 ’ 12.7 7.4 29.9 1 III j After twenty hours
I j pumping
I
Average (3 analyses) 1 963 10.9 23.7 15.4 III / After two days
I P-Ping

155
 I.I.cEEBoTAREV

For four years of pumping a relative equilibrium between the “deep-seated”

underground water and surface water has been well established.
However, &8the well ww shut in for 34 months the water of higher salinity has
accumulated at and near the well. As the pumping renews, this water became
depleted and a supply of fresh water from the outside source has reached the

I I I BASED ON
OF 256
THE
WATER
RESULTS
ANALYSES

OL OL 0

PER CENT FREQUENCY

J
Fig. 18. Fmquenoy curvea of ohemial aompoaition of mlphata wstma in oibld area
(T.S. wlinity).
= total

pumped well: total salinity of water sharply decreased and the CO, content in-
creased aocordingly. SO,-ion disappeared oompletely. After twenty hours pump-
ing and partioularly after two days the chemical composition of water became nearly
the same as it was for four years. This is clear evidence that .the supply from the
outside source was inadequate to cover the pumpage, and the “deep-seated”
(“native”) water came up again.
The water analysis given in Table 35 can be considered 88 a representative
analysis of highly concentrated bicarbonate waters (Class II) associated with
oil-pools :

Reacting txdue in percmt

Total salinity - --__
(P.P.W Ns + K 1 Ca i Mg Cl SO4 HCO, +- CO,
/ -__

76,439 60.0 / 0 0 I 18.8 I 0.6 30.6

I

156
 Metamorphismof naturalwatersin the crustof weathering

~~~~te mateT8- The variation in chemical composition of sulphate waters is

characterized by the data tabulated in Table 36 and presented in Fig. 16.

Table 36. ~he?nicd cmpodion of 8dphate umtm8 #8oci&ed with o&pooh i?a wodd

Pemmt Mode of
fW7~Y reporting

I.0 p.p.m.
Reacting due y0

10.0 p.p.m.
Re8cting value y. 34.9 9.8
--
25-O p.p.m.
Reacting value y.
---,-,-;
50.0 i p.p.m. 924 275 76
Reacting due y. 33.5

75.0 p.p.m. 431

Reacting value y. 31.8 12.5 5.7

90.0 p.p.m. 185

Reacting due y. 30.0 15.7 4.3

99.0 p.p.m. 37
Reacting v&l0 y. 26-O 20.8 3.2

CV O-Q 0.7 0.9

Number of analyses 256

Chloride waters--The chemical composition’ of chloride waters is. illustrated by

the data in Table 37 and Fig. 17.
Taco c~uracter~~~~ of Uzbek waters-The typical chemical characteristics of
subte~anean waters of different genetic types associated with oil-pools in the world
are ~lustrat~d by the data presented in Table 38.

Hydruulic grad&&a and velocity of $ow of &l$eld waters

A diluted water in oilfields similar to the other subsurface reservoirs indicates
a freedom of circulation of water, whereas a more concentrated water manifests
sluggish flow or stagnant conditions.
Waters associated with oil-pools are usually under a variable pressure which is
thought to be caused by the effective hydrostatic head, overburden, and the rate of
fluid movement through reservoir media. This pressure is something as great as
300 atmospheres at a.depth of 10,000 feet (F~NBHAUSERet. a2. 1948).
In Cushing oilfield, for instance, the hydraulic gradients rate between 0*02 and

157
GA. B-3
 I. I. CEEBoTaagv

O-04 at a depth of 1,700 to 1,860 feet below sea-level (BEAL, 1917); the gradient
0.02 is also known in Terek-Dagestan oil-pools.
The rate of movement of waters evidently varies in an irregular manner, being
in many oases affeoted by the numerous faults and tiaotures. In Salt Creek oil-
field, for example, water moves at the rate of 1 to 4 feet per 24 hours (COFFTNand
DEFORD, 1934).

PER CENT FREQUENCY

Fig. 17..Fmqmnoyourvea
of ok&ml oompo&ionof ohloride
w&emin oil&Ademm
(T.S. = totalmlinityj.

It is assumed that water and oil in the subsurface reservoir are in statio
equilibrium before the reservoir is tapped by drill@ wells, but as oil is produced
the enoroaohment of water into the spaoe previously oooupied by oil ooours.
Among the forces which may be responsible for the water entering (expansibility
of the water due to the presence of dissolved gases, reduction in pore space of the
rock upon reduction of pressure, etc.) the supply of extraneous water either at the
outorop of the formation or from other formations along &surea and craoks in the
faulted and sheared zones might be an important faator (WILDEand MOOSE, 1938).
The pmnt circulation of subterranean waters has certainly modifmd the
distribution of oil and gas in some oil&lds (the Grey Bull and Torahlight fields,
for instance) (LLOYD and BXUNDENSTINE,1922).
On the other hand, in the formations whioh to all appearanoe contain no water
and where liquids are considered to be in a “static” condition thereis no hydraulic
force, and, in contrast to the structural ocourrenee of oil, the oil-pools in such
formations are found in the synalines (REEVES, 1917).

158
 Metamorphism of naturalw&erain the cruetof weathering

-.
Table 31. Chemical compoeition of &wide watere associated with oil-pools in world
-

Percent Mode of

I i Tot&

1
-.
Ne+K Ca Mg Cl so, HCO,
frewmy reporting adinity
1 ,

--
t

1.0 p.p.m. 80,190 32,027 3,496 161,020 4,316 6,327 293,976

Reacting value y. 33-u 14.6 2.6 48.0 0.9 1.1 100.0
-- -- ~~-

-_
10.0 p.p.m. 40,970 14,760 1,748 81,092 2,330 3,007 143,897
Reacting value y. 33.4 13.8 2.8 48.0 1.0 1.0 100.0
~--

_-
25-O p.p.m. 23,970 8,201 1,071 64,320 1,601 1,760 90,923
Reacting value y. 33.8 13.3 2.9 48.0 1.0 1.0 100.0
-- ~-~

_-
50.0 p.p.m. 10,880 3,422 632 29.100 928 798 46,660
Reacting value y. 34.3 12.4 3.3 48.1 1.1 0.8 I 100.0
--

_-
75-o p.p.m. 4,080 1,239 220 13,680 487 308 19,906
Reading value y. 34-b 12.0 3.6 48.1 1.2 0.7 100.0
-- --~
90.0 p.p.m. 1,190 296 70 6,820 232 87 7,700
Rea$ing value y. 36.7 10.3 4.0 48.2 1.4 0.4 100.0
-- ---
99-O p.p.;n. 0 170 69 8 1,164 68 12 1,471
R%acting value y. 33.0 14.0 3.0 48.0 1.7 0.3 100.0
- -- -____~
C, 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.0
~-~
Number of analyses 1 939 18331838 943 940 936 967

Table 38. chsmicul churacterktice of typical Water8 associated with od-pool8 in the world
(60 peg centfrequency)

Major
Mode of Total
Qroups of Na + K Ca Mg Cl SO, HCO,
reporting salinity
¶lXZtW8

Bicarbo- p.p.m. 1,687 38 38 612 346 2,820 6,630

nate Reacting value yo 40.6 1.3 2.1 15.0 4*6 30.4 100-O

Sulphate p.p.m. 924 276 78 661 2,207 416 4,448

Reacting value yc 33.8 11.6 5.0 11.8 33.4 6.0 100.0

Chloride
P-p~“. o / 1”;::; 1 “;;y 1 y; j 2;;y 1 ;y 1 ;1y t&y
Reactmg value ,(,

Remarks: These characteristics are different from those shown elsewhere (CHEBOTAREV, 1952),
because the number of analyses was different.

159
 I. I. CHEBOTAREV

Pructs’caEtie--The practice in search for oil shows that a successful correlation

and identification of subterranean waters by ohemical analyses has often’saved time
and reduced the cost of operations.
The frequency curves compiled for the different types of water associated with
oil-pools are considered as a basis for such correlation.
The frequency of 60 per cent has been taken as a typical characteristic for
salinity variation of subterranean waters (CHEBOTAREV, 1951, 1952).
For a given statistical aggregate (Table 33, for instance) the frequency of
50 per cent corresponds to the value of 5,636 p.p.m. of total salinity, which will
be taken as a typical salinity for bicarbonate waters in oil-pools of the world.
Using this frequency for any chemical characteristic, we can find qualitative
value for subterranean water (Na, Ca, lMg, Cl, SO,, HCO,).
Thus, according to the integral curve for total salinity of bicarbonate waters
(Fig. M), we can foresee that four out of every ten bores find water of 7,000 p.p.m.;
every second bore (e.g., SO per cent frequency) 5,638 p.p.m.; seven out of every
ten 4,090 p.p.m., and so on.
For example, it is required to determine the chance of finding oil in the Great
Artesian Basin, where waters of bicarbonate type prevail. By plotting the
frequency curve of salinity of the Jurassic waters (Table 28) it is easy to ascertain
that there is a 2 per cent probability of finding waters which are typical of oil-pools.
The petroliferous possibilities of the region would appear to depend also upon
there being favourable geothermal conditions, but unfortunately no bore has been
drilled in the favourable area deep enough to pierce a zone of geothermal optimum.

Chemical wmpodion of natural brines

oilfield brined.
The representative analyses of natural brines associated chiefly with oil-pools
are given in Table 39.
Table 39. Chemical compaition of rsatlcralbrinea

- p.p.m. 76,100 1,300 19,500 4,900 60,400 -

RsW?t.v8lue yo - 2.0 34.0 14.1 60.0 -
-- --- -I_ -_.__
1,225 Re8c~:p;%e 160,400 47&M 6,550 2,208 93,906 - 102 Oil-pool, 67
y. - 40.1 3.6 6.3 49.9 - 0.1 Ksnsea /

3,460. p.p.m. 250,000 76,600 14,000 3,351 166,744 - 48 Oil-pool, / 57

%8Ct. V81U13
y. - 38.6 8.2 3.2 600 - _ Ken&a I
----- -- f-
- _ Oil-pool, 27
L p.p.m.
React. v8lue ye 300.000
- -
27.0 2Fo I 2% -
60.0 treco tnxca Alberta 1
-- --
l,EOO - Oil-pool, 50
0.1 - Ohio

Remada: Own wmputation.

If30
 Metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering

Table 40. Variation in salinity wneentration in “connute” brinea of Emtern Kentucky

(M~GBAIN and THOUS, 1951)
A. Diet&u&n
Total ealinity

ocouwtm.ce Occuwence
Rating R&?I.g
(p-P.4 Number Percent @-p.m.) / Number 1 Percent
I I

I 1 I I I

80$00-120,000

Ca’ ’
- -
I- I TOTAL 46 loo.0

- ratio
Ma’ -

Ocouwence Oecuwence
Rating of Rating of
Rl.tiO8 TCl.608
1 Number Percent Number Percent
,
O-2 4 9.1 8-10 - -
2-4 30 68.2 10-12 - -
4-6 I 15.9 12-14 1 2.3

6-8 2 4.6 TOTAL 44 loo.0

B. Integral frequency

Fmquency in. percent

Number of
analyses
1.0. 26.0 j 50.0 75.0 [ 90.0
I

46 Total salinity p.p.m. 266,880

44 8.9
I

It has been statSed that in Ohio, for instance, the quantity of brine that has been
taken from Rig salt sand was enormous and much more than the rock could at any
t’ime contain; on the other hand, in Pittsburgh the natural brines became so dilute
that it was no longer profitable to work them (BOWNOCKER, 1906; PRALEN, 1919).
“Connate” brines
The variation in total salinity of Appalachian brines which serve for industrial
uses and are considered as “connate” waters is illustrated by the data in Table 40.
Change in salinity concentration of brines
The increase in salinity concentration of brines as oil production continued is
shown in Table 41.

161
 a*of- Anat@ when Totat 8alini.$y Ce”
6h8w8uume
(fW (P-P.*.) &F
1,466 1 month old / 79,150 Lc4
18 monthsold 1 103,730 5.6

The Excelsior Company Works, however, have pumped chloride brines from
the 760-feet level for many years without any substantial ohange in the chemical
composition (m and WELCH,1019).

In the general oonsensus the salt domes have been derived from sedimentary
salt deeplyburied in the strata under the a&ion of the great gravity or teetonic
upward forces.
It is believed that rock-salt whiohis of lower speoifi~gravity than the sediments has
been displaced as a plastic body and hss often pier& the adjacent sedimentary rocks.
As regards the position of subterranean waters with respeot to the salt body,
the following three types of water have been detenninod (DZENS-LITOVSKY, 1946):
1. Oversalt waters, chiefly brines, ciroulate over the salt in the cover-rocks; they
are agents in the formation of the intensive karst cavities occurring often in salt
mince. 2. Lateral or neaz-salt w&x-s (brines) surround the salt deposits from the
sides; they occur at the contact of the salt with the rocks s~un~g the salt
body. 3. Inter-salt and under-salt waters (brines) which are found in rooks inter
and under the salt deposit respectively.

The ohemical composition of thermal waters of volcanic association is shown

in Table 42.
T&u 42. 6%&?&d cowqhddb of ubempalwdme of vdmnic a8mcidaon (U.&k,)
(S-s et (J., 1937)

- / I ..-

%zPwaweIS@ilz%w y. 1,208
- / 4&f
239 33
4.3 E.0
* - ,,4;: 18: 19.8
129 Boiling
P----P--F
?Tz%%:z
. t RtN&X~~~ % 2,596
- 46.3
096 74
2.9 ;:: ;.; ;&. :y 6.8
276 8.w
---- --p
s$$&~*’ Reacj3:TZ;* % 8,245
- 1,389
36.3 68.1
10.3 56.3
1.6 57.1
2.8 489
8.0 1,984
24.0 1,891
18.0 806

Ramah: Rat&kg vrl~ae in paoocratbave been oompntd with approximation.

waters of mid udcanoe.8.

The data presented in Table 43 tilustrate the salinity concentFlttiox1
and the
ionic content in the waters that have occurred with oil and gas in mud volcanoes.

f62
 Metamorphism of natureI waters in the crust of weathering

Table 43. Chwniud wmpodion of u&era awocidd with mud volca~ (Turkmenti)
(KOSSYQIN, 1936)

Rea&ng vah4.e in percent+

LOCdity na&n&ty
(;p:.) Ne+K/ Ca / Mg / Cl j SO, /HCO,+ CO, “F

C&&ken No. 1 261,800 36.8 11.2 3.0 60.00 - - -

No. 2 43,360 49.7 o-1 0.2 44.8 0.9 4.3 -
No. 3 238,000 36.8 10.8 2.4 49.98 0.02 - -
----
Neftedag No. 4 144,800 40.7 7.3 2.0 49.8 0.2 - 126
Boyadttg No. 6 266,000 39.8 8.2 2.0 60.0 - - 126

Keimir No. 6 27,300 ’ 48.0 -qzzq

1.2 ;:; F
No. 7 414,000 42.8 -

* With epproximetion.

Salinity of water associated titFi nxtalliferow depotits

The data in Table 44 show the range of salinity variation of subterranean water
found in zinc and lead deNsits.

Table 44. Sa&nity varidon of water aesocdde& with zinc and lead deposits
of theJopkin Region, U.S.A. (SIEBENTAL, 1916)
A. Diaibuiion

Rating of OCCUWenCe Rot&g of Occuwence

t&d salinity t&al 8aiXnity
(p.p.m.1
Number ) Percent bp.W Number
I
Percent

O-6,000 93 78.1 20,000-26,000 2 1.7

5,000-10,000 8 6.7 26,000-30,000 1 0.9
lO,OOO-16,000 8 6.7 30,000-36,000
16,000-20,000 3 2.6 More then 36,000

TOTAL I 119 I loo*0

B . Frequency

Percentjrequency Number
Salinity of C,
1.0 10-o 2450 60.0 76.0 90.0 analyses
-

Total salinity (p.p.m.) 36,180 16,600 8,400 3,180 1,020 240 119 1.3

Remmh: Tho data in Tables A and B have been computed by the present author.

It has been suggested that for the leaching of zinc from the Cambrian and
Ordovician dolomite limestone in the Joplin Region the pore-water would require
to be changed thirteen times.

163
 I. I. CHICBOTAREV

of waters
Salinity from
sedimentary, naetumrphic, a9zd igneou.8 rocks.
seainaetiry rocb.
The .saJinity variation in subterranean waters from sedimentary formations
in illu&ated bv the data in Table 45.

Table 45. Salinity of &a&w wukrground waterfiom Recent-Pleietoce*le

Contivwn+!al
dqwita (Europe) (Au&r’8 data)

Part.9per miuia / Hardneeain

Pcrctnt Total
f- a&?&y
IN~+K/ & 1 ~lg j a 1 SO,-( Zj!tZ

1.0 8,880 2,376 680 762 1,380 1,860 I 207.0

10.0 4,440 936 342 312.3 655 876 / 104.2
25.0 2,710 402 240 158.6 383 513. ) 09.7
50.0 1,350 135 150 64.7 174 233 ; 37.4
75.0 568 / 33.8 86*4 15.2 65.3 87.5 17.4
99-O 19.3 ! 0 14.1 1.2 2.7 3.6 1 1.5
/ -- --- -
Number of
enalyeee 616 72 / 203 179 876 412 1 806

TaMc 46. Sdinity of awbterwneanwaier8ftonc Recent-Pi&%cene fonndion (Au&-a&u)

(MILES, 1952)
I ’

&din&y 1.0 / 10.0 p:-;OT75.0 1 90.0 / 99.0 12: i ',

iiielidy(p.p.~n.), 29,357 1 11,5541 ::: 1 1,637 1 415 ( 85 - 1 323 ‘-,6-

Remariw: Own oompub&ion.

Table 47: Sdindy of 8ubtewaneanwater8from Tertiaryform&one (Europe)

(Author’s &z&z)

To.!&
T Parta per naillion Hardne8.s in
- -___ Englkh
8&T@/ T
-
1Ns+K; CR i Mg Cl
-I so4
I HCO, degTea

1.0 10,442 5,704 589 363 5,120 966 647 134

10.0 6,947 2,652 j 294 183 / 3,406 487 405 89
25.0 5,324 1,748 I 180 123 ’ 2,611 326 296 68
50.0 3,827 868 j 90 66 1,877 175 199 49
75.0
90.0
99.0
2,662
1,830
837
-,-
360 II
124 1
12 I
_‘-
/
37
13
1.3
-_y
31
13

-
1,224
/ 898
428
-I-
81
36
7
.-
.-
125
78
29
I
-I-
34
24
Ii

I
0.5 I 1.0 1.0 0.9 / 0.5 0.9 0.6 I
O-5
c, /

-I- _,_ --.--+ _-

/
Number of
tbIlrilpE 993 -
174 i
546 464 / 1,631 .!_ 765 206 -I 1,649

164
 Metamorphism of natural wake in the crust of weathering

Table 48. Salinidyof eubterraneunwater8f?wi Tertiaryformat&m%of

County Albert and Alped (Australia) (BARNES, 1961)

pere%t fre¶=W Nunaber

Salinity 1.0 1 10.0 1 26-O / 60-O ( 76-O j 90-O ( 99-O aA:aU cv

Total salinity (p.p.m.) 10.04Oj 13;680 / 6,120 13,680 12,400 1 1,760 j 840 1 692 1 0.6

Remark: AU computations have been done by the present writer.

Table 49. Salinity of mderraneun u&erafrom Ten&y (Miocene-Oligocene)(Auetralia)

(Bh~s, 1962)

Percentfrequency Number

Salinity 1.0 1 10.0 / 26.0 / 60-O j 76-0 / 90.0 ( 99.0 az;aa ”

Total salinity (p.p.m.) ~6,377~3,360~2,460)1,669~1,044~ 068 1 243 ) 240 ) 0.6

Remarke: Own computation.

Table 60. Salinity of aubtewaneanu&em from Memzoic fo~mationa(Europe)

(Author’e data)

Partuper 9niUion Hardneasin

Percent 1 Total
frequency 1 mlinity
Ca / Mg / Cl ( SO, / HCO, , :$:
I

1.0 36,610 3,340 2,626 11,248 1,079 686 314

10.0 14,440 1,316 1,190 4,432 643 487 124
26.0 7,160 660 660 2,192 364 394 61
60.0 2,084 190 276 640 196 301 17
76.0 621 48 100 160 91 226 7.6
99.0 0 0 6 32 8 98 0.8

c, I - _-/ - 2.0 0.9 - 1.7

&umber of I
analpea ’ 106 96 96 211 130 43 222

165
 Table 61. Salinity of uubtwmmn ux&mjhn Pdeowic formath (Ewope)
(Author’8 d&x)

Parta pap mil&on Hantncaa ita-

._ CIass of
Eng&h
Cl 1 SO, 1 HCO, ’ dGgrees -r
___~ __l^l_- .._.
-.. ,.

1.0 613 2,407 763 I 167

10.0 384 1,212 isO1 I 78
250 240 812 384 48
50.0 189 435 276 24
76.0 119 203 192 10
90.0 74 a7 132 3
99.0 : 28 ’ 17 63 0.4

c, 0.6 0.9 0.5 1.0

Number of
anmlyees 910 I 707 418 994 _-

I i I.--
Total salkity (p.p.m.) 1 0.9 1 161
- - -m-.-
/
Ca”
0.12 0.01 1.0 187
Mg”
L i

The representative analyses of water of the high salinity co~~~ratiun MSO-

&ted with ths Paleozoic formations are given in Table 53.

!i’abk 63. Chemical compsitionof Pal-s&c w&era of the high ,dnit~ (d-eastern Kaw)
(ABERNATHY, 1948)

Part8 per million

abet. 28T.255 RSE i 191.499~ 60,786 j 8,890 ’ 3,200 jil~,~~ -:II)

Sect. 8.T.28S RI.1 E. / 100,199 33,860 4,731 1,791 66,7861 4.0 ‘.O

166
 Metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering

Metamorphic rock.a.
Total salinity of shallow underground waters from metamorphic rocks can be
characterized by the data in Tables 54 and 55.
Table 64. Salinity of eubtemanean w&we from metamorphic rocb (Union of South Africu)
(BOND, 1940)

Perceni? frmy Number

Ingrediente
10.0 25.0 / SO.0 1 76.0 / 90-O 99.0 on$sU

Total salinity (p.p.m.) 4,432 2,192 / 640 ( 160 / 32 - / 1.7 1 88

Ce”
Mg”
I I
6.5 2.7 1.7 / 0.8 / 0.2 j Ql2 1 0.01 1 1.0 / 96

Table. 65. Salinity of eubtermnean waters from metamorphic (Pre-Cambriun) rock (Au&r&a)
(MILES, 1952)

Percent frequency Number

Salinity of C,
1.0 10-o 25.0 SO.0 76.0 90.0 99.0 adyees

Total salinity (p.p.m.) 4,018 2,074 2,045 1,473 958 700 343 31 0.5

Remarks: Own computation.

Igneous rocks.
The salinity variation in subterranean waters found in igneous rocks is illus-
trated by the data in Tables 56, 57.
Table 56. Salinity of eubtwranean water from igneous rocks (Europe)
(Authur’s data)

Part8 per m&on

Hardness in
Percent of
frewmy

1.0
I Total
salinity
I Cl3 Mg Cl 604
En&&h

3,600 448 146 468 544 93.9

10.0 1,810 298 73 185 214 58.7
25.0 1,212 228 49 91 106 42.9
50.0 650 164 26 27 31 28.8
75.0 304 114 12 7 8 18.2
99.0 20 38 1.0 0 0 4.2

Number of
analyses 314 270 I 260 377 ! 308 I 370
The data presented in Tables 52, 64, 57 heve been computed by the present writer. The permission
for the reference on this publication is given by the Government Printer, Pretoria. It hes been suggemt.4
that the following imprint must be given; “Extract from Geological Memoir No. 41 reproduced under
Government Printers Copyright Authority No. 1120 of 30/l/53.”

167
 I. I. CuwscrrAaEv

Table 67. Salinity of Bubthtranean unatsrsfrom

ignmw rooka (Union of South Afrim)
(BOND, 1946)

Total salinity (p.p.nf.)

!
Ca” I
7 / 16.6
Mg” I

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