PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 044103 共2007兲

Complex weak values in quantum measurement

Richard Jozsa
Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Merchant Venturers Building, Bristol BS8 1UB, United Kingdom
共Received 2 July 2007; published 11 October 2007兲
In the weak value formalism of Aharonov et al., the weak value Aw of any observable A is generally a
complex number. We derive a physical interpretation of its value in terms of the shift in the measurement
pointer’s mean position and mean momentum. In particular, we show that the mean position shift contains a
term jointly proportional to the imaginary part of the weak value and the rate at which the pointer is spreading
in space as it enters the measurement interaction.

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevA.76.044103 PACS number共s兲: 03.65.Ta, 03.67.⫺a

I. INTRODUCTION Hint = g共t兲Ap, g共t兲 = g␦共t − t0兲, 共3兲

In quantum mechanics the essential connection between
theory and experimental outcomes may be thought of as be-
ing embodied in the formula
具A典 = 具␺i兩A兩␺i典 共1兲
for the measured mean value of an observable A upon
共strong兲 measurement of a quantum system prepared in state
兩␺i典. The formalism of weak values introduced by Aharonov
and co-workers 关2兴 共see 关1兴, Chaps. 16 and 17, for a review
and further references therein兲 provides an alternative foun-
dation for quantum measurement theory 关3兴. In this formal-
ism the above formula becomes replaced 关2兴 by a more gen-
eral expression:
具␺ f 兩A兩␺i典
Aw = . 共2兲
具 ␾ f 兩 ␾ i典
Aw is called the weak value of observable A for a quantum
system preselected in state 兩␺i典 and postselected in state 兩␺ f 典,
and it characterizes the observed outcomes of weak measure-
ments. If 兩␺i典 共or 兩␺ f 典兲 is an eigenstate of A then 具A典 and Aw
agree 共both equaling the corresponding eigenvalue兲 but more
generally Aw need not lie within the range of eigenvalues
关4–10兴 and may even be complex. Thus its significance is
more subtle than the straightforward interpretation of 具A典 as
a measured mean value. In this Brief Report, we establish a
physical interpretation for Aw in its most general context.
The formalism of weak values has two ingredients that
differ from the usual approach that leads to Eq. 共1兲: first, in
addition to preparation of quantum systems in a given initial
state, we also impose postselection into a given final state;
second, we consider a scenario in which the measurement
interaction is suitably weak so that after measurement the
system state is left largely undisturbed. As a framework for
our main results, we begin by briefly reviewing the weak
value formalism and the origin of the expression Aw in Eq.
共2兲.
Consider a quantum system prepared in state 兩␺i典 upon
which we wish to measure A. For measurement process we
use the standard von Neumann paradigm 关11兴 introducing a
pointer in initial state 兩␾典 with wave function ␾共q兲, and in-
teraction Hamiltonian
where g is a coupling constant and p is the pointer momen-
tum conjugate to the position coordinate q. Here we have
taken the interaction to be impulsive at time t = t0 (and the
expression Ap is shorthand for 共A 丢 I兲共I 丢 p兲, where the first
and second slots refer to the system and pointer, respec-
tively.)
After interaction the system and pointer are in joint state
e−igAp兩␺i典兩␾典, and we postselect the system on state 兩␺ f 典, re-
sulting in the 共subnormalized兲 pointer state
兩␣典 = 具␺ f 兩e−igAp兩␺i典兩␾典. 共4兲
共Here and hereafter we adopt units making ប = 1.兲 In practice,
the postselection is achieved by running the process many
times with initial state 兩␺i典, and after all tasks are completed
we perform a further final measurement of the projector ⌸ f
onto 兩␺ f 典 in each run. Then for statistical analysis of mea-
surement outcomes or any other considerations, we retain
only those runs for which ⌸ f yielded 1. 共The subnormaliza-
tion of 兩␣典 reflects the probability of success in this ⌸ f mea-
surement.兲 It is a remarkable fact that quantum theory allows
both pre- and postselection of systems, whereas classical
physics allows imposition of only either initial or final
boundary conditions, but not both 共cf. 关1兴, Sec. 16.3兲.
It is a standard tenet of quantum theory that measurement
irrevocably disturbs a quantum system. The measurement in-
teraction Eq. 共3兲 is said to be strong if the translated wave
functions ␾共q − gai兲 for eigenvalues ai of A, correspond to
states that have negligible overlap. In that case, after the
measurement interaction the pointer position will be ob-
served, on average, to have shifted by g具A典. In contrast to
this standard scenario, the second basic ingredient in the for-
malism of weak values is the requirement that the measure-
ment interaction Eq. 共3兲 be suitably weak so that we may
obtain information about A while the system state is left
largely intact. To restrict the strength of interaction we con-
sider the limit of small g, retaining only terms to first order in
g. Alternatively, weakness may be imposed by requiring p to
remain small which, by the ⌬p⌬q uncertainty relation, cor-
responds to a limit of increasingly broad initial wave func-
tions of the pointer in the q representation. In the following,
we will work only with the limit of small g. In both cases the
translates ␾共q − gai兲 will retain a large overlap (of size 1

1050-2947/2007/76共4兲/044103共3兲 044103-1 ©2007 The American Physical Society

BRIEF REPORTS PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 044103 共2007兲

− O共g兲 or 1 − O共p兲). Expanding Eq. 共4兲 to terms of O共g兲 Thus in particular there is a contribution to the pointer’s
yields mean position shift that is proportional to the imaginary part
of Aw and the rate at which the pointer is spreading in space
兩␣典 ⬇ 具␺ f 兩I − igAp兩␺i典兩␾典 = 具␺ f 兩␺i典共I − igAw p兲兩␾典 共5兲 as it enters the interaction.
To derive Eq. 共9兲 we begin by substituting p = −i⳵ / ⳵q into
⬇具␺ f 兩␺i典e−igAwp兩␾典. 共6兲 Eq. 共5兲. Retaining only terms to O共g兲, we get
Thus it is clear that all subsequent measurement properties of ¯ − ga共␾⬘␾
␣共q兲¯␣共q兲 = 円具␺ f 兩␺i典円2关␾␾ ¯ ⬘␾ 兲
¯ +␾
the pointer depend on the ingredients A, 兩␺i典 and 兩␺ f 典 only
through the single c number Aw. − igb共␾⬘␾ ¯ ⬘␾兲兴,
¯ −␾ 共11兲
From Eq. 共2兲 we see that Aw can generally be a complex
number and its effect on mean values of pointer variables, where ␾⬘ denotes the space derivative and ␾ ¯ denotes the
such as the mean position and mean momentum, is not im- complex conjugate. The coefficient of ga is the space deriva-
mediately clear from Eqs. 共5兲 and 共6兲. Mathematically, Eq. tive of the probability density ␾␾¯ , whereas the coefficient of
共6兲 simply represents a translation ␾共q − gAw兲 of the wave gb is recognized as the spatial part of the conserved prob-
function by gAw. However, as the latter is generally complex ability current for 兩␾典. To exploit these features we introduce
and we use the resulting translated function only along the
real q axis, its quantum mean properties are now not simply ␾ = ReiS, ␳ = R2 . 共12兲
characterizable in terms of translates of those of ␾共q兲. In the Then
literature, only some special restricted cases have been con-
sidered. Introduce the initial and final pointer means ¯ = 円具␺ f 兩␺i典円2关␳ − ga␳⬘ + gb共2␳S⬘兲兴,
␣␣

具␣兩q兩␣典 and a straightforward calculation to O共g兲 gives 共writing ␮

具q典i = 具␾兩q兩␾典, 具q典 f = , 共7兲 = 具q典i兲
具␣兩␣典
and similarly the momentum means 具p典i and 具p典 f with p re- 冕 ¯␣q␣
placing q in the above. Also, introduce the variances of po- 具q典 f = = ␮ − ga 冕 q␳⬘ + gb 冕 2␳S⬘共q − ␮兲,
sition and of momentum in the initial pointer state:
Varq = 具␾兩q2兩␾典 − 具␾兩q兩␾典2, Varp = 具␾兩p2兩␾典 − 具␾兩p兩␾典2 .
冕 ¯␣␣

共8兲 共13兲

Then the following cases have been noted 关1,2,10,12兴. 共i兲 if where the integration is over all space. Integration by parts
Aw is real then 具q典 f = 具q典i + gAw; 共ii兲 if Aw is complex but the gives
pointer wave function ␾共q兲 is real valued then 具q典 f = 具q典i
+ g Re共Aw兲 and 具p典 f = 具p典i + 2g Im共Aw兲Varp; 共iii兲 it has also
been noted 共关1兴, p. 237兲 that in the expression Eq. 共6兲 the
具q典 f = 具q典i + ga − gb 冕 共q − ␮兲2共␳S⬘兲⬘ . 共14兲

imaginary part of Aw contributes a nonunitary operation, Now consider the Schrödinger equation of the pointer up to
which can thus be thought of as increasing or decreasing the the time t0 of interaction:
size 具␣ 兩 ␣典 of the pre- and postselected ensemble of runs.
⳵␾ 1
i =− ␾⬙ + V共q兲␾ .
II. COMPLEX WEAK VALUES ⳵t 2m
We now consider the most general case of complex Aw Substituting Eq. 共12兲 and taking the imaginary part of the
and complex-valued wave function ␾共q兲. Our resulting gen- resulting equation gives the continuity equation for probabil-
eral formulas will display the role of the imaginary part of ity conservation:
Aw in the shift of pointer mean position. We will demonstrate
the following.
Theorem. Let Aw = a + ib. Then after a weak von Neumann
⳵␳
⳵t
冉 冊
+ ␳
S⬘ ⬘
m
= 0. 共15兲

measurement interaction on a system with pre- and postse- Hence 共␳S⬘兲⬘ = −m␳t and Eq. 共14兲 finally gives
lected states 兩␺i典 and 兩␺ f 典, the mean pointer position and
momentum satisfy
具q典 f = 具q典i + ga + gb m 冉 d
Varq ,冊 共16兲

冉 冊
d
具q典 f = 具q典i + ga + gb m Varq ,
dt
具p典 f = 具p典i + 2gb共Varp兲.
Here m is the mass of the pointer and 共d / dt兲Varq is the time
derivative of its position variance as t → t0, the time of the
impulsive measurement interaction.
dt
共9兲 as claimed. We note that a wave function is 共instantaneously兲
real valued 共up to an overall constant phase兲 if and only if
S⬘ = 0 and then d Varq / dt is zero 关via Eq. 共15兲, giving ␳t = 0兴
共10兲
so we regain the previously quoted results 共i兲 and 共ii兲 for the
change in 具q典 in these restricted cases.
Next, we present an alternative Heisenberg representation
derivation of Eq. 共16兲 which generalizes immediately to

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BRIEF REPORTS PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 044103 共2007兲

other pointer observables 共such as p兲 replacing q. Let M be If instead we set M = p then pM − Mp in the coefficient of
any pointer observable. From Eq. 共5兲 we get to O共g兲 ga in Eq. 共17兲 becomes zero and the coefficient of gb be-
comes 2具p2典i − 2具p典i = 2 Varp, giving
具␣兩M兩␣典
具M典 f =
具␣兩␣典
具p典 f = 具p典i + 2gb Varp ,
具␣兩M兩␣典 − igAw具␾兩Mp兩␾典 + igĀw具␾兩pM兩␾典
=
as claimed in the theorem. Note that the pointer observable p
具␾兩␾典 − igAw具␾兩p兩␾典 + igĀw具␾兩p兩␾典
commutes with the measurement interaction Hamiltonian
= 具M典i + iga具pM − Mp典i + gb共具pM + Mp典i − 2具p典i具M典i兲 gAp, so this shift in 具p典 is an artifact of postselection rather
共17兲 than a quantum dynamical effect, in contrast to the more
interesting case of the shift in 具q典.
共where, for any observable N, 具N典i = 具␾兩N兩␾典 is its mean
value in state 兩␾典兲.
For M = q we have the commutation relations ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
关p,q兴 = − i Thanks to G. Mitchison for providing the Heisenberg rep-
and the Heisenberg equations of motion (with H = p2 / 2m resentation derivation for the change in 具q典. This work was
+ V共q兲) presented at the workshop “Weak Values and Weak Measure-
ments: A New Approach to Reality in Quantum Theory,”
d i具p典 held at Arizona State University, under the auspices of the
i 具q典 = 具关q,H兴典 = ,
dt m Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science, directed by P.
Davies. It is a pleasure to acknowledge discussions with par-
d 2 i具pq + qp典 ticipants, especially Y. Aharonov, A. Botero, L. Diosi, G.
i 具q 典 = 具关q2,H兴典 = . Mitchison, S. Popescu, and A. Steinberg among others, and
dt m
also to acknowledge financial support from the Center as
Substitution of these into Eq. 共17兲 immediately gives Eq. well as from the EPSRC QIPIRC network and the EC net-
共16兲. works QAP and QICS.

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